During the lesson, the concept of phonetics as a branch of the science of language is formed, information about the Russian alphabet is repeated; Students will become familiar with the rules for compiling phonetic transcriptions and learn about the features of sound writing as one of the means of expressive speech.
Topic: Phonetics. Graphic arts. Spelling
Lesson: Phonetics. Speech sounds. Alphabet
Day after day we pronounce words that are familiar to us. But we very rarely think about how we do it. For example, how do we manage to pronounce such a familiar word “hello”? We pronounce a certain combination of sounds, which develops in our minds into a corresponding concept. In the word “hello” we pronounced 11 sounds. Three of them are vowel sounds, 8 are consonants. We pronounce all these sounds in a certain order. We make more than just sounds, because we consider the noise of a car, the creaking of an opening door, and the clatter of a horse to be sounds. Animals also make a variety of sounds. We pronounce the sounds that make up words. These are speech sounds.
Phonetics. Sounds and letters. Graphic arts
Knowing the alphabetical order will help us, for example, find our way in a spelling or some other dictionary; various lists, for example, the names of students in the class register.
Transcription of the word
We often have to remember the spelling of unstressed vowels and doubled consonants. Why do we have to remember the spelling of such words? Why do we have to look for test words and study a large number of spelling rules? This is because the pronunciation of a word does not always coincide with its spelling. And the number of sounds and letters in a word is not always the same. And we can write down not only a word according to spelling rules, but also use letters and additional characters to record the sound of the word. This “sound” recording is called transcription.
Practical observation
The transcription of the word is written in square brackets.
Transcription of the word “milk” is [malako]. Please note that in the unstressed position we do not pronounce the sound [o], but pronounce the sound [a]. This word has 6 letters and 6 sounds. Transcription of the word “railing” is [p’ir’ila]. In an unstressed position, the sound [i] is always pronounced. In addition, you see special characters in the form of a “comma” at the top of the letter. This is an apostrophe and denotes the softness of a consonant.
Transcription of the word “shadow” is [t’en’]. Please note that the letter e in this word the sound [e] is conveyed. The soft sign does not represent a letter. Thus, this word has 4 letters and 3 sounds.
Transcription of the word “sun” is [sontse]. Here we pay attention to the unpronounceable consonant. We do not pronounce the sound [l] in this word, therefore, it is not displayed in the transcription. Thus, the word has 6 letters and 5 sounds.
Transcription of the word "berry" - . The letter in this word I means two sounds, so it has 5 letters, 6 sounds.
Sound recording
You may have noticed that certain sounds or their combinations evoke associations in us about a particular phenomenon. For example, the combination of sounds [g] and [r] reminds us of thunder. In his poem, Fyodor Tyutchev specifically repeats the combination of these sounds to create the image of a thunderstorm: I love gr ozu in early May,
Co. G yes spring ne R vyy gr oh,
As if R jangling and and gr and I,
Gr hunting in the sky G blue
Gr they eat R young ascatas...
Or an excerpt from a poem by Mikhail Lermontov. The poet, using the sound [l], conveys the image of flowing water, the smooth movements of a swimming mermaid:
Rusa l ka p l s l and along the river l slaughter,
Illuminated by l Noah l unoy;
And old l and she's extra l fuck up l uny
Silver foam in l us.
This property of expressive speech is called sound writing.
The high musicality of poetry presupposes a subtle penetration into the peculiarities of sounding speech, into its ability to produce an impression not only with the meaning of words, but also with their sound, their music.
At your leisure, you can try to talk about some phenomenon using sound writing. Or offer a class creative competition for the most original use of sound writing.
It should be noted that the possibility of sound recording was noticed by the people long ago and was reflected in comic songs, ditties and, of course, tongue twisters. Tongue twisters are not only invented for fun, they help to practice good diction. At first, the tongue twister is pronounced slowly, turning Special attention to combinations of sounds that are difficult to pronounce. And then the tongue twister needs to be pronounced as quickly as possible, repeating it several times.
From the clatter of hooves, dust flies across the field.
The ship was carrying caramel, and the ship ran aground. And the sailors ate caramel aground for two weeks.
The fields of millet fly in the field, and Frosya takes out the weeds.
All beavers are kind to their own.
Two puppies are nipping cheek to cheek at a brush in the corner.
Homework
Task No. 1
Write down the transcription of these words and determine the number of letters and sounds.
Anchor, rumor, sad, river.
Task No. 2
Write these words in alphabetical order. If the first letter in different words ah is the same, you should look at the second letter, if the second is the same, then at the third. Remember the spelling of the highlighted letters.
Vinaigrette, neat, alphabet, travel, horizon, household, director, quantity, passenger, highway, ink, collection, caricature, aviation, eleven, violet, acrobat, valley.
1. Scientific and educational portal: Originweb.info ().
On the origin of the Russian alphabet
2. Encyclopedia of Brockhaus F. A. and Efron I. A. ().
Phonetics
Literature
1. Russian language. Theory. 5-9 grades: V.V. Babaytseva, L.D. Chesnokova - M.: Bustard, 2008.
2. Russian language. 5th grade: ed. MM. Razumovskaya, P.A. Lekanta - M.: Bustard, 2010.
3. Russian language. Practice. 5th grade: ed. A.Yu. Kupalova. - M.: Bustard, 2012.
In this chapter:
§1. Sound
Sound- the minimum unit of sounding speech. Each word has a sound shell consisting of sounds. The sound corresponds to the meaning of the word. Different words and word forms have different sound patterns. The sounds themselves are not important, but they serve an important role: they help us distinguish between:
- words: [house] - [tom], [tom] - [there], [m’el] - [m’el’]
- forms of the word: [house] - [lady´ ] - [house´ ma].
Note:
words written in square brackets are given in transcription.
§2. Transcription
Transcription- This special system recordings showing the sound. The following symbols are used in the transcription:
Square brackets indicating transcription.
[ ´ ] - emphasis. The accent is placed if the word consists of more than one syllable.
[b’] - the icon next to the consonant indicates its softness.
[j] and [th] are different designations for the same sound. Since this sound is soft, these symbols are often used with an additional designation of softness: [th’]. This site uses the notation [th’], which is more familiar to most guys. The soft icon will be used to help you get used to the sound being soft.
There are other symbols. They will be introduced gradually as you become familiar with the topic.
§3. Vowels and consonants
Sounds are divided into vowels and consonants.
They have different natures. They are pronounced and perceived differently, and also behave differently in speech and play different roles in it.
Vowels- these are sounds during the pronunciation of which air passes freely through the oral cavity without encountering an obstacle on its way. Pronunciation (articulation) is not focused in one place: the quality of vowels is determined by the form oral cavity, which acts as a resonator. When articulating vowels, the vocal cords in the larynx work. They are close, tense and vibrate. Therefore, when pronouncing vowels, we hear a voice. Vowels can be drawn out. You can shout them. And if you put your hand to your throat, then work vocal cords When pronouncing vowels, you can feel it with your hand. Vowels are the basis of a syllable; they organize it. There are as many syllables in a word as there are vowels. For example: He- 1 syllable, she- 2 syllables, Guys- 3 syllables, etc. There are words that consist of one vowel sound. For example, unions: and, and and interjections: Oh!, Ah!, Oooh! and others.
In a word, vowels can be in stressed and unstressed syllables.
Stressed syllable one in which the vowel is pronounced clearly and appears in its basic form.
IN unstressed syllables vowels are modified and pronounced differently. Changing vowels in unstressed syllables is called reduction.
There are six stressed vowels in the Russian language: [a], [o], [u], [s], [i], [e].
Remember:
There are words that can only consist of vowels, but consonants are also necessary.
In the Russian language there are many more consonants than vowels.
§4. Method of formation of consonants
Consonants- these are sounds, when pronounced, the air encounters an obstacle in its path. There are two types of obstruents in the Russian language: gap and stop - these are the two main ways of forming consonants. The type of obstruction determines the nature of the consonant sound.
Gap is formed, for example, when pronouncing sounds: [s], [z], [w], [z]. The tip of the tongue only approaches the lower or upper teeth. Friction consonants can be pulled: [s-s-s-s], [sh-sh-sh-sh] . As a result, you will clearly hear the noise: when pronouncing [c] - whistling, and when pronouncing [w] - hissing.
Bow, The second type of articulation of consonants is formed when the organs of speech close. The air flow abruptly overcomes this obstacle, the sounds are short and energetic. That's why they are called explosive. You won't be able to pull them. These are, for example, the sounds [p], [b], [t], [d] . Such articulation is easier to feel and sense.
So, when pronouncing consonants, noise is heard. Presence of noise - hallmark consonants.
§5. Voiced and voiceless consonants
According to the ratio of noise and voice, consonants are divided into voiced and unvoiced.
When spoken voiced consonants, both voice and noise are heard, and deaf- only noise.
Deaf words cannot be spoken loudly. They cannot be shouted.
Let's compare the words: house And cat. Each word has 1 vowel sound and 2 consonants. The vowels are the same, but the consonants are different: [d] and [m] are voiced, and [k] and [t] are voiceless. Voicedness-deafness is the most important sign consonants in Russian.
voiced-voiceless pairs:[b] - [p], [z] - [c] and others. There are 11 such pairs.
Voiceless-voiced pairs: [p] and [b], [p"] and [b"], [f] and [v], [f"] and [v"], [k] and [d], [k"] and [g"], [t] and [d], [t"] and [d"], [w] and [g], [s] and [z], [s"] and [ z"].
But there are sounds that do not have a pair on the basis of voicedness - deafness. For example, the sounds [r], [l], [n], [m], [y’] do not have a voiceless pair, but [ts] and [ch’] do not have a voiced pair.
Unpaired according to deafness-voicing
Voiced unpaired:[r], [l], [n], [m], [th"], [r"], [l"], [n"], [m"] . They are also called sonorous.
What does this term mean? This is a group of consonants (9 in total) that have peculiarities of pronunciation: when they are pronounced, obstacles also arise in the oral cavity, but such that the air stream, passing through an obstacle produces only a slight noise; air passes freely through an opening in the nasal or oral cavity. Sonorants are pronounced using the voice with the addition of slight noise. Many teachers do not use this term, but everyone should know that these sounds are unpaired voiced sounds.
Sonorants have two important features:
1) they are not deafened, like paired voiced consonants, before voiceless consonants and at the end of a word;
2) before them there is no voicing of paired deaf consonants (i.e. the position in front of them is strong in deafness-voicing, just like before vowels). See more about positional changes.
Voiceless unpaired:[ts], [h"], [w":], [x], [x"].
How can it be easier to remember lists of voiced and voiceless consonants?
The following phrases will help you remember lists of voiced and voiceless consonants:
Oh, we didn’t forget each other!(Here only voiced consonants)
Foka, do you want to eat some soup?(Here only voiceless consonants)
True, these phrases do not include pairs of hardness and softness. But usually people can easily figure out that not only hard [z] is voiced, but also soft [z"] too, not only [b], but also [b"], etc.
§6. Hard and soft consonants
Consonants differ not only in deafness and voicedness, but also in hardness and softness.
Hardness-softness- the second most important sign of consonants in the Russian language.
Soft consonants differ from solid special position of the tongue. When pronouncing hard words, the entire body of the tongue is pulled back, and when pronouncing soft words, it is moved forward, and middle part the tongue is raised. Compare: [m] - [m’], [z] - [z’]. Voiced soft ones sound higher than hard ones.
Many Russian consonants form hardness-softness pairs: [b] - [b’], [v] - [v’] and others. There are 15 such pairs.
Hardness-softness pairs: [b] and [b"], [m] and [m"], [p] and [p"], [v] and [v"], [f] and [f"] , [z] and [z"], [s] and [s"], [d] and [d"], [t] and [t"], [n] and [n"], [l] and [l"], [p] and [p"], [k] and [k"], [g] and [g"], [x] and [x"].
But there are sounds that do not have a pair on the basis of hardness and softness. For example, the sounds [zh], [sh], [ts] do not have a soft pair, but [y’] and [h’] do not have a hard pair.
Unpaired in hardness-softness
Hard unpaired: [zh], [w], [ts] .
Soft unpaired: [th"], [h"], [w":].
§7. Indication of softness of consonants in writing
Let's take a break from pure phonetics. Let's take a practical look important question: How is the softness of consonants indicated in writing?
There are 36 consonant sounds in the Russian language, including 15 hard-soft pairs, 3 unpaired hard and 3 unpaired soft consonants. There are only 21 consonants. How can 21 letters represent 36 sounds?
Various methods are used for this:
- iotized letters e, e, yu, i after consonants, except w, w And ts, unpaired in hardness-softness, indicate that these consonants are soft, for example: aunt- [t’o´ t’a], uncle -[Yes Yes] ;
- letter And after consonants, except w, w And ts. Consonants indicated by letters w, w And ts, unpaired solids. Examples of words with a vowel letter And: nothing- [n’i´ tk’i], sheet- [l’ist], Cute- [Cute'] ;
- letter b, after consonants, except w, w, after which soft sign is an indicator of grammatical form. Examples of words with a soft sign : request- [prose], stranded- [m’el’], distance- [gave’].
Thus, the softness of consonants in writing is conveyed not by special letters, but by combinations of consonants with letters and, e, e, yu, I And b. Therefore, when parsing, I advise you to pay special attention to adjacent letters after the consonants.
Discussing the problem of interpretation
School textbooks say that [w] and [w’] -
unpaired in hardness and softness. How so? We hear that the sound [w’] is a soft analogue of the sound [w].
When I was studying at school myself, I couldn’t understand why? Then my son went to school. He had the same question. It appears in all children who approach learning thoughtfully.
Confusion arises because school textbooks do not take into account that the sound [sh’] is also long, but the hard sound [sh] is not. Pairs are sounds that differ in only one attribute. And [w] and [w’] - two. Therefore [w] and [w’] are not pairs.
For adults and high school students.
In order to maintain correctness, it is necessary to change the school tradition of transcribing the sound [w’]. It seems that it is easier for the guys to use one more additional sign than to face an illogical, unclear and misleading statement. It's simple. So that generation after generation does not rack their brains, it is necessary to finally show that a soft hissing sound is long.
For this purpose, in linguistic practice there are two icons:
1) superscript above the sound;
2) colon.
Usage superscript inconvenient because it is not provided by a set of characters that can be used in computer typing. This means that the following possibilities remain: using a colon [w’:] or a grapheme denoting the letter [w’] . It seems to me that the first option is preferable. Firstly, children often mix sounds and letters at first. The use of a letter in transcription will create the basis for such confusion and provoke an error. Secondly, the guys are now starting to study early foreign languages. And the [:] symbol, when used to indicate the length of a sound, is already familiar to them. Thirdly, transcription indicating longitude with a colon [:] will perfectly convey the features of the sound. [sh’:] - soft and long, both features that make up its difference from the sound [sh] are presented clearly, simply and unambiguously.
What advice can you give to children who are now studying using generally accepted textbooks? You need to understand, comprehend, and then remember that in fact the sounds [w] and [w’:] do not form a pair in terms of hardness and softness. And I advise you to transcribe them the way your teacher requires.
§8. Place of formation of consonants
Consonants differ not only according to the characteristics already known to you:
- deafness-voice,
- hardness-softness,
- method of formation: bow-slit.
The last, fourth sign is important: place of education.
The articulation of some sounds is carried out by the lips, others - by the tongue, it in different parts. So, the sounds [p], [p'], [b], [b'], [m], [m'] are labial, [v], [v'], [f], [f' ] - labiodental, all others - lingual: anterior lingual [t], [t'], [d], [d'], [n], [n'], [s], [s'], [z ], [z'], [w], [w], [w':], [h'], [c], [l], [l'], [r], [r'] ,
middle lingual [th’] and back lingual [k], [k’], [g], [g’], [x], [x’].
§9. Positional changes of sounds
1. Strong-weak positions for vowels. Positional changes of vowels. Reduction
People do not use spoken sounds in isolation. They don't need it.
Speech is a sound stream, but a stream organized in a certain way. The conditions in which a particular sound occurs are important. The beginning of a word, the end of a word, a stressed syllable, an unstressed syllable, a position before a vowel, a position before a consonant - these are all different positions. We will figure out how to distinguish between strong and weak positions, first for vowels, and then for consonants.
Strong position one in which sounds do not undergo positionally determined changes and appear in their basic form. A strong position is allocated for groups of sounds, for example: for vowels, this is a position in a stressed syllable. And for consonants, for example, the position before vowels is strong.
For vowels, the strong position is under stress, and the weak position is unaccented..
In unstressed syllables, vowels undergo changes: they are shorter and are not pronounced as clearly as under stress. This change in vowels in a weak position is called reduction. Due to reduction, fewer vowels are distinguished in the weak position than in the strong position.
The sounds corresponding to stressed [o] and [a] after hard consonants in a weak, unstressed position sound the same. “Akanye” is recognized as normative in the Russian language, i.e. non-discrimination ABOUT And A in an unstressed position after hard consonants.
- under stress: [house] - [dam] - [o] ≠ [a].
- without accent: [d A ma´ ] -home´ - [d A la´ ] -dala´ - [a] = [a].
The sounds corresponding to stressed [a] and [e] after soft consonants in a weak, unstressed position sound the same. The standard pronunciation is “hiccup”, i.e. non-discrimination E And A in an unstressed position after soft consonants.
- under stress: [m’ech’] - [m’ach’] - [e] ≠[a].
- without accent: [m’ich’o´ m]- sword´ m -[m'ich'o´ m] - ball´ m - [and] = [and].
- But what about the vowels [i], [s], [u]? Why was nothing said about them? The fact is that these vowels in a weak position are subject to only quantitative reduction: they are pronounced more briefly, weakly, but their quality does not change. That is, as for all vowels, an unstressed position for them is a weak position, but for a schoolchild these vowels in an unstressed position do not pose a problem.
[ski´ zhy], [in _lu´ zhu], [n’i´ t’i] - in both strong and weak positions the quality of vowels does not change. Both under stress and in unstressed position we clearly hear: [ы], [у], [и] and we write the letters that are usually used to denote these sounds.
Discussing the problem of interpretation
What vowel sounds are actually pronounced in unstressed syllables after hard consonants?
When performing phonetic analysis and transcribing words, many guys express bewilderment. In long polysyllabic words, after hard consonants, it is not the sound [a] that is pronounced, as school textbooks say, but something else.
They are right.
Compare the pronunciation of words: Moscow - Muscovites. Repeat each word several times and listen to what vowel sounds in the first syllable. With the word Moscow it's simple. We pronounce: [maskva´] - the sound [a] is clearly audible. And the word Muscovites? In accordance with the literary norm, in all syllables except the first syllable before stress, as well as the positions of the beginning and end of the word, we pronounce not [a], but another sound: less distinct, less clear, more similar to [s] than to [ a]. In the scientific tradition, this sound is designated by the symbol [ъ]. This means that in reality we pronounce: [mаlako´] - milk ,[khrasho´ ] - Fine ,[kalbasa´] - sausage.
I understand that by giving this material in textbooks, the authors tried to simplify it. Simplified. But many children with good hearing, who clearly hear that the sounds in the following examples are different, cannot understand why the teacher and the textbook insist that these sounds are the same. In fact:
[V A Yes ] - water´ -[V ъ d'inoy'] - water:[а]≠[ъ]
[other A wa´ ] - firewood´ -[other ъ in’ino´ th’] - wood-burning:[а]≠[ъ]
A special subsystem consists of the realization of vowels in unstressed syllables after sibilants. But in the school course this material is not presented at all in most textbooks.
What vowel sounds are actually pronounced in unstressed syllables after soft consonants?
I feel the greatest sympathy for the children who study from textbooks that offer on-site A,E, ABOUT after soft consonants, hear and transcribe the sound “and, inclined to e.” I think it is fundamentally wrong to give schoolchildren as the only option the outdated pronunciation norm - “ekanya”, which is found today much less often than “icanya”, mainly among very elderly people. Guys, feel free to write in an unstressed position in the first syllable before the stress in place A And E- [And].
After soft consonants in other unstressed syllables, except for the position of the end of the word, we pronounce a short weak sound reminiscent of [i] and denoted as [b]. Say the words eight, nine and listen to yourself. We pronounce: [vo´ s’m’] - [b], [d’e´ v’t’] - [b].
Do not confuse:
Transcription marks are one thing, but letters are another.
The transcription sign [ъ] indicates a vowel after hard consonants in unstressed syllables, except for the first syllable before stress.
The letter ъ is a solid sign.
The transcription sign [b] indicates a vowel after soft consonants in unstressed syllables, except for the first syllable before stress.
The letter ь is a soft sign.
Transcription signs, unlike letters, are given in square brackets.
End of the word- special position. It shows clearing of vowels after soft consonants. The system of unstressed endings is a special phonetic subsystem. In it E And A differ:
Building[building n’ii’e] - building[building n’ii’a], opinion[mn’e´ n’i’e] - opinion[mn’e´ n’ii’a], more[mo´ r’e] - seas[mo´ r’a], will[vo´l’a] - at will[na_vo´l’e]. Remember this when doing phonetic analysis of words.
Check:
How your teacher requires you to mark vowels in an unstressed position. If he uses simplified system transcriptions, no big deal: it's widely accepted. Just don't be surprised by what you actually hear in the unstressed position. different sounds.
2. Strong-weak positions for consonants. Positional changes of consonants
For all consonants without exception, the strong position is position before vowel. Before vowels, consonants appear in their basic form. Therefore, when doing phonetic analysis, do not be afraid to make a mistake when characterizing a consonant in a strong position: [dach’a] - country house,[t'l'iv'i´ z'r] - TV,[s’ino´ n’ima] - synonyms,[b'ir'o´ zy] - birch trees,[karz"i´ny] - baskets. All consonants in these examples come before vowels, i.e. in a strong position.
Strong positions on deafness of voicedness:
- before vowels: [there] - there,[ladies] - I'll give,
- before unpaired voiced [p], [p’], [l], [l’], [n], [n’], [m], [m’], [th’]: [dl’a] - For,[tl'a] - aphids,
- Before [in], [in’]: [own’] - mine,[ringing] - ringing.
Remember:
In a strong position, voiced and voiceless consonants do not change their quality.
Weak positions in deafness and voicedness:
- before paired ones according to deafness-voicing: [sl´ tk’ii] - sweet,[zu´ pk’i] - teeth.
- before voiceless unpaired ones: [aphva´ t] - girth, [fhot] - entrance.
- at the end of a word: [zup] - tooth,[dup] - oak.
Positional changes of consonants according to deafness-voicing
In weak positions, consonants are modified: positional changes occur with them. Voiced ones become voiceless, i.e. are deafened, and the deaf are voiced, i.e. call out. Positional changes are observed only for paired consonants.
Stunning-voicing of consonants
Stunning voiced occurs in positions:
- before paired deaf people: [fsta´ in’it’] - V put,
- at the end of the word: [clat] - treasure.
Voicing of the deaf occurs at position:
- before paired voiced ones: [kaz’ba´ ] - to With bah´
Strong positions in terms of hardness and softness:
- before vowels: [mat’] - mother,[m’at’] - crush,
- at the end of the word: [von] - out there,[won’] - stench,
- before labialials: [b], [b'], [p], [p'], [m], [m'] and posterior linguals: [k], [k'], [g], [g' ], [x[, [x'] for sounds [s], [s'], [z], [z'], [t], [t'], [d], [d'], [n ], [n'], [r], [r']: [sa´ n'k'i] - Sa´nki(gen. fall.), [s´ ank’i] - sled,[bun] - bun,[bu´ l’qt’] - gurgle,
- all positions for sounds [l] and [l’]: [forehead] - forehead,[pal'ba] - firing.
Remember:
In a strong position, hard and soft consonants do not change their quality.
Weak positions in hardness-softness and positional changes in hardness-softness.
- before soft [t’], [d’] for consonants [c], [z], which are necessarily softened: , [z’d’es’],
- before [h’] and [w’:] for [n], which is necessarily softened: [po´ n’ch’ik] - donut,[ka´ m’n’sh’:ik] - mason.
Remember:
In a number of positions today, both soft and hard pronunciation is possible:
- before soft front-lingual [n’], [l’] for front-lingual consonants [c], [z]: snow -[s’n’ek] and , make angry -[z’l’it’] and [zl’it’]
- before soft front-lingual, [z’] for front-lingual [t], [d] - lift -[pad’n’a´ t’] and [padn’a´ t’] , take away -[at’n’a´ t’] and [atn’a´ t’]
- before soft front-lingual [t"], [d"], [s"], [z"] for front-lingual [n]: vi´ntik -[v’i´ n"t"ik] and [v’i´ nt’ik], pension -[p'e´ n's'ii'a] and [p'e´ n's'ii'a]
- before soft labials [v’], [f’], [b’], [p’], [m’] for labials: enter -[f"p"isa´ t’] and [fp"is´ at’], ri´ fme(Dan. fall.) - [r'i´ f"m"e] and [r'i´ fm"e]
Remember:
In all cases, positional softening of consonants is possible in a weak position.
It is a mistake to write a soft sign when softening consonants positionally.
Positional changes of consonants based on the method and place of formation
Naturally, in school tradition It is not customary to present the characteristics of sounds and the positional changes that occur with them in full detail. But the general principles of phonetics need to be learned. Without this, it is difficult to do phonetic analysis and complete test tasks. Therefore, below is a list of positionally determined changes in consonants based on the method and place of formation. This material is a tangible help for those who want to avoid mistakes in phonetic analysis.
Assimilation of consonants
The logic is this: the Russian language is characterized by similarity of sounds if they are similar in some way and at the same time are nearby.
Learn the list:
[c] and [w] → [w:] - sew
[z] and [zh] → [zh:] - compress
[s] and [h’] - at the root of words →
[sh’:] - happiness, score
- at the junction of morphemes and words →
[w’:h’] -
comb, dishonest, with what (a preposition followed by a word is pronounced together as one word)
[s] and [w’:] → [w’:] - split
[t] and [c] - in verb forms → [ts:] - smiles
-at the junction of prefix and root →
[tss] - sleep it off
[t] and [ts] → [ts:] - unhook
[t] and [h’] → [h’:] - report
[t] and [t] and [w’:]←[c] and [h’] - Countdown
[d] and [w’:] ←[c] and [h’] - counting
Dissociation of consonants
Dissimilarity is a process of positional change, the opposite of assimilation.
[g] and [k’] → [h’k’] - easy
Simplifying consonant clusters
Learn the list:
vst - [stv]: hello, feel
zdn - [zn]: late
zdc - [sc] : by the reins
lnts - [nts]: Sun
NDC -
[nc]: Dutch
ndsh -
[ns:] landscape
NTG - [ng]: x-ray
rdc -
[rts]: heart
rdch -
[rh’]: little heart
stl - [sl’]: happy
stn - [dn]: local
Pronunciation of sound groups:
In the forms of adjectives, pronouns, participles there are letter combinations: wow, him. IN place G they are pronounced [in]: him, beautiful, blue.
Avoid reading letter by letter. Say the words him, blue, beautiful Right.
§10. Letters and sounds
Letters and sounds have different purposes and different natures. But these are comparable systems. Therefore, you need to know the types of ratios.
Types of relationships between letters and sounds:
- The letter denotes a sound, for example, vowels after hard consonants and consonants before vowels: weather.
- The letter has no own sound meaning, For example b And ъ: mouse
- A letter represents two sounds, for example iotated vowels e, e, yu, i in positions:
- the beginning of a word
- after vowels,
- after separators b And ъ.
- A letter can denote a sound and the quality of the preceding sound, such as iotated vowels and And after soft consonants.
- The letter may indicate the quality of the preceding sound, for example b in words shadow, stump, gunfire.
- Two letters can represent one sound, usually a long one: sew, compress, rush
- Three letters correspond to one sound: smile - shh -[ts:]
Test of strength
Check your understanding of this chapter.
Final test
What determines the quality of a vowel sound?
- From the shape of the oral cavity at the moment of pronouncing the sound
- From the barrier formed by the speech organs at the moment of pronouncing a sound
What is reduction called?
- pronouncing vowels under stress
- pronouncing unstressed vowels
- special pronunciation of consonants
For which sounds does the air stream encounter an obstacle on its path: a bow or a gap?
- In vowels
- In consonants
Can voiceless consonants be pronounced loudly?
Are the vocal cords involved in pronouncing voiceless consonants?
How many pairs of consonants are formed according to deafness and voicedness?
How many consonants do not have a voiced-voiced pair?
How many pairs do Russian consonants form according to hardness and softness?
How many consonants do not have a hard-soft pair?
How is the softness of consonants conveyed in writing?
- Special icons
- Letter combinations
What is the name of the position of a sound in a stream of speech in which it appears in its basic form, without undergoing positional changes?
- Strong position
- Weak position
What sounds have strong and weak positions?
- In vowels
- In consonants
- For everyone: both vowels and consonants
Right answers:
- From the shape of the oral cavity at the moment of pronouncing the sound
- pronouncing unstressed vowels
- In consonants
- Letter combinations
- Strong position
- For everyone: both vowels and consonants
In contact with
Sound is the minimal, indivisible unit of sounding speech. A letter is a graphic sign to indicate a sound in writing, that is, a drawing. Sounds are pronounced and heard, letters are written and perceived by sight. There are sounds in any language, regardless of whether it is written or not; spoken speech is primary in relation to speech written in letters; in phonographic languages, letters reflect spoken speech (unlike languages with hieroglyphic writing, where meanings, rather than sounds, are reflected).
Unlike other linguistic units (morphemes, words, phrases, sentences), sound itself has no meaning. The function of sounds is reduced to the formation and differentiation of morphemes and words (mal - mole - soap).
There are 33 letters in the Russian alphabet: Aa - “a”, BB - “be”, Vv - “ve”, Gg - “ge”, Dd - “de”, Ee - “e”, Yoyo - “e”, Zhzh - “zhe”, Zz - “ze”, Ii - “i”, Yi - “y”, Kk - “ka”, Ll - “el”, Mm - “em”, Nn - “en”, Oo - “ o", Pp - "pe", RR - "er", Ss - "es", Tt - "te", Uu - "u", Ff - "ef", Xx - "ha", Ts - "tse" , Chch - “che”, Shsh - “sha”, Shshch - “sha”, ъ - “hard sign”, Yы - “y”, ь - “soft sign”, Ee - “e”, Yuyu - “yu” , Yaya - "I". The Russian alphabet is called Cyrillic, or Cyrillic.
Letters have a lowercase version (the letter in the line does not rise above the other letters) and an uppercase version (the letter differs from the lowercase in height). There is no capital variant for the letters ъ and ь, а uppercase letterы is used only in foreign-language proper names to convey real pronunciation (the sound [ы] does not occur at the beginning of Russian words).
10 letters are intended to denote vowel sounds and are conventionally called vowels (a, u, o, s, e, i, yu, e, i, e), 21 letters are intended to denote consonant sounds and are conventionally called consonants (b, c, d , d, zh, z, j, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, f, x, c, ch, sh, sh), ъ and ь do not belong to either vowels or consonants and are called graphic signs.
There are 36 consonant sounds that are clearly distinguished in the Russian language (for example, before vowels): [b], [b"], [v], [v"], [g], [g"], [d], [ d"], [g], [z], [z"], [th"], [k], [k"], [l], [l"], [m], [m"], [ n], [n"], [p], [p"], [p], [p"], [s], [s"], [t], [t"], [f], [f "], [x], [x"], [ts], [h"], [w], [sch"] (in the speech of people of the older generation in individual words, such as yeast, reins, splashes, etc. , a long soft consonant [zh"] can be pronounced). There are more consonant sounds in the Russian language than consonant letters (36 and 21, respectively). The reason for this is one of the features of Russian graphics - the softness of paired consonant sounds in the Russian language is denoted not by a consonant letter, but by a vowel letter (e, e, yu, i, i) or b (mal [small] - crumpled [m "al], kon [kon] - horse [kon"]).
There are 10 vowel letters: a, u, o, s, i, e, i, yu, e, e. There are 6 vowel sounds that differ under stress: [a], [u], [o], [s], [i], [e]. Thus, in the Russian language there are more vowel letters than vowel sounds, which is due to the peculiarities of the use of the letters i, yu, e, ё (iotated). They perform the following functions:
1) designate 2 sounds ([y"a], [y"u], [y"o], [y"e]) in the position after vowels, separating marks and at the beginning of a phonetic word: yama [y"́ama], mine [may"а], embrace [aby"аt"];
2) indicate the vowel and the softness of the preceding paired consonant sound in terms of hardness/softness: chalk [m"ol] - cf.: mole [mol] (an exception may be the letter e in borrowed words, which does not indicate the softness of the preceding consonant - puree [p"ure ]; since a whole series of words of this kind borrowed by origin have become commonly used in the modern Russian language, we can say that the letter e in the Russian language has ceased to denote the softness of the preceding consonant sound, cf.: pos[t"e]l - pas[te]l );
3) the letters e, e, yu after a consonant unpaired in hardness/softness indicate the vowel sound [e], [o], [u]: six [shes "t"], silk [sholk], parachute [parachute].
Sound(phoneme) - the smallest unit of language; subject of study in phonetics.
Letter- a sign used to convey the sound of speech in writing; subject of study in graphics.
When studying phonetics, a special notation is used to distinguish between letters and sounds and to more accurately convey the sound of speech. transcription. Sounds are recorded according to spelling standards modern literary language. Transcribed speech and individual sounds are indicated in square brackets. Familiar [ ́] above the sound a stressed vowel is indicated. Familiar [’] after a consonant, its softness is indicated. For example, the word mowing is transcribed as [kaz'ba].
Characteristics of sounds
All sounds are divided into vowels and consonants.
Vowel sounds can be stressed or unstressed.
Consonants classified according to two main criteria:
- by voicedness/voicelessness - voiced(paired and unpaired) and deaf(paired and unpaired);
- by hardness/softness - hard(paired and unpaired) and soft(paired and unpaired).
Consonant sounds consist of noise (voiceless consonants) or noise and voice (voiced consonants).
Voiced consonants: [b], [b'], [c], [v'], [g], [g'], [d], [d'], [zh], [z], [z' ], [th'], [l], [l'], [m], [m'], [n], [n'], [r], [r'].
Voiceless consonants: [k], [k'], [p], [p'], [s], [s'], [t], [t'], [f], [f'], [x ], [x'], [ts], [h'], [w], [w'].
Voiced and voiceless consonants can be paired or unpaired.
Paired consonants in terms of voiceness and deafness form 11 pairs: [b] - [p], [v] - [f], [g] - [k], [d] - [t], [zh] - [sh], [z] - [s], [b'] - [p'], [c'] - [f'], [g'] - [k'], [d'] - [t'], [z '] - [With'].
The remaining consonants do not have a voiced-voiceless pair. Voiced unpaired consonants: [y’], [l], [l’], [m], [m’], [n], [n’], [r], [r’]. Voiceless unpaired consonants: [x], [x’], [ts], [ch’], [sch’].
Based on the participation of the middle part of the tongue in the pronunciation of a consonant, sounds are divided into hard and soft consonants.
Hard consonants are formed without the participation of the middle part of the tongue. These are consonants: [b], [v], [g], [d], [g], [z], [k], [l], [m], [n], [p], [r] , [s], [t], [f], [x], [ts], [w].
Soft consonants are formed with the participation of the middle part of the tongue. These are the consonants: [b'], [v'], [g'], [d'], [z'], [y'], [k'], [l'], [m'], [n '], [p'], [p'], [s'], [t'], [f'], [x'], [h'], [w'].
Paired consonants in terms of hardness and softness form 15 pairs: [b] - [b'], [v] - [v'], [g] - [g'], [d] - [d'], [z] - [z'], [l] - [l'], [m] - [m'], [n] - [n'], [p] - [p'], [p] - [p'], [f] - [f'], [k] - [k'], [t] - [t'], [s] - [s'], [x] - [x'].
Hard unpaired consonants: [zh], [sh], [ts].
Soft unpaired consonants: [th’], [h’], [sch’].
Russian alphabet
To indicate speech sounds in writing, letters are used, each of which has its own name. All the letters of the Russian language, arranged in a certain order, form an alphabet, or alphabet.
| Letter | Name | Letter | Name | Letter | Name |
| A a | A | K k | ka | X x | Ha |
| B b | bae | L l | ale | Ts ts | tse |
| In in | ve | Mm | Em | H h | what |
| G g | ge | N n | en | Sh sh | sha |
| D d | de | Oh oh | O | sch sch | now |
| Her | e | P p | pe | ъ | solid sign |
| Her | e | R r | er | s | s |
| F | zhe | With with | es | b | soft sign |
| Z z | ze | T t | te | Uh uh | uh |
| And and | And | U y | at | Yu Yu | Yu |
| Thy | and short | F f | ef | I I | I |
There are 33 letters in the Russian alphabet:
- 10 vowel letters (“a”, “e”, “e”, “i”, “o”, “u”, “y”, “e”, “yu”, “ya”), the main function of which is designation vowel sounds;
- 21 consonant letters (“b”, “v”, “g”, “d”, “zh”, “z”, “y”, “k”, “l”, “m”, “n”, “p” "", "r", "s", "t", "f", "x", "ts", "ch", "sh", "sch"), the main function of which is to designate consonant sounds;
- 2 letters that do not indicate a sound (“ъ”, “ь”).
Letters are uppercase (capital, large) and lowercase (small).
Correlation of letters and sounds
The same letter can represent different sounds, for example:
- the letter “ya” can denote the sounds [á], [y'á] under stress (five [p'at'], pits [y'amy], zealous [r'y'anyy'], button accordion [bai'an] ); sound close to [i] or [e]; [y'i] or [y'e] without emphasis (nickel [p'itak], sexton [d'y'ich'ok]);
- the letter “a” without stress after the consonants “ch”, “sch” denotes a sound close to [i] or [e] (spare [pasch’id’it’]);
- the letter “i” after “zh”, “sh”, “ts” denotes the sound [s] (wide [shirók’iy’]);
- the letter “d” can denote the sounds [d], [d'], [t], [t']: give [dat'], buzz [gud'at], rod [rot], uncle [d'at'ka ].
The quantitative ratio of sounds and letters denoting them can be different:
1. The letters “e”, “e”, “yu”, “ya” designate 2 sounds: [y’] and one of the vowel sounds - in following cases:
- at the beginning of the word (el [y'el], hedgehog [y'osh], south [y'uk], yard [y'art]),
- after a vowel (fighter [bai'ets], sings [pay'ot], union [say'us], bayan [bai'an]),
- after the separating “ъ” and “ь” (ate [s’y’el], drinks [p’y’ot], loach [v’y’un], zealous [r’y’any’]).
In other cases, the letters “e”, “e”, “yu”, “ya” are used to designate one of the vowel sounds and indicate the softness of the previous soft paired consonant (sel [s'el], ice [l'ot], hatch [ l'uk], kneaded [m'al]). The letter “e” in borrowed words may not indicate the softness of a consonant, for example: thesis [tez'is].
2. The letter “and” denotes 2 sounds after the separating “b”: [y’i] (whose [ch’y’í]). In other cases, the letter “and” is used to denote [and] and to indicate the softness of the previous soft paired consonant (tir [t’ir]).
3. In some cases, several letters can denote one sound, for example, the combination “sch” means [sch’] (happiness [sch’as’t’y’e]).
4. In some combinations, a consonant letter may not indicate a sound (such a consonant is called unpronounceable), for example, the letter “v” in the word hello [hello’] is not pronounced.
5. The letters “hard sign” and “soft sign” do not indicate sounds. For example, the word nonsense has four letters (“ch”, “u”, “sh”, “b”), but three sounds ([ch’], [ú], [sh]).
Speech sounds- a class of sounds formed as a result of human pronunciation activity.
This is part of the multitude of acoustic vibrations that are perceived auditory system person. Unlike other sounds of animate and inanimate nature, they are used to form more complex complexes that serve as specific “shells” of significant units - morphemes or words.
All letters of the Russian language are divided into vowels and consonants.
There are 10 vowel letters:
A E Y I O U Y Y Y Y
There are 21 consonants:
B C D D F G H J K L M N P R S T F
Sound speech in writing is conveyed using special graphic signs - letters. We pronounce and hear sounds, and we see and write letters. A list of letters in a certain order is called an alphabet. The word “alphabet” comes from the names of the first two letters Greek alphabet: a – alpha, b – beta (in modern Greek – vita).
The modern Russian alphabet has 33 letters. Each letter has a printed or handwritten, uppercase and lowercase version.
Sound- This is the minimum, indivisible unit of sounding speech. Letter- a graphic sign to indicate sound in writing, that is, a drawing. Sounds are pronounced and heard, letters are written and perceived by sight. There are sounds in any language, regardless of whether it is written or not; spoken speech is primary in relation to speech written in letters; in phonographic languages, letters reflect spoken speech (unlike languages with hieroglyphic writing, where meanings, rather than sounds, are reflected).
Unlike other linguistic units (morphemes, words, phrases, sentences), sound itself has no meaning. The function of sounds is reduced to the formation and differentiation of morphemes and words (mal - mole - soap).
There are 33 letters in the Russian alphabet:
Aa – “a”, BB – “be”, Vv – “ve”, Gg – “ge”, Dd – “de”, E – “e”, Yoyo – “e”, Zh – “zhe”, Zz – “ze”, Ii – “i”, Yi – “y”, Kk – “ka”, Ll – “el”, Mm – “em”, Nn – “en”, Oo – “o”, Pp – “pe” ", Rr – “er”, Ss – “es”, Tt – “te”, Uu – “u”, Ff – “ef”, Xx – “ha”, Ts – “tse”, Chch – “che”, Shsh – “sha”, Shchsh – “sha”, ъ – “hard sign”, Yы – “y”, ь – “soft sign”, Ee – “e”, Yuyu – “yu”, Yaya – “I”.
The Russian alphabet is called Cyrillic or Cyrillic.
In the Russian language, not all speech sounds are designated, but only the main ones. The Russian language has 43 basic sounds - 6 vowels and 37 consonants, while the number of letters is 33. The number of basic vowels (10 letters, but 6 sounds) and consonants (21 letters, but 37 sounds) also does not match. The difference in the quantitative composition of basic sounds and letters is determined by the peculiarities of Russian writing.
That is, all letters of the Russian language are divided into three groups:
1) letters that do not represent sounds;
2) letters denoting two sounds;
3) letters denoting one sound. The first group includes the letters ъ, ь, which do not denote any sounds: day - [d'en'], volume - . The second group includes the letters e, e, yu, i. To the third - all the rest.
In Russian, hard and soft sound denoted by the same letter.
The six basic vowel sounds are represented by ten vowel letters:
[and] - and (darling).
[s] - s (soap).
[a] – a (May) and I (mine).
[o] - o (my) and e (tree).
[e] – e (this) and e (chalk).
[u] – u (bush) and yu (yule).
Thus, to designate the four vowel sounds ([a], [o], [e], [u]) there are two rows of letters:
1) a, o, e, y;
2) I, e, e, yu.
The letters i, e, ё, yu perform two functions:
after a consonant, they signal that the preceding consonant represents a soft consonant.
After vowels, at the beginning of a word and after the separating ъ and ь, these letters represent two sounds – the consonant [j] and the corresponding vowel:
I – , e – , e – , yu – .
For example:
1. after vowels: chews
2. after the separators ъ and ь
3. at the beginning of a word
The sound [j] is indicated in writing in several ways:
after vowels and at the end of a word - the letter y;
at the beginning of a word and between two vowels - using the letters e, e, yu, i, which denote the combination of a consonant [j] and the corresponding vowel;
The presence of the sound [j] is also indicated by the separating ъ and ь – between the consonant and vowels e, ё, yu, ya.
The letters ъ and ь do not represent any sounds.
The separating ъ and ь signal that the following e, ё, yu, i designate two sounds, the first of which is [j].
Non-separating:
1) indicates the softness of the preceding consonant
2) performs a grammatical function.
For example, in the word mouse ь does not indicate the softness of the preceding consonant, but signals that the given noun is feminine.
In addition, the same letter can represent different sounds. For example, the letter m can denote the sounds [m] and [m’]: mil – [m’il], soap – [soap]. The letter b can denote the sounds [b], [b'], [p], [p']: I will - [I will], beat - [b'it'], oak - [dup], Ob - [op' ].
Voiced consonants at the end of a word and before voiceless consonants (i.e. in a weak position) sound like paired voiceless consonants: booth - bu[t]ka, order - prika[s]. This phenomenon is called stunning.
Voiceless consonants before voiced ones (i.e. in a weak position) sound like their paired voiced consonants: threshing - molo[d']ba, request - pro[z']ba. This phenomenon is called voicing.
Strong positions for deafness-voicing for consonant sounds are positions before vowels and before r, l, m, n, th, v. Spelling errors are most often made when the consonant is in a weak position.
One sound can also be indicated by combinations of letters, for example:
- [sh’] – sch, zch, zhch: counting – [sh’]yot, happiness – [sh’]astye, driver – vo[sh’]ik, man – mu[sh’]ina;
- [ts] - tts, dts, ts, ts: father - o[ts]a, thirty - three[ts]at, washes - washes [ts]a, agree - agree[ts]a;
- [ts] – ts, ds: fraternal – bra[t]ky, urban – goro[ts]koy:
- [n] – nn: surprised – surprised.
We pronounce and hear sounds, we see and write letters. The designation of speech sounds by letters in writing is called graphics (from the Greek “graph” - I write).
To distinguish sounds from letters when studying phonetics, sounds are enclosed in square brackets. For example, the letter a denotes the sound [a], the letter l denotes the sound [l], etc.
However, a letter does not always correspond to its “own” sound. One letter can denote different sounds, for example, in the words house - d[o]m, house - d[a]mA (plural) the letter o denotes the sounds [o] and [a].
One sound can be denoted by different letters: in the words treasure and raft at the end of the word we pronounce the same sound [t], and denote it different letters: d etc.
It is necessary to distinguish between the sound and letter composition of words.
Thus, the sound and letter composition of the word house correspond to each other, but in the shape of the house there is a discrepancy: we write the letter o - we pronounce the sound [a]: in the word vinaigrette in unstressed syllables we write the letters i and e - we pronounce almost the same sound [i].
The number of letters and sounds in a word sometimes does not match. For example, the word honest has 7 letters written and 6 sounds pronounced. The letter t does not indicate a sound (unpronounceable consonant). According to the norms of orthoepy, when consonants coincide in some words, the sounds [i] [d] [l] [t] are not pronounced, but the letters are written: sun, heart, etc.
In accordance with the method of production, the resulting effect and the perceived characteristics, they speak of articulation (physiology), acoustics and perception (perception) 3. r Articulatory every 3. r. is formed as a result of complex movements of the pronunciation organs. Acoustically, 3rd sounds, like any other sounds, can be defined as oscillatory movements transmitted by the air. The sources of sound are: modulation of exhaled air by vibrations of the vocal cords - vocal source; obstacles created by an air stream in the speech apparatus - complete closure of the articulating organs (bow) or their significant approach (gap) - noise sources. In the education of each 3. r. one, two or three sources are involved: vowels are formed with the participation of only a vocal source, voiceless plosive consonants - with the participation of a noise pulse source (a noise pulse occurs when the bow is sharply opened, as a result of which the pressure behind the stop and atmospheric pressure is equalized), voiced plosives - with the participation of a vocal and pulsed source, voiceless fricatives - with the participation of a turbulent noise source (turbulent noise - the friction noise of an air stream caused by the narrowing of the articulating organs), voiced fricatives - with the participation of a turbulent and vocal source, etc. Acoustic properties 3. p . depend not only on the characteristics of the source, but also on the size and shape of the supraglottic cavities, which play the role of resonators: depending on the position of the tongue, lips, soft palate, vibrations arise and intensify in the supraglottic cavities different frequencies and intensity, so that the sounds we hear are complex acoustic formations that arise as a result of the superposition of the acoustic characteristics of the supraglottic cavities on the acoustic characteristics of sound sources.
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