The philosophy of the New Time – briefly the most important thing. We continue our acquaintance with philosophy in a short, simple presentation. In previous articles you learned about the following periods of philosophy:
So, let's turn to the philosophy of the New Time.
The 17th-18th centuries is the period to which modern philosophy belongs. This was a time when human civilization made a qualitative leap in the development of many scientific disciplines, which in turn had a huge impact on philosophy.
In the philosophy of modern times, the idea that the human mind has no limits to its power, and science has unlimited possibilities in its knowledge of the surrounding world and man, has become increasingly dominant.
Particularly characteristic of this period of development of philosophy is the tendency to explain everything from the point of view of materialism. This was due to the fact that natural science was a priority at that time and had a strong influence on all spheres of social life.
The main directions of philosophy of the New Time are empiricism and rationalism
The philosophical thought of that time was characterized by several distinct directions:
- empiricism,
- rationalism,
- philosophy of education,
- French materialism..
Is empiricism in philosophy?
Empiricism is a direction in philosophy that recognizes only experience and sensory perception in knowledge and downplays the role of theoretical generalizations.
Empiricism opposed rationalism and mysticism. Formed in English philosophy of the 17th century, led by Fr. Bacon (1561-1626), Hobbes, Locke.
Is rationalism in philosophy?
Rationalism is a direction in philosophy that recognizes only reason as the only source of knowledge, denying knowledge through experience and sensory perception.
The word "rationalism" comes from the Latin word for reason - ratio. Rationalism was formed under the leadership of Descartes (1596-1650), Leibniz, and Spinoza.
Philosophy of enlightenment of the 18th century
The philosophy of enlightenment of the 18th century was formed during the Age of Enlightenment. This was one of the important periods European history, was associated with the development of philosophical, scientific and social thought. It was based on freethinking and rationalism.
The Age of Enlightenment began in England under the influence of the scientific revolution of the 17th century and spread to France, Germany and Russia. Its representatives are Voltaire, Montesquieu, Diderot, Rousseau.
18th century French materialism
French materialism of the 18th century is a trend in philosophy that revived Epicureanism and interest in the philosophy of antiquity.
Formed in France in the 17th and 18th centuries. Its representatives are Lametra, Holbach, Helvetius.
Problems of New Time Philosophy
The problem of being and substance occupied a special place in the philosophy of modern times; in the opinion of philosophers, it was here that the whole essence of the world and the ability to control it lay.
Substance and its properties were the focus of attention of philosophers, since, in their opinion, the task of philosophy was to make man a ruler natural forces. Therefore, the basic task was to study substance as the basic category of all things.
As a result, several trends in the study of substance have emerged in philosophy. The first of them was founded by Bacon, who believed that substance is the basis of all things. The second was founded by Locke. He, in turn, tried to comprehend substance from the point of view of epistemology.
Locke believed that concepts are based on the external world, and the objects that we see have only quantitative characteristics, and differ from each other only in primary qualities. In his opinion, matter does not have any variety. Objects differ only in their figures, rest and movement.
Hume sharply criticized the idea that substance has any material basis. In his opinion, there is only the “idea” of substance, and it was under this that he subsumed the association of perception.
Representatives of this direction made a significant breakthrough in the study and further development of the theory of knowledge, where the main subjects of study were the problems scientific approach in philosophy and methods for a person to study the reality around him, as well as the connection between external and internal experience in combination with the problems of obtaining true knowledge.
As a result of the study of all the above problems, the main directions in the philosophy of the New Age arose - empiricism and rationalism. The founder of empiricism was F. Bacon. Rationalism was represented by Descartes and Spinoza.
The main ideas of modern philosophy
The main ideas were the principles of the independently reflective subject and methodical doubt. It also developed the method of intellectual intuition and the inductive-empirical method of understanding the world.
In addition, methods of jurisprudence and ways to protect the freedom of people were developed. The main goal was the intention to embody the ideas of freedom from religion, to build a vision of the world based on scientific knowledge.
The main ideas of the philosophy of the New Time:
Books on New Age philosophy
- V. Hösle. Geniuses of modern philosophy
- P.D.Shashkevich. Empiricism and rationalism in modern philosophy
Philosophy of the New Time. VIDEO LECTURE
Summary
I hope the article " The philosophy of the New Time - briefly the most important thing" turned out to be useful for you. We can say that the philosophy of the New Time became a significant driving force in the development of the entire human civilization, prepared the basis for improving the philosophical scientific paradigm and substantiated the methods of rational knowledge.
The following article is devoted to the topic “German classical philosophy”.
I wish everyonean unquenchable thirst for knowledge of yourself and the world around you, inspiration in all your affairs!
11th century - fundamentally new page in the history of mankind. Dramatic changes are taking place in all spheres of human life and society. Capitalist relations of production are being established, a new social structure society. From the agrarian form of its development, European civilization transitioned to an industrial form further development. Changes in the spiritual and worldview sphere are just as dramatic. Science is declaring itself, which seeks to form a scientific worldview and a scientific picture of the world. The place of philosophy is also changing. She sees her role not so much in metaphysical constructions, but rather in solving epistemological and methodological problems of science, as well as in a new understanding of society, the state and the place of man. Changes and religious worldview, preferring the theistic interpretation of their problems to pantheism and deism.
The first place in the philosophical teachings of the 17th century undoubtedly belongs to epistemological and methodological problems. According to the French philosopher René Descartes (1596-1650), “thought must begin with itself.”
Philosophers of this era proposed various methods knowledge, depending on these methods, two trends in philosophy emerged: empiricism and rationalism. Representatives of empiricism (F. Bacon) derived knowledge from experimental knowledge. Empiricism should be distinguished from sensationalism (from the Latin sensus - perception, feeling, sensation). Main principle sensationalism was formulated by J. Locke: “There is nothing in the mind that has not first passed through the senses.” Empiricism, along with sensory knowledge, assumed active work reason to generalize experimental material. An inductive method of cognition was proposed (from the Latin Inductio - “guidance”) - from the particular to the general.
Rationalists (R. Descartes, B. Spinoza, G. Leibniz) believed that a person’s ability to analyze, generalize, and think rationally plays a decisive role in the process of cognition. The mind is able to organize sensory data and provide the most accurate knowledge. However, the mind is not unlimited: it is capable of being mistaken, since the world dual and even contradictory. In the structure of the world, R. Descartes identified material and ideal components. Rationalists relied on a deductive (from the Latin deductio - “deduction”) method of understanding reality - from the general to the specific.
An important role in the philosophy of modern times was given to problem of substance(ontological problem).
Philosophers of the 17th century developed both materialistic and idealistic theories. The Dutch thinker Benedict Spinoza (1632-1677) created a monistic concept, according to which the basis of the world was considered to be a single substance - God. God was identified with nature. Spinoza's views were pantheistic. The philosopher believed that all forms of reality are manifestations of a single substance. He called the main forms of substance material and spiritual. They are closely related to each other, the best confirmation of which is man. For these ideas, Spinoza's teachings were classified as materialistic.
The idealistic concept of the 17th century is represented in the works of Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716), who believed that the world is pluralistic, that is, it is based on many substances - monads (from the Greek “single”). Monads are the “spiritual atoms” of the universe. There are various monads, harmoniously related to each other. Leibniz arranged monads in a hierarchical order:
Ø the highest monad is God (as in Spinoza’s theory, Leibniz has a pantheistic understanding of God);
Ø monads of the animal world;
Ø the lowest group (“bare monads”) - monads of inanimate nature.
You should pay attention to changing interpretation of the role of God in ontology.
F. Bacon and G. Leibniz put forward the concept of deism (from the Latin deus - god). God in their theories is the impersonal, rational first cause of the world. Having created the world, God provided it with the opportunity to develop freely.
So, the philosophical teachings of the 17th century actively developed epistemological and methodological problems of science, and in new conditions formed a substantial understanding of the world.
§ 5. Philosophy of the Enlightenment
The 1111th century is the century of Enlightenment, the establishment of the ideals of a scientific worldview and their application to the understanding of human nature, society and the state. The German philosopher I. Kant believed that the motto of the Enlightenment era was “have the courage to use your reason.”
In general, the Enlightenment is a powerful movement that united philosophers, scientists, cultural figures, politicians, convinced of the decisive role of knowledge and enlightenment in social and spiritual development society. They believed that the cause of all the misfortunes and suffering of people lies in their ignorance.
Enlightenment ideas were especially developed in France. J. D'Alembert called the 1111th century in the history of French culture “the century of philosophy.” The period of its development is conditionally limited by two dates: the year of the death of Louis XIV (1715), which marked the end of the era of absolutism, and the year of the storming of the Bastille (1789), after which life made new demands on philosophy. The culmination of the educational philosophical movement is considered to be the 50s of the 16th century. At this time, the Encyclopedia began to be published, uniting both scientists, philosophers, and writers.
Characteristic feature The worldview of the Enlightenment becomes a specific rationalism: “the laws of nature are the laws of reason.” The rationalists of this time in their reasoning do not go from reason to nature, which was characteristic of the rationalism of the 11th century (R. Descartes), but from nature to reason. For example, P. Holbach considers nature and its laws as teachers of the human mind.
The natural consequence of this was the demand that the laws of nature should also be mandatory. legal laws. A chain of equalities emerged: natural = reasonable = useful = good = legal = knowable = feasible.
Enlightenment philosophy in its applications was a “practical” philosophy, oriented towards political transformation. Criticism of existing orders was aimed at realizing the ideals of the “kingdom of reason.”
In understanding nature, the ideas of a mechanistic worldview were affirmed, and the idea of the absolute immutability of nature was formed. P. Holbach believed that the total “sum of beings and elements” of nature does not change and is preserved.
The guiding principle in the study of man was the idea of unchangeable “human nature,” which includes needs, everyone’s right to happiness, and the equality of all in relation to natural rights. J. J. Rousseau noted that “everything that a man and a woman have in common relates to human nature; everything in which they differ from each other relates to gender.”
At the same time, the idea of the difference between a “savage” and a “civilized person” was affirmed. As J. J. Rousseau believed, they differ from each other in their mental make-up and aspirations.
The attitude towards history was basically non-dialectical. History is a collection of accidents and absurdities caused by ignorance. The Enlightenmentists contrasted each other with the “normal” course of history: enlightenment = love of knowledge = free-thinking = goodness = progress; “abnormal” course of history: ignorance = religious obscurantism= political despotism = evil = misfortune.
The doctrine of fatalism played an essential function in the system of views. In his work “System of Nature,” P. Holbach includes the following elements in the concept of fatalism: the causal (causal) conditionality of all events, the linear connection of the effect with its cause, everything happens inevitably and strictly, people are not able to change the “immutable order.”
An integral part of the teachings of the Enlightenment was Enlightenment atheism. D. Diderot sharply contrasted philosophy and religion. “Philosophers, by their very profession, are friends of reason and science, and priests are the enemies of reason and patrons of ignorance.” Religion was seen as the joint creation of a fool and a swindler who accidentally met each other. It was believed that an enlightened person ceases to be superstitious.
Thus, during the Enlightenment, key problems of worldview were posed. Enlightenmentists, based on the ideals of scientific reason, sought to understand the universe, human nature, and propose ways for the “normal” development of society.
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New time(XVII – XIX centuries) – a period of major changes in the history of mankind.
The philosophy of modern times developed in close cooperation with science, primarily mathematics, physics, and mechanics. The most important object of philosophical analysis is the nature of scientific knowledge, its sources, methods of scientific knowledge.
Philosophy of F. Bacon.
F. Bacon made scientific knowledge the main subject of philosophical understanding; his focus was on questions about the goals and methods of scientific knowledge. The task of science, according to Bacon, is to reveal natural patterns, which will lead to the expansion of human capabilities and strengthening of his power over nature (“ Knowledge is power"). He claims that the first cause of the world is God, but further the world is subject to the action of natural laws (deism). Therefore, Bacon positively resolves the question of the knowability of the world. However, he argues that on the path of knowledge there are many misconceptions (“idols”) that prevent the acquisition of reliable knowledge. Bacon identifies 4 types of “idols” of knowledge:
1) " idols of the family“are a consequence of the limitations of the human mind, the imperfection of the senses;
2) " idols of the cave“are determined by the individual characteristics of a person: each person has his own internal subjective world (his own “cave”), which affects his assessment of reality;
3) " market idols» arise in the process of communication and are caused by misunderstanding due to the incorrect use of words and linguistic expressions;
4) " theater idols"appear as a result of the influence of scientific and philosophical authorities, their uncritical assimilation.
Bacon considers the main means of overcoming “idols” to be the choice of the correct method (“path”) of knowledge. Bacon reveals the problem of choosing a scientific method allegorically and describes 3 ways of knowledge:
- « spider's path"represents an attempt to derive the truth by purely rational means, through theoretical reflection;
- « ant's path» involves only the use of empirical, experimental data without their theoretical generalization;
- « the path of the bee“is based on the unity of sensory and rational knowledge, on the movement from obtaining experimental data to their theoretical understanding.
According to Bacon, knowledge is based on sensory data, which requires experimental verification and then theoretical generalization.
The main significance of Bacon's philosophy is the attempt to develop effective method scientific knowledge.
Rene Descartes.
Descartes - the founder rationalism in the philosophy of modern times. The main thing in this movement is the cult of man as a rational and active being. Rationalists consider the main source of knowledge about the world not the data of the senses, but the active activity of thinking. Descartes was convinced of the limitless possibilities of the human mind.
Descartes also substantiated the dualistic view of the world. Dualism Descartes is manifested in the fact that he recognized, firstly, the existence of a material world independent of human consciousness and, secondly, the independence of thinking. These two substances intersect and actively interact, but their relationship is only mechanical. In man, material and spiritual substances manifest themselves as body and soul.
He developed a theory about " innate ideas " According to his ideas, a person acquires all ideas in three ways. Some he receives from the outside world through the senses; others are formed in consciousness by processing ideas of the first kind; the most important role is played by the “innate ideas” that the soul initially has in itself - such as, for example, the idea of God, extension, movement, unity, etc. The truth of knowledge, Descartes believed, is based on the existence of innate ideas, independent of sensory experience.
In the first place in the philosophy of Descartes, as in F. Bacon, is the problem of the method of scientific knowledge. He is developing deductive method scientific knowledge. ( Deduction– this is a method of cognition based on the movement of thought from the general to the specific; from abstract to concrete, deriving a statement (consequence) from one or more other statements). According to Descartes, the method of deduction should be based on the following basic rules:
- do not accept as true what is unclear and unobvious;
- divide the question under study into simple elements to better understanding;
- go in reasoning from simple to complex;
- systematize information to get the most complete picture of the subject.
Outlining the principles of his method, Descartes formulated the concept of “ intellectual intuition ", by which he understood a clear and attentive mind, the light of reason, which allows one to comprehend the truth.
Descartes argued that the process of thinking should lead to overcoming doubts in the issue under study, but at the same time give rise to new doubts. Doubt should be the impetus for any scientific inquiry.
Political science develops in close cooperation with other humanities. They are all united by a common object of study - the life of society in all the diversity of its specific manifestations.
Today it is impossible to study complex political processes, without taking into account the interaction of social (humanitarian) sciences.
The main problems and directions of philosophy of the New Age
Modern philosophy covers the period of the 16th-18th centuries.
This is the time of formation and design natural sciences, separated from philosophy. The focus of the New Philosophy is theory of knowledge and development of a method of knowledge common to all sciences. It is impossible to know God, nature, man, society, without first finding out the laws of the knower Reason. This issue is being dealt with F. Bacon, T. Hobbes, R. Descartes, J. Locke, G. Leibniz.
The philosophy of this period is characterized by a number of attitudes:
Nomination Sciences to the rank of the most important occupation of humanity. It is science (=reason) that can enrich humanity, save it from troubles and suffering, and raise society to new stage development (F. Bacon)
The synthesis of science with religion, faith with reason is impossible. No authorities are recognized except the authority of reason itself (T. Hobbes).
The development of sciences and man's ultimate subjugation of nature is possible when the main method of thinking"pure reason" method. Capable of acting in all sciences (R. Descartes)
In the search for a new “super method”, philosophers were divided into supporters
empiricism (empirio-experience) and rationalism (ration - reason)
Empiricists (F. Bacon, T. Hobbes, J. Locke, etc.) believed that the only source of knowledge is experience. Experience is associated with sensations, perceptions, and ideas. The content of all knowledge of a person or humanity is reduced to experience. “There is nothing in cognition that was not previously contained in sensations” is the motto of the empiricist-sensualists. There is no innate knowledge, concepts or ideas in the human soul and mind. The soul and mind of a person are initially pure, like a waxed tablet (tabula rasa a clean board), and already sensations and perceptions “write” their letters on this tablet. Since sensations can deceive, we check them through an experiment that corrects these senses.
Rationalism and its representatives: Rene Descartes - dualist. The philosopher divides the whole world into two types of substances - spiritual and material. The main property of spiritual substance is thinking, material- stretch. The modes of the first are feelings, desires, sensations, etc. Modes second - form, movement, position in space... a person consists of two substances. He is the only being in whom they are united and both exist simultaneously, which allows him to rise above nature. Substance in philosophy is defined as something that for its existence does not need anything other than itself. From this point of view, it is obvious that only God is the true substance - eternal, indestructible, omnipotent, the source and cause of everything.
By Descartes it turns out that substance - this is something that needs only the existence of God for its existence. Descartes - rationalist. He is trying to find the reporting point of human knowledge - the first absolutely reliable position, which is the beginning of any science. You can doubt absolutely everything that exists. The only thing that is not in doubt is one's own existence. It is impossible to consider as non-existent that which carries out the act of doubt. Doubt is a property of thoughts. Hence Descartes’ famous thesis: “I think, therefore I am” (Cogito ergo sum). Descartes proposes as an ideal scientific method of knowledge deductive ( From general to specific). Its essence boils down to the following four principles:
- When researching, allow only true, absolutely reliable, reason-proven, and beyond any doubt knowledge (“clear and distinct”) axioms as starting points.
- Divide each complex problem into specific tasks.
- Consistently move from known and proven issues to unknown and unproven ones.
- Strictly follow the sequence of research, do not skip a single link in the logical chain of research.
B. Spinoza criticizes R. Descartes. Spinoza considered the main drawback of Descartes' theory of substance to be dualism: on the one hand, substance is an entity that does not need anything other than itself for its existence, on the other, all entities (substances) that do not need anything other than itself for its existence, nevertheless, created by someone else the highest and only true substance - God. Hence, there is a contradiction between the independence of substances and the simultaneous dependence of all of them both in relation to creation and in relation to existence from another substance - God. Spinoza believed that this contradiction can only be resolved in the following way: to identify God and nature. There is only one substance - nature, which is the cause of itself. Nature, on the one hand, is “creative nature” (God), and on the other, “created nature” (the world). Nature and God are one.
G. Leibniz criticized both Descartes' dualism of substances and Spinoza's doctrine of a single substance. In his opinion, all things have their own action, hence each thing is a substance. The whole world is made up of huge amount substances. He calls them “monads” (from Greek: One, unit). The monad is not a material, but a spiritual unit of existence. At the same time, any monad is also a soul. The Monad has four qualities: aspiration, attraction, perception, idea.
Classes of monads (the higher the class of monads, the greater its intelligence and degree of freedom)
- Naked monads are the basis of inorganic nature (rocks, earth, minerals).
- Animal monads have sensations, but undeveloped self-awareness.
- Monads of a person (soul) have consciousness, memory, and a unique ability to think.
- The highest monad is God.
Francis Bacon, the founder of empiricism, criticizes rational knowledge, since it is unreliable and unreliable - the mind brings a lot into knowledge from itself. Bacon calls such additions idols" mind. It is necessary to isolate and cleanse the mind of these idols. There are four types - idols of the cave, idols of the clan, idols of the square, idols of the theater.
Idols of the family — These are obstacles (misconceptions) caused by the nature common to all people. Man judges nature by analogy with his own properties.
Idols of the Cave — These are errors associated with the characteristics of the cognitive person. Prejudices and misconceptions of a person (cave) are reflected in his conclusions in the process of cognition.
Idols of the square - incorrect, inaccurate use of the conceptual apparatus, words, definitions, expressions.
Theater idols — influence the process of cognition of existing philosophy. Often, old philosophy prevents you from taking an innovative approach and directs knowledge in a direction that is not always necessary.
T. Hobbes known for his doctrine of the origin of the state (“Leviathan”, which means “monster”). He distinguishes two states of human society: natural and civil. The philosopher’s initial thesis is that human nature is initially evil. Therefore in natural state people act based on personal gain, selfishness and passions. The most perfect form state power T. Hobbes believed absolute monarchy. He calls the state “Leviathan” or a monster “that devours and sweeps away everything in its path”; it is omnipotent, impossible to resist, but it is necessary to maintain the viability of society.
Answer the questions in writing:
- What are the differences between medieval philosophy and Renaissance philosophy?
- Decipher the concept of “unity of the diversity of existence.”
- Erasmus of Rotterdam, in his book “A Praise to Stupidity,” concludes that “religion is one of the greatest varieties of stupidity, but at the same time he was not an atheist.” How do you explain this?
- Name the main problems of the directions of philosophy of the Renaissance:
- What principles and ideas underlay the philosophy of the New Age?
- A nobleman, a graduate of Cambridge, an outstanding politician and philosopher, he devoted the rest of his life to science. There is a legend that he died of a cold while freezing food for the first time, or rather chickens. What philosophical method did this philosopher and scientist justify?
- Why Fr. Bacon criticized the old philosophy and what did he see as the main tasks of the new one?
- What new did R. Descartes introduce into philosophy?
- What are the main problems of the theory of knowledge of modern times?
- What is the difference between empiricism and rationalism?
- Do you agree with the statement that thinking is a more reliable reality for us than existence? What examples can be given to support this thesis?
- What idea do you think is central to humanism?
- How do you understand the expression “the end justifies the means”, “there is no morality in politics”? Who do they belong to? Do you agree with this statement? Justify your opinion.
- Which of the modern philosophers likened human consciousness to a “blank slate”? Can you agree with such a statement? Justify your opinion.
- Can, according to B. Spinoza, philosophy and theology have something in common? And why?
Compose biographies of any two philosophers:
R. Descartes, B. Spinoza, G. Leibniz, F. Bacon, D. Locke
Run the test.
| 1. | Characteristic features of the philosophy of the New Age: a) primacy of faith over knowledge b) scientificity c) logic |
| 2. | The main problem of modern philosophy of the 17th century. is the problem a) man b) method of scientific knowledge c) material and ideal d) existence |
| 3. | Which of the New Time philosophers is the author of the aphorism: “Knowledge is power”? |
| 4. | What philosophical direction does the statement “There is nothing in the intellect that is not in the senses” correspond to? a) empiricism b) rationalism c) agnosticism d) irrationalism e) skepticism |
| 5. | Francis Bacon was the founder a) nominalism b) rationalism c) empiricism d) realism |
| 6. | Which way of knowledge, according to F. Bacon, is true?: a) “ant” b) “spider” c) “bee” |
| 7. | English philosopher, lawyer, statesman, naturalist a) R. Descartes b) D. Berkeley c) F. Bacon |
| 8. | Who is the author of the statement: “I think, therefore I am”? a) Berkeley b) Bacon c) Descartes d) Spinoza |
| 9. | The basis of Rene Descartes' theory of knowledge: a) “I think, therefore I exist” b) “To be means to be perceived” c) “Everything is God’s will” |
| 10. | Who is the founder of rationalism in modern philosophy? a) Bacon b) Locke c) Descartes |
| 11. | What answer does rationalism give to the question of what is the source of knowledge? a) the only source of knowledge is experience b) the source of knowledge is reason c) the source of knowledge is intuition d) the source of knowledge is reason and sensations e) the source of knowledge of the world - a priori categories of reason |
| 12. | Which famous modern philosopher is the author catchphrase“I think, therefore I am”? a) Bacon b) Hobbes c) Descartes d) Locke |
| 13. | French philosopher, also the creator of algebra and geometry: a) F. Bacon b) T. Hobbes c) R. Descartes |
| d) all of the above are correct | |
During the 16th and 17th centuries, a new, capitalist mode of production developed in the most advanced countries of Western Europe. The bourgeoisie turns into an independent class. Feudal owners begin to adapt to developing capitalist relations. An example of this is the fencing of pastures in England, as wool is needed for the textile industry.
At this time, a number of bourgeois revolutions took place: the Dutch (late 16th century), English (mid-17th century), French (1789-1794).
Natural science is developing. This is due to the needs of developing production.
At this time, the process of secularization of the spiritual life of society takes place.
Education ceases to be church and becomes secular.
By the end of the 16th century, philosophy was faced with the task of overcoming religious dogmatism, scholasticism, the scientific interpretation of nature, as well as justifying the needs of a new stage in the development of society - the stage of the origin, development and establishment of the capitalist mode of production. To solve these problems, philosophy had to first free itself from the tutelage of theology and re-establish itself as an independent branch of knowledge. It had to take into account the achievements of natural science and at the same time promote its development. Under these conditions, problems of the method and means of cognition, questions about the role of experience, feelings, and reason in the cognitive process came to the fore.
The main problems of modern philosophy:
1. connection of human consciousness with the sociocultural environment
2. participation of human consciousness in changes in the historical process
3. autonomization of the philosophy of history as a special field of knowledge
The philosophers of this period identified themselves with the enlightened classes of enlightened Europe. The lower social classes were the passive object of influence of philosophers.
Objectives of philosophy:
1. finding out and then explaining to people their natural ability to know, and, consequently, to conquer nature
2. development of methods for cognition of the general foundations of the cognitive process
3. elimination of ignorance and abscurantism (hostile attitude towards science)
4. Elimination of social injustice, poverty and tyranny
In the philosophy of the XVII-XVIII centuries. A metaphysical approach to the world developed and became dominant, when the objects of nature and society, as well as the concepts reflecting them, were considered once and for all given, unchangeable, subject to study separately from each other. Characteristic feature This period in the development of philosophy was also a mechanism. Mechanics was the most developed branch of natural science at that time. Therefore, it was assumed that everything that exists lives according to the laws of mechanics.
The main directions of philosophy of the New Age are
In the foreground are problems of epistemology.
1. Empiricism is a direction in the theory of knowledge that recognizes sensory experience as the only source of knowledge.
a) idealistic (Berkin, Hume) Empirical experience is a combination of sensations and
ideas, the size of the world = the size of experience.
b) materialistic (Bacon, Hobbes) - the source of sensory experience noun. external world.
sensationalism (the only source of reliable knowledge about the world is sensory perception) Sensualism is a doctrine in epistemology that recognizes sensations as the only source of knowledge. Sensualism is inextricably linked with empiricism - all knowledge is grounded in experience and through experience.
2. rationalism (the source of reliable knowledge about the world is the mind). Modern rationalism is characterized by dualism. Two principles of the world are recognized: matter and thought.
Sensualism uses induction- movement of thought from the particular to the general.
Rationalism relies on deduction- movement of thought from the general to the specific.
F. Bacon is the founder of empiricism (cognition is based solely on experience). The main tasks of knowledge and experience are to help a person achieve practical results in his activities, promote new inventions, economic development, his philosophical credo: “Knowledge is power.” Bacon created induction - a method of cognition from private empirical (experimental) data to general conclusions, he made the first attempt to classify sciences, highlighting historical sciences, poetry, and philosophy.
T. Hobbes is a student and successor of the philosophical tradition of F. Bacon. Rejected theological scholastic philosophy; The goal of philosophy was to achieve practical results in human activity that contributed to scientific and technological progress. In the dispute between empiricism (experiential knowledge) and rationalism (cognition through reason), he took the side of empiricism; considered the most important philosophical problem to be the issues of society and the state; developed the theory of the state in his work “Leviathan” (“Monster”), where he argued that the right of every person to everything and disregard for the interests of others leads to a “war of all against all,” therefore it is necessary to limit the freedom of people, saving them from themselves, and this can be done by the state; for this purpose it is necessary to conclude a social (joint) agreement.
J. Berkeley (subjective idealism) argued that there is no matter; to exist means to be perceived. The source of all our sensations, behind which there is nothing, is God (we all dream of God and at the same time of each other). The world consists of spirits and ideas (people and objects). Ideas cannot be the cause of anything; their cause is spirit. There is no idea of spirit; we learn about the existence of other spirits from the ideas of their actions. Spirit is mind and will. The laws of nature are a connection of ideas. The World Spirit (God) produces ideas that do not depend on us (“Treatise on the Principles of Human Knowledge”).
R. Descartes, the founder of rationalism (the basis of both being and knowledge is reason), believed that the basis of all knowledge is doubt and intellectual intuition (“I think, therefore I exist”), the rest is comprehended by the method of deduction (determination of the unknown through previously known). Founded dualism (our mental life completely autonomous), argued that a person combines two substances (material and spiritual), therefore, is dualistic (dual). Matter and consciousness always exist and are two various manifestations one being.
B. Spinoza is a rationalist, a representative of pantheism (God is synonymous with the Universe). The nature of God is understandable through his attributes - extension and thought. They combine and create an infinite variety of aspects (modes). The human mind is one of the modes of infinite Thought, the body is a mode of extension. Through meditation, a person can rise above the illusion of the senses and find peace in union with God. Substance Nature - God has an internal cause of itself, is independent and independent of anyone, infinite in space and time.
Under the influence of such exact sciences as mechanics and mathematics, mechanism became established in philosophy. Within the framework of this type of worldview, nature was viewed as a huge mechanism, and man as an proactive and active worker.
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