Introduction
Creating a strong feed base is not only about increasing production and improving the quality of feed different types, but above all, the introduction of highly effective methods and means of their production and preparation, promoting high digestibility by animals nutrients contained in feed and ensuring its rational use.
Feeding affects the development, growth rate, body weight and reproductive functions of the animal. Only when full provision By providing livestock and poultry with high-quality feed, livestock farming can be successfully developed. Of all the factors environment the most big influence Feeding affects productivity. In the structure of the cost of livestock products, the share of feed is 50-55% for milk production, 65-70% for beef, 70-75% for pork.
In modern livestock farming, much attention is paid to ensuring balanced nutrition animals. By using scientifically based feeding systems, animal productivity can be increased and feed can be used efficiently. During the feeding process, the constituent substances affect the animal’s body not in isolation from each other, but in combination. The balance of feed components in accordance with the needs of animals is the main indicator of this complex.
For livestock farming, not only the quantity, but mainly the quality of feed is important, i.e. their value is determined by their nutrient content. Complete diets and feeds are considered to be those that contain all the substances necessary for the animal’s body and are capable of ensuring the normal functioning of all its physiological functions for a long time.
Nutritional value is understood as the property of food to satisfy the natural needs of animals for food. The nutritional value of food can only be determined during its interaction with the body based on the physiological state of the animal and changes in its productivity. The nutritional value of food cannot be expressed by any one indicator. Research conducted by scientists on the role of individual nutrients in the life of an animal’s body led to the conclusion that a comprehensive system for assessing the nutritional value of feed is necessary. This assessment is made up of the following data: chemical composition feed and its calorie content; digestibility of nutrients; general (energy) nutritional value; protein, mineral and vitamin nutrition.
To assess the nutritional value of feed, it is necessary to know their chemical composition and the main processes that occur during the conversion of feed nutrients into livestock products.
Main part organic matter Plants (96 – 98%) and animal bodies (about 95%) are composed of carbon, hydrogen, acids, and nitrogen. Moreover, acid is found more in plants, and nitrogen, carbon and hydrogen are found in the body of animals.
Differences between plants and animal organisms are associated with the accumulation of protein, fat, and carbohydrates. Plant cell walls are composed primarily of cellulose, while animal cell walls are composed primarily of protein and lipids; plants store energy in the form of carbohydrates; in animals, proteins consist of muscles, skin, hair, feathers, fur, horns and claws; the basis of plant ash is potassium and silicon, in the animal body in the greatest number contains calcium and phosphorus; plants synthesize themselves essential vitamins, and animals synthesize them in limited quantities.
The method of assessing the nutritional value of feed based on digestible nutrients has its drawbacks, since feed digestion is the assimilation of only part of the nutrients in the animal’s feed and the first stage of metabolism between the body and the environment. Not all digested nutrients are equally used by the body for life and production. For example wheat bran and barley grain have almost the same amount of nutrients (60–62%), but the productive effect of bran is approximately 25% lower than that of barley. In addition, one part, considered digestible, is actually destroyed by microorganisms with the formation of carbon dioxide, methane and organic acids, the other part is excreted from the body with fluids in the form of urea and heat. Thus, for a more complete assessment of the nutritional value of feed and diets, it is necessary to know final results feeding, i.e. what portion of the digestible nutrients of each feed is absorbed by the body and converted into constituent parts of the animal's body or into products obtained from the animal. Therefore, along with an assessment of digestible nutrients, an assessment of total nutritional value (calorie content) is used.
1. Literature review
1.1 Scientific basis of animal nutrition
During the period of nomadic farming, the only food for livestock was pasture grass. With the transition to sedentary cattle breeding and the development of agriculture, they gradually began to introduce stabling of animals, prepare food for the winter period, and feed agricultural waste to livestock. With the development of industry and the emergence of industrial centers, the need for livestock products increased sharply. In this regard, more and more attention was paid to the organization of feeding and keeping livestock. Waste from food processing industry began to be used for feeding Agriculture. Under the influence of practical needs, the doctrine of caustic life began to take shape. It developed on the basis of the achievements of biology, physiology, chemistry, physics and other sciences and generalization practical experience livestock breeders. At the beginning of the 19th century. The doctrine of nutritional value of food began to develop. The German scientist A. Thayer was the first to try to express the need for agriculture in uniform standards. animals in feed. Feeding rates were based on empirical data. From the middle of the 19th century. assessment of the nutritional value of feed and rationing of feeding were based on information about the chemical composition of feed. In the 60s 19th century German scientist E. Wolf proposed a system for evaluating feed and rationing feeding based on digestible substances. Work has been carried out to show the role and importance of various nutrients for animals. The role of protein was first studied by the French scientist F. Magendie (1816). In Russia, studies of the needs of animals for minerals were carried out (1872) by A. Rubets. N.I. Lunin established (1880) the presence in products of substances that were later (1912) called vitamins. Qualitative transformations of substances in the body of animals were studied by N.P. Chirvinsky, who proved (1881) the possibility of the formation of fat in the body of animals from carbohydrates. E.A. Bogdanov (1909) showed the possibility of fat formation from feed protein. Research by V.V. Pashutin and his students (late 19th - early 20th centuries) appeared theoretical basis for studying metabolism in animals. A methodology for taking into account the balance of substances and energy in animals was developed, and the methodology for scientific and economic experiments with animals was improved. All these achievements have made it possible to develop methods for assessing the nutritional value of feed and rationing animal feeding based on productive performance. The German scientist O. Kellner proposed the starch equivalent as a unit of feed nutritional value, the American scientist G. Armeby proposed the thermal baths, N. Fjord (Denmark) and N. Hanson (Sweden) developed the Scandinavian feed unit. In the USSR, at the suggestion of E.A. Bogdanov, the Soviet feed unit was adopted. The feed resources of the USSR were studied by M.F. Ivanov, M.I. Dyakov, E.F. Liskun, I.S. Popov. In 1933, the first summary table of the chemical composition and nutritional value of feed was compiled different zones. The scientific basis for feeding animals of different species, breeds, sex, age, physiological state (pregnancy, lactation, fattening, etc.), areas of use and level of productivity have been developed. Based on a generalization of data on the nutritional needs of animals obtained at institutes and experimental stations (1930–35), feed standards for agriculture were determined. animals. Subsequently, these standards were clarified and improved, increasing the number of standardized indicators. Feeding rationing, which makes it possible to control feed consumption and use it most efficiently, has become the basis for planning livestock production.
By the middle of the 20th century. Thanks to the work of scientists from many countries, the concept of a balanced system was formed. and. Requirements have been established for the rational composition of feed rations for animals of different species, ages, condition and economic use. The influence of housing conditions and daily routine on the appetite of animals and the palatability of feed has been clarified. The importance of the frequency of feeding and the order of distribution of different feeds was studied. Impact identified physical condition feed (degree of moisture, grinding, etc.), which made it possible to develop and put into practice new types of feed - grass meal, haylage, granules, etc. The most cost-effective types of livestock feeding by zone are proposed.
The energy assessment of the nutritional value of feed is being studied. The calorie content of feed has been established, which allows feeding to be rationed according to their energy value.
Much attention is paid to the science of K. s. and. pays attention to the study of protein nutrition of animals, the needs of animals for protein, the possibilities of using non-protein nitrogen in feed, the use various means increasing the biological value of protein, the amino acid composition of proteins, the role of amino acids in animal nutrition and ways to balance diets according to amino acid composition feed, mineral nutrition and the importance of macro- and microelements in animal husbandry for various biogeochemical zones and provinces. By establishing the role of vitamins in the animal body and the importance of vitamin nutrition, means have been obtained for the prevention and treatment of many vitamin deficiencies and hypovitaminosis conditions.
In K. s. and. Various stimulants began to be used, which include antibiotics, enzymes, hormones, specific serums, tissue preparations, etc. All these agents affect the body’s metabolism, digestive processes, digestibility and use of nutrients. They accelerate the growth and development of animals, increase their productivity and fertility.
To ensure full-fledged K. s. and. scientific institutions develop recipes for complete feeds, concentrate feeds, whole milk substitutes, premixes and other additives. The feed industry produces feed mixtures according to these recipes. Chemical industry releases for K. s. and. urea-ammonium salts, synthetic lysine, methionine, tryptophan and other amino acids, vitamins, mineral supplements, preservatives; hydrolysis industry – feed yeast. Old methods of preparing, preserving and storing feed are being improved and new methods are being introduced into production (silage, haylage, chemical canning, accelerated drying of grass by ventilation, briquetting, granulation, etc.), as well as preparing feed for feeding (grinding, chemical treatment, steaming, yeast, etc.). Many processes of foraging, preparation and distribution of feed are mechanized. Resolving many issues of K. s. and. (drawing up feed plans, rations, feed recipes, etc.) is facilitated by the use of modern mathematical methods and electrical computing technology.
In the cost of producing livestock products, the cost of feed is most(50–75%), therefore, the introduction into practice of scientific achievements and best practices according to K. s. and. plays a big role in reducing production costs.
Modern methods of livestock farming on an industrial basis require the development of agricultural methods. g., ensuring the optimal course of metabolic processes in animals with even more rapid growth their productivity and high feed utilization. Many scientific institutions are conducting research to solve these problems. How academic discipline K. s. and. taught in agriculture and zootechnical institutes and technical schools.
1.1.1 Basic elements of complete diets and their role in animal nutrition
In conditions of intensification of livestock farming and production of products on an industrial basis, especially important has the right organization full feeding farm animals.
The organization of adequate feeding of farm animals is determined by the quality of the feed. Energy, nutritional and biological needs of animals active substances expressed in feeding standards.
Normalized feeding is such feeding in which the animal receives the necessary nutrients in accordance with its physiological needs.
The feeding rate is the amount of nutrients necessary to meet the animal’s needs to maintain the vital functions of the body and obtain the intended product. good quality. Feeding standards are reviewed periodically. In order to increase the productivity of farm animals, under the leadership of the Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, new detailed feeding standards have been developed. The animals' need for 24...40 nutritional elements is taken into account. If feeding standards are not observed, the diet may contain an excess of substances and a deficiency of others. For example, in cattle breeding, control is carried out over the feeding of animals using 22...24 nutritional elements. Practice shows that compliance with new feeding standards can increase animal productivity by 8...12% and at the same time reduce feed costs per unit of production.
Detailed standards for animals of different species, taking into account their physiological state, age and productivity, indicate the following indicators: amount of energy (in feed units, energy feed units), dry matter, crude protein, digestible protein, lysine, methionite, cystine, sugars, starch , crude fiber, crude fat, calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, chlorine, magnesium, sulfur, iron, copper, zinc, manganese, cabalt, iodine, carotene, vitamins: A, D, E, B1, B2, B3, B4 , B5, B6, B12, in some cases vitamins C and K.
Based on feeding norms, a daily ration is drawn up. A diet is the required quantity and quality of feed, which corresponds to the animal’s requirements for energy, nutrients and biologically active substances at a given level of productivity, ensures health and high-quality products.
The systematic combination of feed in the diet creates a certain type of feeding, which is understood as the ratio (as a percentage of the total nutritional value) of the main groups or types of feed consumed by the animal per year or any season. The calculation is based on the ratio between concentrated and bulk feeds. The name of the type of feeding is determined by the type of feed prevailing in the diet. For example, if in the diets of large cattle haylage and silage predominate, then this type is called silage-haylage, if silage and root crops are called silage-root crops.
If in the annual diet of cows concentrated feed makes up 40% or more in nutritional value, then this type of feeding is considered concentrate; 30...25% - semi-concentrated, 24.....10% - low-concentrate, and up to 9% - bulk. For farms in the Russian Federation, the most desirable and economically feasible for feeding cattle are silage-root diets that contain the optimal amount of rough, juicy concentrated feed and ensure an even load on the gastrointestinal tract.
In pig farming, the most common are concentrate-potato, concentrate-root and concentrate types of feeding (concentrates account for 80...90% of the annual consumption). For poultry, only the concentrate type of feeding is acceptable, when concentrates account for more than 90%.
1.1.2 Animal needs for dry matter, energy, protein and amino acids
Animal productivity is directly dependent on the quantity and quality of feed consumed, or more precisely, the quantity and quality of its dry matter. The dry matter of feed consists of protein, carbohydrates, fats and minerals and it is precisely this that is the source of the substrates from which milk, meat, eggs, wool, newborns, etc. are formed.
The biggest concern among livestock and poultry workers is how their feed is consumed. They eat well - there will be products; they eat poorly - there will be no expected products. Science and practice have methods for predicting dry matter intake, but these methods need further improvement.
The feeding behavior of animals, which refers to appetite, is controlled by the central nervous system at pre-absorption and post-absorption levels. Preabsorption regulation of feed intake is determined by the volume of the gastrointestinal tract and the peculiarities of digestion in different animal species. It has been established that ruminant animals on average can consume from 2.5 to 3.5 kg of dry matter per 100 kg of live weight. Cows with record productivity (10–12 thousand kg of milk per lactation) – up to 4 kg. Dry matter consumption by young pigs is 3.5–5.5%, sows 3–4.2%, broilers 6–8% of live weight.
Appetite at the post-absorption level is determined by the concentration in the blood plasma, extracellular fluid and cytoplasm of nutrients (glucose, amino acids, fatty acids) released as a result of digestion and absorption. It has been established that their concentration in body fluids is a factor of homeostasis. A shift in the homeostatic level of each element or the ratio between them as a result of unbalanced feeding causes a decrease in appetite. It has been proven that a decrease in blood glucose below homeostatic levels causes hunger. Particularly interesting were the facts that the concentration of free amino acids had a significant effect on appetite. Thus, a lack or significant imbalance of amino acids in the blood plasma caused by unbalanced feed is accompanied by sharp decline appetite in pigs, broilers, chickens. Apparently, this pattern is typical for all animal species, including ruminants. Taste of food influences food intake but is not a long-term determinant of appetite.
Eating behavior is regulated nerve centers brain - hypothalamus, anterior part of the piriform cortex. It is here that the receptive analysis of the concentration of metabolites in the blood occurs and is organized eating behavior animals. Poor appetite, refusal of feed is a physiologically justified protective reaction of animals to the consumption of a diet unbalanced in amino acids and other nutritional elements; this could lead to serious violations vital important functions body.
A diet that ensures animal homeostasis at a physiologically determined level is eaten with appetite and ensures high productivity. The appetite, the intake of digestion products into the body and the productivity of animals depend on the concentrations and ratios in which nutrients are contained in the feed, or more precisely, in its dry matter.
Rationing for birds is based on this principle. Norms of concentration of metabolic energy, protein, all essential amino acids, macro- and microelements, vitamins, etc. for different types of birds at different times age periods designed for 100 g or 1 kg of feed with standard humidity of 10–13%. Approximate daily feed and energy requirements are given in a separate table. The brevity and clarity of such regulation seems to be most preferable for practical animal husbandry. This is how the VNIITIP standards are structured.
Standardization of nutrient concentrations per 1 kg of dry matter is used in pig and poultry farming throughout the world. In the United States, such standards apply to cattle, including dairy cows.
The development of issues of substrate nutrition of ruminant animals, carried out by VNIIFBiP, also lies in the search for optimal concentrations and ratios of nutrients - fiber, starch, sugar, protein, etc. in the dry matter of the diet, with high efficiency providing animals with end products of digestion (substrates) available for the exchange and synthesis of milk and meat: amino acids, glucose, VFA, fatty acids and others (B.D. Kalnitsky, I.K. Medvedev, A.A. Zabolotnov, A.M. Materikin, 1998).
New trends in improving the standardization of animal nutrition lie in the direction of developing feeding standards based on dry matter for all types of animals. It is necessary to take 1 kg of dry matter as the basis for standardization and conduct research to develop the most optimal standards for the concentration and ratio of nutrients in it. This standardization system is better absorbed by practitioners. Norms for the concentration of energy, protein, amino acids, etc. per 1 kg of dry matter are more stable than normal daily requirement, they are similar for different types of animals, are better remembered, and rations are easier to calculate. At the same time, the most important task is solved - the quality of feed, which contributes to high productivity and economical feed consumption.
1.1.3 The need of animals for micro and macroelements, their sources and feeding rates
The main biochemical function of Copper is participation in enzymatic reactions as an activator or as part of copper-containing enzymes. Its importance is great in the processes of hematopoiesis, in the synthesis of hemoglobin and cytochrome enzymes, where the functions of copper are closely related to the function of iron. Copper is important for growth processes (a significant amount of it is captured by the fetus). It affects the function of the glands internal secretion, has an insulin-like effect. When supplied with food, Copper is absorbed in the intestines, bound by albumin, then absorbed by the liver, from where it returns to the blood as part of the ceruloplasmin protein and is delivered to organs and tissues.
The richest foods in copper are beef and pork liver, champignons, halibut liver, cod liver.
Also sources can be nuts, fruits, bread, tea, potatoes, mushrooms, soybeans, coffee. Copper deficiency can manifest as anemia and nervous disorders.
Iron is one of the most common elements. Its greatest amount is found in the blood, spleen, liver, bone marrow, muscles, kidneys and heart. Iron content in blood – important indicator homeostasis. In the liver it accumulates mainly in mitochondria.
Iron enters the body, as a rule, with solid food. IN gastrointestinal tract on average, 6.5% of it is absorbed into the blood in the form of ferritin associated with the beta-1-globulin fraction of proteins at a concentration of 40-60 mg%, and then deposited in internal organs and is excreted by the small intestine.
Under physiological conditions, during the breakdown of erythrocytes in the RES, 9/10 of all iron is used for the formation of new erythrocytes and 1/10 of the part that is excreted from the body is compensated by intake from food. Thus, there is a constant circulation of iron in the body.
The biological role of iron is determined by its participation in the binding and transport of oxygen, cellular respiration. It plays an important role in energy metabolism in the Krebs cycle.
Specific and nonspecific mechanisms The body's defenses largely depend on the metabolism of this element.
Selenium is a cofactor for the enzyme glutathione peroxidase, which destroys peroxides, in particular hydrogen peroxide. It is essential for cell proliferation in tissue culture.
Selenium prevents and cures Keshan disease. The cause of the disease may be a deficiency of selenium in the soil. Symptoms range from severe arrhythmias and cardiogenic shock to asymptomatic enlargement of the heart. Degenerative changes in muscles lead to myopathy (Table 80.2). The disease is especially common among women of childbearing age and children.
In animals, selenium prevents the action of some chemical carcinogens and oncogenic viruses. In addition, it weakens the toxic effects of cadmium, mercury and other metals.
Lack of copper causes the so-called swamp disease or development disease of grains and legumes, as well as other types of plants. eliminated by applying copper-containing fertilizers. In cereals, a lack of copper causes blanching (even whitening) of young leaves, a shift in the timing of heading and throwing out panicles, and the appearance of puny or empty grains. Often many secondary shoots are formed.
The copper content in feed is determined mainly by its reserve in the soil and the species composition of the plant mass. The copper content in plants is specific to each species. Leguminous plants and forbs in general are richer in copper than cereals. Compositae and ranunculaceae are the richest in copper among forbs, cloves, buckwheat and different kinds Sorrel contains little copper and a lot of manganese.
With age, the copper content in plants decreases. Only species with growing young leaves maintain a constant copper content. During the first mowing after June 15, there is not enough copper in cereal grasses, as well as other types of plants, to meet the needs of animals. Therefore, feeding hay from these grasses for a long time in winter can cause copper deficiency in ruminants. .
There is less copper in cereal grains than in bran and extraction meal. There is especially little copper in corn and rapeseed meal; there is less copper in potatoes than in beets. Especially a lot of copper accumulates in lemon balm; dry pulp and beet tops also serve good source copper in the diet . Animal meal can contain a lot of copper depending on the method of production, but, as a rule, the amount of copper does not exceed 5 mg/kg. Animals receive more copper from green legume feeds than from cereal grasses.
Naturally, due to the high concentration of Fe in the soil, plants are easily contaminated with it. Due to insufficiently thorough cleaning of plants from soil particles, the analysis results in inflated figures for the Fe content. Fe content in plants is mainly determined by the following three factors:
– proportion of leaf mass in the plant;
– plant age;
– type of plant.
Forbs and legumes are generally richer in iron than cereal herbs of the same growing season, on average, forbs and legumes contain approximately 1.5 times more iron than cereal grasses. Fe content in certain types forbs, as well as in cereal grasses, is characterized by variability. With age, plants become depleted of iron, which is associated with a decrease in leaf mass. The type of soil also matters. Thus, red clover on soils from caper and shell limestone contained only 100 mg/kg of iron, while on soils from red bedrock it contained 260 mg/kg. The difference is quite large, but for feeding cattle it is not of particular importance, since in each case the need in Fe is satisfied in excess.
Miller and Bayere divide plants into three groups based on their ability to accumulate Se. The Se-poor group includes most of the cereal grasses of permanent forage lands. These plants, even with an abundant supply of Se, accumulate less than 5 mg/kg. The second group, capable of accumulating this element to a greater extent, includes grain crops (5 – 30 mg/kg). Plants of the third group can contain Se more than 1000 mg/kg. This perennials the legume, cruciferous and asteraceae families. Some plant species can serve as indicators for areas with excess Se available to plants. These plants emit volatile Se compounds in such quantities that they can be detected from afar by smell. This includes various types of astragalus. Other plant species are characterized by different Se contents (astragalus – 5530, swans and cereal grass – 23 mg/kg).
In Sweden, deficiency phenomena have been observed in animals in areas with acidic soils, which, although rich in selenium, are tightly bound. Obviously, the protein and Se contents in plants are also affected by temperature and amount of precipitation. In cold and precipitation-rich years, oats contained less protein and Se; cases of the disease have become more frequent white muscle disease. With a deficiency of Se, a significant part of the element is contained in plants in the form of a compound with amino acids. Therefore, bran is richer in Se than flour. The Se content in grain usually varies within very wide limits. In Sweden, 0.006–0.022 was found for barley, and 0.009–0.014 mg/kg for oats. Under comparable conditions, red clover and alfalfa always contain more Se than grain crops. On the contrary, creeping clover should be classified as a crop poor in Se since it contains less of this element than cereal grasses from the same soils, and is often the cause of selenium deficiency in animals, which known conditions may be aggravated by the influence of phytoestrogens present in it.
Table 4 – Selenium content (mg/kg) in various feeds from one region of Sweden
Content in organs and tissues. In animals normally supplied with Se, the organs richest in this element (calculated on a dry matter basis) are the kidneys. Significantly lower Se content in other parenchymal organs. Se is exceptionally low in the heart and skeletal muscle. A large number of Se in the stomach and intestines is variable and depends on the content of this element in feed.
In animals suffering from selenosis, Se-amino acids: are deposited mainly in the hair and hooves, which can become extremely enriched in Se. Normally, cattle hair contains<1 мг/кг в районах распространения селеноза отмечено увеличение до 10–30. Избыток Se вызывает выпадение волос гривы и хвоста и дегенерацию копыт у лошадей в районах распространения селенозов.
1.1.4 Vitamin requirements of animals
Although vitamins are not a source of energy, they are essential for a living organism. A lack of vitamins in food adversely affects the general condition of the body and leads to diseases of individual organs.
The first steps in understanding the nature of vitamins were made by our compatriot N.I. Lunin. Based on experiments on animals, he discovered the presence of essential substances in food, differing in their properties and biological value from proteins, fats, carbohydrates and minerals. Vitamins (from the Latin word VITA, which means life + amines) are essential substances that come from food and are necessary to maintain the most important functions of the body.
Although vitamins are not a source of energy, they are essential for a living organism. A lack of any vitamin in food adversely affects the general condition of the body and leads to diseases of individual organs. A long-term lack of vitamins in food leads to characteristic diseases called vitamin deficiencies.
The biological role of vitamins is quite well known. Dr. B. Lefavi, discussing the role of vitamins, compares them with a solution necessary for gluing together the “building blocks” of proteins. An increased need for vitamins occurs with increased physical or mental work, under the influence of certain physical factors: overheating and hypothermia of the body, during pregnancy, with a number of diseases, with impaired absorption of vitamins in the intestines, etc. – all this contributes to the development of hypovitaminosis conditions. Most hypovitaminosis is characterized by common symptoms: fatigue increases, performance decreases, and the body's resistance to infections and colds decreases.
Scientists distinguish two groups of vitamins, which are named after their chemical properties. The group of fat-soluble vitamins is designated by the letters “A, D, E, K”, and water-soluble vitamins include the B vitamins.
1.1.5 Use of protein-vitamin-mineral supplements and premixes in animal diets
High economic requirements for the profitability of production in market conditions force livestock and poultry farmers to use more advanced technologies that ensure the maximum level of productivity of animals and poultry, the efficient use of feed and reducing feed costs for production. One of the conditions for obtaining cheap, high-quality products is the use of animal feeding diets that are balanced in a wide range of nutrients, minerals and biologically active substances. A significant role in this is given to premixes, mineral and vitamin mixtures. According to foreign and domestic practice, the use of premixes in feeding farm animals and poultry has always been profitable, that is, investing money in the purchase of premixes, mineral and vitamin mixtures for feeding animals has always yielded a profit. In this regard, in animal feeding practice, the volume of various feed additives and especially premixes, mineral and vitamin mixtures is significantly expanding every year. Vitamins and minerals perform a wide variety of functions, participating in biosynthesis and vital functions. Highly productive animals are more likely to experience a deficiency of calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, sulfur, iron, copper, zinc, manganese, cobalt, iodine, selenium, as well as vitamins A, D, E, K, B1, B2, B3, B 4, B 5, B 6, B 12, Sun, N. At the same time, significant harm is caused to the body by an excessive intake of certain mineral elements - mercury, lead, cadmium, fluorine, arsenic, chromium, etc.
A lack or excess of mineral elements and vitamins in feed causes significant damage to livestock production, reduces immune responses, fertility, efficient use of nutrients, productivity, causes disease and mortality, and deteriorates the quality of milk, meat, eggs, wool, fur-bearing animal skins, and leather raw materials.
There is a particularly high need for vitamins and minerals in young animals, sucklers and highly productive animals kept indoors under conditions of intensive industrial technology.
Mineral elements are not formed in the body, and, therefore, animals must receive them through feed and feed additives. The mineral composition of feed is subject to significant fluctuations and changes depending on the type of plant, soil type, stage of vegetation, agricultural technology, weather conditions, method of procurement and storage of feed, technology for preparing it for feeding, and the ecological situation of the regions. In addition, some feeds contain minerals in a form that is difficult for animals to digest or contain antagonists. In recent years, the use of fertilizers has sharply decreased, which has reduced the content of a number of nutrients in plants and, in particular, the content of mineral elements in prepared feed. Therefore, the problem of mineral nutrition of animals must be solved comprehensively, both through the preparation of complete feed and the introduction of synthetic amino acids, vitamins and mineral additives into mixed feed and diets.
It is known that the efficiency of using concentrated feed in animal husbandry is significantly increased by mineral and vitamin supplements. Their cost is 5–7% of the total cost of rations. The use of premixes in animal feeding increases meat, dairy, egg, and wool productivity by an average of 10–25%. At the same time, feed consumption per unit of production is reduced by 8–15%, morbidity and mortality of animals by 20–40%.
For example, an increase in growth intensity by 15% gives an additional 30–40 kg of meat when fattening bulls and 10–15 kg when fattening pigs. With the help of premix additives, you can additionally obtain 200–400 kg of milk from a cow per lactation and 20–30 eggs per year from one chicken. On a diet without a premix, 8–9 feed units are consumed per 1 kg of live weight gain of bull calves, and on a diet with the addition of a premix, 6–7 feed units are consumed. Adding a premix to cows' feed allows reducing feed costs for the production of 1 kg of milk from 0.9–1.0 to 0.7–0.8 feed units.
1.2 Monitoring the completeness of feeding of farm animals
The diet is prepared for a certain period of time (day, decade, etc.) for each mature group of animals. They are systematically reviewed and adjusted depending on the availability of feed. If the diet meets the animal’s needs in terms of basic nutritional indicators, then it is called balanced. The percentage ration must be balanced according to all standardized indicators and ensure, when fully fed, the planned level of productivity. When preparing a complete diet, you should select food and various mineral and vitamin supplements. To do this, along with the feeding standards and nutritional value of the feed, you need to know the characteristics of each feed, i.e. its palatability, taste, the presence of organic acids, the effect of feed on health, productivity and product quality. When preparing a diet, much attention is paid to taking into account its cost.
When feeding animals, the structure of the diet is important, i.e. the ratio of individual types or groups of feed (roughage, succulent and concentrated), expressed as a percentage of the total nutritional value. Maintaining an optimal diet structure is very important for the normal digestion process and the required ratio of nutrients in the diet.
In table Figure 1 shows the structure of the diet developed by the All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Animal Husbandry (VIZH) and recommended for dairy cows.
The systematic combination of feed in the diet creates a certain type of feeding, which is understood as the ratio (as a percentage of the total nutritional value) of the main groups or types of feed consumed by the animal per year or any season.
2. Special part
2.1 Determination of feed, preparation of rations and feeding schemes. Analysis of feeding of different sex and age groups of animals
It is proposed to take 1 kg of dry matter of the diet as a unit of rationing with an optimal ratio of nutrients in it: energy, protein, fiber, etc. The issues of amino acid rationing and ideal protein (protein) are considered.
1. The factorial method of rationing the needs of animals for energy, protein (protein), and other nutritional elements is based on knowledge of the needs for certain physiological functions. It must be used in the development of feeding standards and restored in student training programs for the course of feeding farm animals.
2. The basis for rationing nutrients - energy, protein, fiber, amino acids, starch, sugar, macro- and microelements, vitamins - for all types of farm animals, it is necessary to take 1 kg of dry matter (for birds, pigs - 1 kg of feed with natural moisture 10 -13%). Appetite, productivity and efficiency of feed conversion into livestock products depend on the concentration and ratio of the above nutritional elements.
3. Animals need protein not on its own, but as a source of amino acids. The rational use of protein feeds should be based on balancing diets for essential amino acids, taking into account their availability in feeds and the optimal ratio in the total protein of the diet. The use of synthetic amino acids in combination with monograin diets makes it possible to reduce protein costs when feeding pigs by 25–30% without compromising productivity, and to carry out rationing at the level of ideal protein.
4. It is proposed to take 1 kg of wheat instead of 1 kg of oats as a single feed unit for statistical and economic calculations of production and costs of feed for livestock products.
Table - Norms for the concentration of lysine, methionine and tryptophan in dry matter and in g/100 g of crude protein for cows with different productivity according to VIZH
| Indicators | Milk yield, kg/day. | ||
| 8 | 20 | 36 | |
| g/kg dry matter | |||
| Crude protein | 104 | 134 | 174 |
| Lysine | 7,0 | 7,0 | 7,0 |
| Methionine | 3,5 | 3,5 | 3,5 |
| Tryptophan | 2,5 | 2,5 | 2,5 |
| g/100 g crude protein | |||
| Lysine | 6,7 | 5,2 | 4,0 |
| Methionine | 3,4 | 2,6 | 2,0 |
| Tryptophan | 2,42 | 1,85 | 1,44 |
Modern factorial rationing system used in world practice
2.2 The ratio of nutrients in complete diets
The nutritional value of feed depends on the chemical composition of feed and the degree of digestibility in the digestive tract of animals. Feeds are assessed by the presence in their composition of dry matter, crude protein, crude fat, carbohydrates - crude fiber and nitrogen-free extractives (NEF) - nutrients, as well as the amount of minerals (crude ash) - macroelements (calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium , chlorine, magnesium, sulfur) and microelements (cobalt, iodine, manganese, zinc, iron, selenium, copper, boron), the vitamin nutritional value of the feed is also assessed.
Quantitative determination of all feed components is carried out using special methods in accordance with current GOSTs.
Dry matter
One of the most important standardized indicators of animal diets is dry matter. The main component of the dry matter of pasture grasses is carbohydrates, the same applies to the seeds of cereal crops. Oilseeds contain a lot of fat and protein in their dry matter. In large animals, the level of dry matter is normalized per 100 kg of live weight. The highest dry matter consumption is observed in highly productive dairy cows - up to 4.2 kg per 100 kg of live weight. Great importance is attached to the concentration of metabolic energy in 1 kg of dry matter (DME), especially for highly productive animals and poultry. With equal productivity, smaller animals require a higher level of energy per 1 kg of dry matter of the diet. Dry matter consumption and CEC norms for cows of different productivity levels are given in table. 1.
Table 1 Approximate consumption of dry matter by animals of different productivity (according to A.P. Kalashnikov, V.I. Fisinin, N.I. Kleimenov et al., 2003)
| Group of animals | Dry matter consumption, kg | |
| per head per day | per 100 kg live weight | |
| 1 | 2 | 3 |
| Dairy cows (live weight 500 kg) with daily milk yield, kg: | ||
| 10 | 13 – 14 | 2,6 – 2,8 |
| 20 | 16 – 17 | 3,2 – 3,4 |
| 3 | 18 – 21 | 3,6 – 4,2 |
| Young cattle for fattening (live weight 300 kg), with daily gain, g: | ||
| 800 | 7,5 | 2,5 |
| 1000 | 8,0 | 2,6 |
| 1 | 2 | 3 |
| 1200 | 8,5 | 2,8 |
| Lactating sows up to 2 years old, live weight 181 – 200 kg: | ||
| 8 piglets | 4,77 | 2,38 |
| 10 piglets | 5,38 | 2,69 |
Crude protein. In the composition of feed, the entire amount of nitrogen-containing substances is called crude protein, determined by the Kjeldahl method. The composition of crude protein includes both proteins - proteins with a fixed arrangement of amino acids, as well as amino acids in a free state and amides - nitrogenous compounds of a non-protein nature. All proteins have high molecular weight and have colloidal properties; proteins have different solubility in water from practically insoluble keratin to highly soluble albumin. Amides - asparagine and glutamine, as free amides, play an important role in transamination reactions. Some plants contain alkaloids that have toxic properties; the most important of them are: ricinin - in castor bean seeds and solanine - in potato sprouts and green tubers. There are especially many free amino acids in the green mass of plants in the early stages of the growing season. In zootechnical analysis of feed, free amino acids are classified as amides. The group of amides also includes organic bases, nitrates and ammonium salts. There are many amides in silage, root tubers, and green fodder. In terms of amino acid composition, a protein can be complete, that is, it can contain essential amino acids in the required amount (arginine, valine, histidine, lysine, methionine, tryptophan, leucine, isoleucine, threonine, phenylalanine - they cannot be synthesized in the body and must be obtained with food), or defective, that is, not containing these amino acids or having insufficient quantities, for example, corn grain, in which the crude protein is represented by a protein poor in amino acid composition - zein. The remaining amino acids (and there are about 100 of them) can be synthesized in the body from nitrogenous compounds supplied with food. In animal diets, the content of crude and digestible protein is standardized, and for cattle - additionally - rumen-digestible protein (RP) and rumen-undigestible protein (RRP) in grams per head per day. On average, the optimal ratio of RP and NRP is considered to be 60–70:30–40. For poultry, the level of crude protein and 13 amino acids is normalized. In the diets of fur-bearing animals, pigs, and sheep, the presence of raw and digestible protein and amino acids is normalized: lysine, threonine, methionine + cystine.
In ruminants, the absorption of nitrogenous substances in the diet proceeds in two directions - the breakdown of proteins in the small intestine to free amino acids and their absorption into the blood; as well as the breakdown of proteins to ammonia by rumen microflora (bacteria and ciliates) due to their production of proteolytic enzymes, followed by partial fixation of ammonia by the body. Also using minerals and carbohydrates from the food of the host animal, microorganisms synthesize the proteins of their body, and, after dying, enter the underlying sections of the digestive tract in the form of the so-called microbial protein - very valuable in amino acid composition. In general, up to 40% of protein is broken down into amino acids, peptides and ammonia in the rumen. The vital activity of microorganisms is most effective when there is a sufficient amount of carbohydrates in the diet and the ratio of amides and proteins is 1:2. Ammonia that is not absorbed by the rumen microflora enters the blood, is transferred to the liver, where, turning into urea, it is excreted in the urine, and partially in saliva (as part of urea). In general, this is called the rumen-hepatic circulation of ammonia. Excess ammonia causes poisoning in animals. In practice, this is taken into account when using synthetic nitrogen-containing substances (NAS) - urea, biuret, ammonium salts - in ruminant diets.
Carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are the most important component of the dry matter of the diet; They cover most of the energy needs of ruminants, horses and pigs. Simple carbohydrates (pentoses and hexoses) are the most mobile and easily mobilized during movement (grazing animals) and work (horses, mules, donkeys, reindeer).
All carbohydrates are divided into 2 groups: crude fiber (determined by the Geneberg and Stoman method or any other) and nitrogen-free extractive substances (NFE) - the amount is determined by the calculation method.
Crude fiber consists of cellulose, part of hemicelluloses and encrusting substances (lignin, cutin, suberin). Cellulose is a glucosan and forms the walls of plant cells. A low level of fiber is observed only in algae, since air bubbles perform a supporting function in them. Cellulose can be hydrolyzed to cellulose glucose by lytic enzymes (cellulases). Microbial fermentation of cellulose occurs in the digestive tract of ruminants with the formation of end products - acetic, propionic and butyric acids and gases - methane and carbon dioxide.
Lignin is not a carbohydrate, but is considered with this group of compounds because it is a structural component of cell walls. As the growing season progresses, the cell walls become lignified, that is, hemicellulose and cellulose combine with lignin. Lignin is very resistant to strong acids and microorganisms; it is generally accepted that it is not digestible by animals.
Nitrogen-free extractives are sugars, starch, glycogen, inulin, organic acids, glucosides, pectin and other substances.
Sugars are a large group of organic compounds that are divided into monosaccharides - pentoses (arabinose, xylose, ribose) and hexoses (glucose, galactose, mannose and fructose); disaccharides (sucrose, lactose, maltose); trisaccharides (raffinose) and tetrasaccharides (stachyose). Fructose is found in leaves, fruits; galactose is a component of anthocyanin pigments, resins, mucus, and is an integral part of lactose. Sucrose is present in root vegetables and many fruits. Lactose is a component of milk; cow's milk contains an average of 4.6 - 4.8%.
Polysaccharides are significantly different from sugars. These are mainly reserve nutrients (starch) or building materials (cellulose). Polysaccharides do not have a sweet taste. The starch content in seeds can reach 70%; in fruits and root crops - up to 30%. The richest in starch are the seeds (kernels) of cereal crops - corn, rice, barley, and of tuber crops - potatoes. Glycogen (animal sugar) - found in the body of animals - in the liver, muscles, plays a significant role in energy metabolism. Dextrins are an intermediate product of the hydrolysis of starch and glycogen. Formed during roasting of grain, extrusion. Fructosans - reserve substances - are found in roots, stems, leaves, seeds; in the dry matter of ryegrass the level of fructosans is 2 – 18%. Of these, inulin is of greatest importance (as part of the tuber crops of the earthen pear). Mucus – found in some fruits and seeds; the most famous example is mucilage from flax seeds, which upon hydrolysis produces arabinose, galactose, and rhamnose. Pectic substances are divided into 4 types: protopectin, pectin, pectic and pectic acids. Pectin is formed from protopectin under the influence of protopectinase; Pectic and pectic acid are formed under the action of pectase. Pectin substances are found in a number of fruits and fruit pomace, especially some varieties of apples; sugar beet and beet pulp; An industrial method for producing food pectin from beet pulp and apple pomace has been developed and is being used in the Russian Federation.
Raw fat. The crude fat group includes the sum of all substances soluble in an organic solvent (determined by the gravimetric method in a Soxhlet apparatus). These include: waxes, simple fats (esters of fatty acids with alcohols) and complex fats - phospholipids and glycolipids (may contain choline and phosphoric acid). In 1929, the role of linoleic, linolenic and arachidonic acids in the body’s metabolism was proven, and since then these acids have been considered essential. Rich sources of linoleic acid are oilseeds and full-fat flour (mainly soybean) prepared from them, cakes; Flax seeds are a source of linolenic acid. Waxes are simple lipids consisting of fatty acids combined with a high molecular weight monohydric alcohol. In plants they perform a protective function - they reduce the transpiration of water through leaf blades; Unlike fats, waxes have no nutritional value and are difficult to hydrolyze. At a high level of waxes, the level of crude fat in feed samples is overestimated during zootechnical analysis, that is, the true picture of the crude fat content is distorted.
Phospholipids - widely distributed in all tissues of the body, especially in the kidneys, brain and heart. Among plants, soybeans contain relatively high levels of phospholipids. There are three types of phospholipids: lecithins, cephalins and sphingomyelins. In some cases, animal diets are enriched with vegetable oil (most often concentrates); they use fats of animal origin (pork, beef, horse) - mesenteric fat, subcutaneous fat, a mixture of animal fats of different types, vegetable oils; greak and grax - in feeding poultry and fur-bearing animals.
Raw ash is the residue obtained after burning a portion of feed in a muffle furnace. Consists of a mixture of macro- and microelements. Minerals are a necessary component of the diet of animals and poultry; with insufficient intake or absorption of any mineral, symptoms of specific mineral deficiency develop, and a decrease in productivity and reproductive capacity occurs. The mineral composition of feed depends on the area where the feed crop grows: the country has a number of biogeochemical provinces for a number of macro- and microelements. In particular, several biogeochemical provinces are identified in the Amur region, where the level of macro- and microelements in the soil and plant feed of own production ranges from 20 to 80% compared to the Russian average (M. Shevchenko, 2006). This has to be taken into account when conducting livestock farming in these regions - feeding feed balancing additives. Calcium is the leader in absolute quantity in the animal's body; about 99% of calcium is found in skeletal tissue and teeth. Laying hens (chickens, ducks, quails, some breeds of geese) have especially high calcium needs. Good sources of calcium are fish and meat - bone meal, bone ash (36% calcium and 17% phosphorus), milk, green mass of legumes. Mineral supplements rich in calcium include limestone, chalk, shell, bone meal, and dicalcium phosphate.
Phosphorus is closely related to calcium metabolism; In addition to bone tissue, it is contained in nucleic acids, phosphoproteins, and phospholipids. Milk, cereal grains, fishmeal and meat products contain quite a lot of phosphorus. For the absorption of phosphorus, it matters in what form the phosphorus is presented: in the composition of phytates (salts of phytic acid), phosphorus is absorbed approximately two times worse than from dicalcium phosphate; Ruminants use phosphorus from phytates better, which is due to the presence of bacterial phytase in the rumen, which breaks down phosphorus salts into inorganic phosphorus. Phosphorus cannot be used for the body's needs from reserves in bone tissue, since its reserves in bones are much lower than calcium; The supply of phosphorus to animals depends entirely on feed. Cereal grains contain much higher phosphorus content than calcium.
Potassium plays an important role in carbohydrate metabolism and in the processes of excitation of nervous and muscle tissue. It is present in large quantities in molasses, and in fairly large quantities in table beets.
Sodium - participates together with potassium in the regulation of acid-base balance and osmotic pressure in body fluids. Consumed and excreted from the body in the form of sodium chloride.
Magnesium – About 70% of magnesium is found in the skeleton, the rest is in soft tissues and fluids. It is an activator of phosphates and participates in carbohydrate metabolism. With a deficiency of magnesium in the blood (up to 0.5 mg%), hypomagnesemia (magnesium tetany) is observed - in the Netherlands it occurs in 1-2% of dairy cows. Under the conditions of the Russian Federation, pasture tetany is possible in the first days after animals are turned out to pasture, when pasture grass contains little magnesium. A number of commercial magnesium supplements are available; Most often, magnesium oxide is used - burnt magnesia. Good sources of magnesium are cotton and flaxseed cakes, wheat bran, yeast, and clover greens.
The group of microelements includes iron, the deficiency of which leads to the development of nutritional iron deficiency anemia; Suckling piglets are especially sensitive to iron deficiency. About 90% of iron in the body is bound to proteins, in particular hemoglobin (contains 0.34% iron), siderphilin, ferritin (contains 20% iron and is present in the spleen, kidneys, liver, bone marrow), hemosiderin. Iron is part of many enzymes.
Iron is present in such feeds as green mass, legumes, bran, feeds of animal origin: blood, liver. Dairy feeds have low iron content. The digestibility of iron largely depends on its form in the feed.
Copper. An important microelement, the rationing of which is provided for by modern standards. This microelement is necessary for the normal course of hematopoiesis; necessary for normal coat pigmentation. The main depot of copper is the liver. Copper deficiency is not a rare phenomenon in the practice of feeding farm animals; its deficiency causes the development of a disease called “enzootic ataxia”. Vegetable feeds usually contain copper in sufficient quantities, depending on the level of copper in the soil. Copper sulfate is usually used as a top dressing. With excess copper in diets, chronic toxicosis develops, since copper, along with the high physiological value of its normal content, is a cumulative cytoplasmic poison when it is in excess.
Cobalt. Part of vitamin B 12, it is necessary for the normal functioning of rumen microflora. In plant feeds, cobalt is present in extremely low concentrations (0.1 – 0.25 mg per 1 kg of dry matter); either cobalt sulfate or cobalt chloride, or vitamin B 12 are used as a top dressing.
Iodine. Part of the hormone thyroxine; and is also present in the thyroid gland in diiodotyrosine and thyroglobulin, which is the main depot of thyroxine. With iodine deficiency, there is a dysfunction of reproduction - newborn young animals are often hairless, weak or stillborn. In addition to iodine deficiency in the diet, animals may experience its deficiency when fed feed containing so-called goitrogenic compounds - goitrin, thiocyanate. The mechanism of their action is not fully understood, but their presence in feed interferes with the availability of iodine by the animal body. Goitrogenic compounds are contained in plants of this family. Cruciferous vegetables - cabbage, rapeseed, as well as peas, peanuts, flax. The best sources of iodine in diets are seafood - algae, fish meal, waste from the processing of cephalopods and crustaceans. Enrichment of diets with iodine is carried out in the form of feeding iodized salt, potassium iodide, sodium iodate.
Manganese. The trace element is contained in the body of animals in extremely small quantities; In ruminants, there is practically no deficiency of this microelement. In poultry, there have been cases of deficiency of this microelement; in particular, in chickens, manganese deficiency causes the development of perosis or “slipping tendons”, and in parent flock birds, hatchability decreases and shell thickness decreases. Most feeds have sufficient levels of manganese, with the exception of corn, yeast and animal feeds.
Zinc. In the body of animals, it accumulates in bone tissue, a fairly high level is noted in the skin, hair, wool, some enzymes - carbonic anhydrase, pancreatic carboxypeptidase, glutamic acid dehydrogenase; zinc is involved in the processes of calcification and keratinization. In ruminants, zinc deficiency is usually not recorded, but in chickens, zinc deficiency causes growth retardation and skin lesions. Piglets are most sensitive to zinc deficiency - they develop parakeratosis (slow growth, rash and scab formation on the skin of the belly); which is complicated by increased levels of calcium and decreased levels of phosphorus. Plant foods contain quite a lot of zinc, especially in bran and yeast. Zinc is included in complex mineral supplements in the form of carbonates or sulfates.
Molybdenum. Currently, molybdenum is classified as an essential trace element, since its presence in the enzymes nitrate reductase and bacterial hydrogenase has been determined; xanthine oxidase, which plays a major role in purine metabolism. There are no data on molybdenum deficiency in feeding practices in the literature. A stimulating effect of molybdenum supplements on the growth of lambs, chickens and turkey poults has been noted.
Selenium. A deficiency of selenium in feed causes a specific pathology, the so-called “white muscle disease” of young animals (calves, lambs, piglets), and an excess – a toxicosis called “alkali disease”, “blind whirligig”. Toxicosis is caused by eating certain types of vegetation, since plants have a selective species-specific ability to accumulate selenium. In such plants, selenium replaces sulfur in methionine and cystine in body proteins. Selenium deficiency in diets can be prevented by feeding sodium selenite or vitamin E. Currently, organoselenium compounds have been developed - sellplex, selecor (Voronezh) and a number of others, which are much more convenient to use, since inorganic selenium compounds are very toxic and the slightest overdose extremely dangerous.
In addition to the absolute amounts of minerals in diets, it is important to control the ratio of acidic (phosphorus, sulfur, chlorine) and alkaline (calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium) elements - acid-base balance - the ratio of the sum of acidic and alkaline gram elements. The optimal acid-base balance in animal diets is 0.8 – 0.9. Feeds containing alkaline ash include roughage, root tubers, haylage, green mass; feed with an acidic ash reaction - all grain feeds and their processed products. To calculate the acid-base balance, the content of mineral elements in the diet is multiplied by the corresponding gram equivalent (phosphorus - 80, sulfur - 62, chlorine - 28, calcium - 50, magnesium - 82, potassium - 26, sodium - 44).
2.3 Animal feeding techniques. Advanced methods of preparing feed for feeding
feeding animal diet gender and age
Feed is prepared in order to increase its palatability, digestibility and utilization of nutrients, improve technological properties, and disinfection. The main methods of preparing feed for feeding are divided into mechanical, physical, chemical and biological.
Mechanical methods(grinding, crushing, flattening, mixing) are used mainly to increase the palatability of feed and improve their technological properties.
Physical methods(hydrobarometric) are used to increase the palatability of feed and partially its nutritional value.
Chemical methods(alkaline, acid treatment) make it possible to increase the availability of indigestible nutrients to the body by breaking them down into simpler compounds.
To the number biological methods feed preparation includes: yeasting, ensiling, fermentation, enzymatic processing, etc. The purpose of these methods is to improve the taste of feed, increase their complete protein (as a result of microbial synthesis), and enzymatic breakdown of indigestible carbohydrates into simpler compounds accessible to the body.
In practice, these methods are used in various combinations with each other.
The use of one or another preparation method is determined by the type of feed, its purpose, and practical feasibility in each specific farm.
Organization of animal feeding
Feeding cows in the first days after calving depends on their condition and the nature of feeding before calving. If calving went well and the new-calving cow feels well, then there is no need to make restrictions on feeding, especially if the feed supply was not reduced before calving. Hay, haylage and high-quality silage can be fed ad libitum at this time. However, the full norm of concentrates and root vegetables should be given no earlier than a week after calving. Limiting the feeding of these foods is a preventive measure against excessive strain on the mammary gland and its possible inflammation.
Very abundant feeding of cows before and after calving, especially giving a large amount of concentrated feed, can cause loss of appetite, indigestion, hardening of the udder, mastitis, and in some cases maternity paresis. This applies most of all to highly productive, well-nourished cows, which should be fed sparingly after calving. When organizing feeding of fresh cows, special attention should be paid to the quality of feed.
In the first days after calving, the udder needs careful care. At this time it is elastic and hard. Careful milking is a necessary measure to quickly bring the udder to normal condition. Swelling of the udder, which most often occurs in first-calf heifers and highly productive cows, with proper feeding and maintenance of animals usually decreases after 4–5 days, and completely disappears after 7–10 days.
Improper feeding of fresh cows sometimes causes a serious illness - acetonemia, or ketosis. An increased amount of acetone bodies appears in the blood and urine, and the glucose level in the blood decreases. Ketosis is accompanied by loss of live weight, loss of appetite, rapid decrease in milk yield and nervous disorders. One of the reasons for the occurrence of ketosis may be protein overfeeding and a lack of energy and easily digestible carbohydrates in the diet.
Cows must be milked from the first days after calving. By the end of the preventive period, the cow should have a normal udder and sufficiently high productivity.
Milk yield means a set of measures aimed at increasing the milk productivity of cows throughout lactation. These include: organization of standardized, adequate feeding, use of proper milking with udder massage, good maintenance of animals, etc.
Direct milking occurs in the first 100 days of lactation. This period accounts for 40–50% of milk production during lactation. At this time, they strive to obtain the maximum daily milk yield from the cows and strive to maintain it for as long as possible.
During milking, in addition to the required amount of feed for actual milk yield, cows are given an advance payment of 2–3 feeds to increase milk yield. units in a day. An advance for milking is given as long as the cows respond to it with an increase in milk yield. After this, rations are gradually brought into line with actual milk yield.
When feeding highly productive cows, advance payment does not matter, since after calving they usually produce much more milk than they eat feed. The challenge is to ensure maximum palatability of high-quality feed in balanced diets without causing digestive upset.
Increasing the consumption of nutrients by cows during milking can be achieved by improving the quality of feed, using various methods of preparing them for feeding, and increasing the concentration of energy per 1 kg of dry matter of the diet. The energy concentration increases with an increase in milk yield, while the fiber content in the diet is reduced.
On industrial farms, as a rule, double feeding and milking are used. This is due to the need to reduce labor costs for milk production, although with this mode the production is somewhat less than with a three-fold mode. With double feeding, the digestibility of nutrients in diets is 2–3% lower compared to three times. Feed costs per unit of production are higher by the same amount.
On large farms, a flow-shop milk production system is organized. There is a dry cow section and a calving section. The rest of the cows, depending on the level of productivity and physiological state, are divided into groups, which are kept in separate sections.
The main feeds of the diet - chopped hay or cuttings, haylage and silage, as well as some root crops and concentrates - are fed as part of the general feed mixture. Highly productive cows are additionally given root crops or a special feed mixture is prepared for them.
Concentrates not included in the feed mixture are fed individually, taking into account the productivity of the cows. When milking cows in the milking area, concentrates are fed during milking. Feeding cows with concentrates during milking does not have a negative effect on either milk yield or milk yield.
The time cows spend in the milking parlor is limited, therefore, so that highly productive animals can consume more concentrates, it is advisable to feed them in granular form. It has been established that the rate of consumption of granulated feed is one and a half times higher than that of loose feed. Feeding concentrates in a moist form deserves attention.
The nutritional value of dairy cattle increases sharply when feeding concentrates in the form of compound feed, and rations are balanced according to detailed standards by introducing premixes.
Conclusion
Organization of adequate feeding of animals is possible provided that the diets contain all nutritional elements, including minerals, in optimal quantities and proportions.
Minerals play an important and diverse role in the body of animals. They influence energy, nitrogen, carbohydrate and lipid metabolism; are a structural material in the formation of tissues and organs.
The need of animals for microelements is determined not only by the organic and mineral composition of the fed feed, but by such factors as growth intensity, level of productivity, physiological state (pregnancy, lactation).
A deficiency or excess of individual mineral elements, a violation of their optimal ratio in diets, leads to disruption of metabolic processes, a decrease in the digestibility and use of nutrients, the efficiency of feed use and animal productivity, and in case of prolonged and acute deficiency and excess - even to specific diseases.
In winter, there is an excess of fiber in cattle diets. To prevent this, it is recommended to prepare feed in the early stages of the plant growing season. It is also recommended to prepare feed for feeding to animals. In particular, when roughage is treated with alkalis (liming, ammonia treatment), the walls of the cell membranes are destroyed, which makes the cell contents more accessible to digestive enzymes and microorganisms and reduces the amount of fiber turning it into carbohydrates. To reduce dry matter, it is recommended to feed feed in granular form.
Excess calcium in the diet is also undesirable. In ruminants, this leads to inhibition of the rumen microflora. In monogastric animals, fat digestibility decreases and feed intake decreases. In this case, the exchange of magnesium, phosphorus, iron, manganese, copper and iodine is disrupted. However, such changes occur only with a long-term excess of calcium, which is not observed in our diets.
As a result of an excess of phosphorus in the diet, consequences similar to those of a decrease in calcium content are possible: caries, osteoporosis, osteomalacia, but in this case the calcium-phosphorus ratio is strictly observed, which eliminates the possibility of negative consequences.
Long-term excess of magnesium depresses the nervous system and respiration, and has a negative effect on the functioning of the neuromuscular system and heart. To prevent negative consequences, it is recommended to prepare the feed for feeding during the stall period, and during the grazing period - to provide the animals with sufficient quantities of drinking water, because Most of the magnesium is not absorbed, but is washed away with water.
Vitamin E leads to changes in the hormonal background of the body, which is expressed in increased reflexes of the peripheral nervous system; those physiological processes that consume energy generated during metabolic processes are disrupted. Vitamin E is also destroyed when heated, therefore the feed must be subjected to heat treatment, but this must be done carefully to avoid complete destruction of the vitamin.
Hypercarotinemia is an excess of carotene in the body. Typically, hypercarotenemia is not considered a dangerous condition, because unlike excess vitamin A, carotene is slightly toxic, although it leads to yellowing of the skin (carotioderma). But to eliminate such phenomena, it is recommended to heat treat the feed, since this destroys part of the carotene, however, as in the case of vitamin E, it is necessary to prevent its complete destruction.
Bibliography
1. Legeza V.N. Animal husbandry: textbook. For beginners Prof. Education. – M.: IRPO; ProfObrIzdat, 2001. – 384 p.
2. Animal husbandry / Ed. E.A. Aarzumanyan. – 3rd ed., revised. and additional – M.: Agropromizdat, 1985.
3. Fundamentals of animal husbandry / Ed. A.P. Soldatova. -3rd ed., revised. and additional – M.: Agropromizdat, 1988.
4. Technology of production of livestock products / Ed. IN AND. Shlyakhtunova. – Mn.: Urajai, 2000.
5. Aliev A., Andreeva N. Directory of veterinary paramedic. – St. Petersburg: Lan, 2007.
6. Begner H., Ketz A. Scientific principles of nutrition for agricultural animals. – M.: Kolos, 1973.
7. Bogdanov G.A. Feeding farm animals. – M.: Kolos, 1981.
8. Vilner A. Feed poisoning. – M.: Kolos, 1984.
9. Georgievsky V.I., Annenkov B.N. – Mineral nutrition of animals. – M.: Kolos, 1979.
10. Crampton E.W. Practice of feeding farm animals. – M.: Kolos, 1972.
11. Nering K. Feeding farm animals and feed products. – M.: 1989.
12. Popov I.S. Feeding farm animals. – M.: Selkhozizdat, 1990.
13. Henning A. Minerals, vitamins, biostimulants in feeding farm animals. – M.: Kolos, 1976.
14. Ernst L.K., Beguchev A.P., Cattle breeding. – M.: Kolos, 1984.
15. Fisinin V.I., Egorov I.A., Okolelova T.M., Imangulov Sh.A. Feeding poultry. Sergiev Posad, 2001
16. Shcheglov V.V., Boyarsky L.G. Feed: preparation, storage, use. Directory. M.: Agropromizdat, 1990.
Ministry of Agriculture of the Russian Federation Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences All-Russian State Research Institute of Animal Husbandry
STANDARDS AND RATIONS FOR FEEDING FARM ANIMALS
REFERENCE MANUAL
3rd edition revised and expanded
Edited by
A.P. Kalashnikova, I.V. Fisinina,
V.V. Shcheglova, N.I. Kleimenova
Moscow – 2003
BBK 42.2 N83
Authors:
Kalashnikov A.P., Fisinin V.I., Shcheglov V.V., First N.G., Kleimenov N.I., Strekozov N.I., Kalyshtsky B.D., Egorov I.A., Makhaev E. .A., Dvalishvili V.G., Kalashnikov V.V., Vladimirov V.L., Gruzdev N.V., Mysik A.T., Balakirev N.A., Fitsev A.I., Kirilov M.P. , Krokhina V. A., Naumepko P. A., Vorobyova S., Trukhachev V.I. Zlydnev N.E., Sviridova T.M., Levakhin V.I., Galiev B.Kh., Arilov A.N., Bugdaev I.E.
Compiled by:
Kalashnikov A.P., Shcheglov V.V., First N.G.
In preparing the directory, research materials from the following institutes and researchers were used:
VIZH (Vinogradov V.N., Venediktov A.M., Markin Yu.V., Duborezov V.M., Smekalov N.A., Duksin Yu.P., Puzanova V.V., Simonov G., A., Sidenko I .I., Egorova O.G.), VNIIFBiP of agricultural animals (Aliev A.A., Nadalyak V.A., Medvedev I.K., Reshetov V.B., Soloviev A.M. Agafonov V.I. ), VNITIPP, VNIIGRZH (Prokhorenko P.N., Volgin V.I.), VNIIhorsebreeding (Kopirov A.N., Popov V.G., Memedeikii V.V.), VNIIMS (Gerasimov B.L.), VNIIKormov (Vorobiev E.S., Popov V.V.), All-Russian Research Institute of Fur Farming and Rabbit Breeding (Pomytko V.N., Aleksandrov V.N., Kalugin Yu.F.), SibNIPTIZH (Guglya V.G., Zagitov H. .V., .Soloshenko V.A.), MSHA (Bakanov V.N., Menkin V.K. Ovsishcher B.R.), Kuban Agrarian University (Viktorov P.I., Ryadchikov V.G.), Volgograd with -x Academy (Kulikov V.M.), Stavropol State Agrarian University (Ismailov I.S.), YarNIIZhK (Lazarev Yu.P., Tanifa V.V.), Kalmyk State University (Arylov Yu.N., Bolaev B.K. ), Mordovian State University (Lapshin S.A., Kokorev V.A.), SKNIIZH (Chikov A.E.), TsINAO (Shumilin I.S., Marnov D.I.). St. Petersburg State Agrarian University (Zinchenko L.I.).
N 83 Norms and rations for feeding farm animals. Reference manual. 3rd edition revised and expanded. / Ed. A. P. Kalashnikova, V. I. Fisinina, V. V. Shcheglova, N. I. Kleimenova. - Moscow. 2003. - 456 p.
By the decision of the Presidium of the Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, the book was recognized as the best scientific development of 2002.
The first (M. "Agropromizdat", 1985) and second (M. Publishing House "Znanie", 1994-95) editions of the reference book "Norms and rations for feeding farm animals" passed fifteen years of testing in the conditions of collective farms, state farms, large industrial livestock complexes , scientific and educational institutions, governing bodies of the agro-industrial complex. Over the past period, new scientific data on animal feeding have been obtained, and the approach to rationing nutrition and assessing the quality of feed has changed in many ways. Along with the positive aspects, certain shortcomings of the reference book were identified, and proposals were received from practitioners and scientists for its improvement.
This edition (3rd edition) of the reference book sets out the basic provisions for feeding farm animals based on detailed standards established in scientific and economic experiments. New food rationing indicators have been introduced. Nutritional standards for individual nutrients, macro-microelements, vitamins, including a number of nutritional elements that were not previously taken into account, have been clarified. The energy nutritional value of feeds and diets, as well as the energy needs of animals, are expressed in energy feed units (EFU). Approximate diets for animals of different productivity and in different physiological states are given, as well as the composition and nutritional value of feed. A technique for preparing diets using computer programs is proposed.
The directory is intended for managers and specialists of farms, farmers, agricultural scientists, teachers and students of universities and technical schools.
ISBN 5-94587-093-5 © Russian Agricultural Academy, 2003
© Team of authors, 2003.
CONTENT
PREFACE 13
General principles of animal nutrition rationing
according to detailed standards.18
Dry matter 22
Protein 24
Carbohydrates 28
Fats 31
Minerals 31
Vitamins 35
Antibiotics 39
Feeding standards and rations for dairy cattle 40
Feeding standards and diet.40
For breeding bulls 40
Annual nutritional requirements of breeding bulls 46
Feeding standards and rations.47
For pregnant dry cows and heifers 47
Feeding standards and rations for dairy cows 53
Types of feeding 53
Nutrient requirements of lactating cows 54
Feed for dairy cows.64
Nutritional value of silage and haylage 66
The influence of feeding on the composition and quality of milk 71
Diets for dairy cows 75
Summer feeding and maintenance of dairy cows 80
Features of feeding highly productive cows 82
Biochemical blood parameters of cows in winter 88
Approximate standards for blood parameters in cows 90
Feeding schemes and rations for young animals 106
Approximate calculation of the annual feed requirement of young animals 120
Feeding standards and rations for beef cattle 137
Feeding standards and rations.138
For stud bulls.138
Feeding standards for beef breeding bulls 138
Feeding standards for beef cows.143
Diets for beef cows.146
Norms and schemes for feeding calves.150
Feeding standards for calves to obtain.152
Feeding schemes for calves during autumn-winter calving of cows 153
Norms and rations for young animals.156
Over 8 months of age.156
Feeding standards for replacement heifers.156
Annual requirement of breeding bulls for feed, nutrients, kg. 167
Feeding standards for young beef cattle when raised for meat to obtain an average daily gain of 700-800 g.168
Feeding standards for young beef cattle when raised for meat to obtain an average daily gain of 1000-1100 g169
Feeding standards for young beef cattle when raised for meat to obtain an average daily gain of 1200-1400 g170
Diets of different types for bulls raised for meat 171
Use of pasture feed by bulls (by grazing periods) 173
Pasture conveyor for young beef cattle 174
Standards and rations for feeding pigs.176
Feeding boars 179
Feeding sows.180
Feeding standards for pregnant and single queens, per head per day 181
Feeding standards for lactating queens, per head per day 182
Feeding dairy piglets.185
Feeding standards for dairy piglets, per head per day 186
Feeding piglets weighing from 20 to 40 kg 189
Feeding replacement young animals.191
Feeding standards for replacement boars, per head per day 192
Feeding program for replacement young stock 195
Fattening pigs 195
Annual nutrient requirements of pigs 204
Feeding standards and rations for sheep and goats 207
Feeding breeding rams.210
Feeding standards and rations for queens.217
Feeding standards and rations for pregnant queens 218
Feeding standards and rations for lactating queens 224
Feeding standards and rations for young animals 228
Feeding and maintenance of lambs up to 4 months of age 228
Feeding standards for young animals of meat breeds 231
Composition of mineral mixtures, % .232
feeding young animals over 8 months of age 232
Approximate rations for young animals, per head per day 233
Feeding standards and rations for fattening adult sheep 235
Norms for fattening young sheep.239
Feeding standards and rations for goats.241
Feeding standards for downy and woolly goats 241
Feeding standards and rations for camels 244
Feeding standards and rations for young camels 248
Compound feed, BVD, premixes, milk replacer.250
Requirements for the quality of mixed feed.250
Recipes for premixes for cows (vision) for 1 ton of premix 260
Feed for pigs.264
Premixes for pigs 273
Feed and balancing additives for sheep 275
Recipe for concentrated feed for young sheep 276
Recipes for premixes for sheep (vniyok), per 1 ton 278
Whole milk substitutes.279
Classification and characteristics of feed 284
Scheme of zootechnical analysis of feed 289
Composition and nutritional value of feed.344
LECTURE No. 11
subject: Feeding farm animals
PLAN:
The importance of complete standardized feeding of animals.
Feeds, their classification and nutritional value.
Green and roughage.
Juicy feed.
Concentrated feed.
Animal feed.
Mineral supplements and vitamin preparations.
LITERATURE.
1. Mechanization and technology of livestock production / V.G. Koba, N.V. Bragintsev, D.N. Murusidze, V.F. Nekrashevich. M.: Kolos, 1999. 528 p. Section 1, Chapter 3.
1. The importance of complete standardized feeding of animals.
Adequate feeding of farm animals is about P the determining factor in the production of livestock products about water management.
The importance of adequate feeding of farm animals can be judged by the fact that in the structure of production costs, the share of feed in milk production is 50 ... 55%, beef 65 ... 70%. For animals, it is not only the quantity that is important, but mainly the quality of feed, which is determined by the nutrient content in it. The level of productivity, product quality, and animal health depend on adequate feeding, which generally determines the efficiency of livestock farming as a branch of agricultural production.
Feeds, their classification and nutritional value nity.
Stern - vegetable, animal or mineral products With walks used for feeding agricultural livestock t nykh.
Feed are products containing nutrition that are specially prepared and used for feeding farm animals A nutrient substances in digestible form and do not have harmful effects T impact on animal health and the quality of products obtained from them to tion.
Classification of feed.
By energy value:
voluminous (1 kg of mass contains up to 0.6 feed units);
concentrated (in 1 kg of mass more than 0.6 feed units).
By origin:
vegetable;
animals;
microbiological synthesis;
chemical synthesis;
combined.
For practical purposes, the following classification of feed has been adopted: green (grass pastures and green supplements); rude (hay, straw, chaff, twig and tree food); juicy (silage, haylage, root crops, tubers, melons and other juicy fruits);concentrated(grain and seeds, cake, meal, etc.);animal origin(whole and skim milk, whey, meat and bone and fish meal, etc.);waste from technical production(alcohol, sugar, canned food, oil and fat); food waste; microbiological synthesis(yeast, microbial protein); synthetic nitrogen additives; mineral and vitamin supplements; compound feed.
Under nutrition understand the ability of food to satisfy the diverse natural needs of animals for food. Depending on what needs of the animal’s body and to what extent the food satisfies, its nutritional value is divided into general (energy), protein, mineral and vitamin.
To assess the nutritional value of feed, it is necessary to know the chemical composition, caloric content and digestibility of feed, as well as the use (digestibility) of nutrients by animals.
The main part of substances of plant (96...98%) and animal (about 95%) origin are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Moreover, plants contain more oxygen, and the body of animals contains more nitrogen, carbon and hydrogen.
Any food consists of dry matter and water.
Dry matter. In dry matter there are mineral and organic parts. Mineral partfeed is characterized by the presence of mineral nutrition elements (calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, iron, copper, etc.) in the form of various compounds.Organic partfeed consists of two types of substances: nitrogenous (crude protein) and nitrogen-free (crude fat, crude fiber, extractives).
Water. The more water in the food, the lower its nutritional value. The water content of feed varies widely. For example, in grains, hay and straw it is 14...15%, in green feed - 60...85%, and in root crops - up to 90%.
Water is the main solvent and participant in the main physiological processes, during which nutrients absorbed from the intestines are delivered to all cells and tissues of the body, and waste products are removed from them.
Minerals.As part of all cells and tissues of the animal body, minerals perform important physiological functions in the body. They are structural elements of a number of enzymes and hormones, some of them activate their action, form the basis of bone tissue, and take part in the regulation of the nervous and cardiovascular systems, protein, carbohydrate, fat and water metabolism.
More than 60 mineral substances have been found in animal tissues. They are divided into two groups: macroelements (calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, magnesium, chlorine, sulfur, etc.) and microelements (iron, copper, zinc, cobalt, manganese, iodine, etc.).
Squirrels are extremely important in the life of a living organism, being one of the main elements of animal nutrition and serving as a source of “building materials” for the body. Compared to other groups of nutrients, protein compounds occupy a special place in feeding livestock and poultry, since they cannot be replaced by either fats or carbohydrates.
Protein feed serves as a source of animal body protein. Proteins include antibodies that perform protective functions and enzymes.
The main components of feed proteins, from which the body synthesizes its body protein, are amino acids , which are the end products of the breakdown of feed proteins in the digestive tract of farm animals.
Amino acids divided into replaceable and irreplaceable. Essential (vital) amino acids include lysine, methionine, tryptophan, histidine, leucine, isoleucine, phenylalanine, valine, arginine, threonine. The first three amino acids are called critical. They are especially needed for pigs and poultry, since their content in grain feed is negligible.
Approximate protein content in various feeds,%: cereal hay 6...8, legume hay 12...16, cereal grain 8...12, legume grain 20...30, root vegetables 0, 5…1, cake, meal 30...40, animal feed 50…70. Proteins of animal origin have high biological value: fish, blood, meat and meat and bone meal, whey, milk. Proteins from leguminous plants - alfalfa, clover, peas, soybeans, etc. - are characterized by good biological value.
Vitamins. Normal functioning of a living organism is impossible without vitamins. Their absence or deficiency in feed leads to metabolic disorders and diseases called vitamin deficiencies.
The level of some vitamins in livestock products - milk, eggs, meat, butter - is directly dependent on their amount in diets. The vitamin content in feed is influenced by various factors: plant type and variety, soil, climate, growing season, etc.
More than 20 vitamins have been studied. Methods have been developed for isolating them in their pure form, as well as methods for the artificial synthesis of some vitamins. According to their chemical nature, vitamins are divided into two groups:fat-soluble and water-soluble. Fat-soluble vitamins include A,D , E, K, water-soluble group vitamins B and C.
Feed digestibilitydetermined by the difference between nutrients taken with food and excreted from the body. The higher the digestibility of the feed, the greater its nutritional value. The digestibility of feed is assessed by the digestibility coefficient, which is the percentage of digested substances to those consumed with feed.
To determine the digestibility coefficient of the organic matter of the feed or its individual parts, it is necessary to know how much of these nutrients came with the feed and how much was excreted in the feces, i.e.didn't get it. For example, a cow received 10 kg of organic matter with feed, but excreted 2 kg. The digestibility coefficient will be
Assessment of nutritional value of feed. Under general nutritional valuefeed understand the content of all organic substances in it or the amount of energy introduced with it. The energy nutritional value of feed is assessed by the content of feed units in it.The nutritional value of 1 kg of dry (standard) oats is taken as a feed unit, equivalent to 1414 kcal (5920.4 kJ) of fat deposition energy or the deposition of 750 g of fat in the body of a fattening ox.For scientific research, nutritional value is recommended to be assessed in energy feed units (EFU), reflecting the need of animals for metabolic energy. 1 EKE is taken to be 2500 kcal (10467 kJ) of metabolic energy.
Feeding rate this is the amount of nutrients necessary to satisfy the needs of animals in order to maintain the vital functions of the body and obtain the intended products of good quality while maintaining health.
Based on the feeding standards of the animals, a daily ration is prepared.
Diet this is a set of feeds that corresponds in nutritional value to a certain feeding rate and satisfies the physiological need of the animal for nutrition, taking into account its productivity. TO rations for farm animals the following are required: requirements. In terms of nutritional value, they must correspond to the feeding standards and biological characteristics of a certain animal species; contain substances that have a beneficial effect on digestion; be varied in the range of feeds and sufficient in volume. It is advisable to include in the diet feed that is, if possible, cheap and produced mainly on the farm.
Green and roughage.
To green foodinclude grasses of natural and cultivated hayfields and pastures, green mass of crops and other plants. Young grass, despite its high water content (70...80%), is characterized by significant nutritional value. In terms of energy nutrition and protein content in dry matter, green grass is close to concentrated feed, and its protein has a high biological value.
Green food contains large quantities of almost all the vitamins and minerals necessary for the animal's body.
Green fodder is the main source of feed during the grazing period. In the animal feed ration they occupy 26% and more.
Compound green feed depending on the type and phase of plant vegetation, %: water 60...80, protein 20...25, fiber 10...18, fat 4...5, nitrogen-free extractives 35...50, minerals 9…11in terms of dry matter.Green grass is cheaper per feed unit than other feeds.
Hay the most important feed and one of the main sources of protein, minerals and vitamins for cattle, sheep, and horses in winter. Hay is obtained by natural or artificial drying of grass to a moisture content of 14...17%. In 1 kg of hay I class contains 0.45...0.55 feed. units, 65...80 g of digestible protein, at least 30 mg of carotene.
The optimal timing for mowing cereal grasses for hay is the beginning of heading, legumes are budding, the beginning of flowering. During this period, plants have more foliage and contain the maximum amount of nutrients and little fiber.
To obtain highly nutritious hay, grass harvesting for each type of hayfield should begin at the optimal time and end after 8...10 days. Even if hay is dried under favorable weather conditions, the total loss of nutrients is 20...30%, and under unfavorable weather conditions it reaches 40...50% of the initial content in the grass.
There are several ways drying herbs for hay:
harvesting loose hay;
preparation of chopped hay;
harvesting of pressed hay;
drying of herbs using active ventilation method.
4. Juicy feed.
The main succulent feeds include: silage, haylage and root crops e fruits.
Silage the main type of feed in winter rations for cattle and sheep. The great advantages of silage are: small losses of nutrients during its preparation - 15...20% (for comparison: for hay - 30%) and the ability to obtain it in any weather.
The essence of ensiling is that isolating the feed from air stops the development of all aerobic bacteria and mold fungi, and the lactic acid formed as a result of the vital activity of lactic acid bacteria, the semi-acidic feed, suppresses anaerobic putrefaction, butyric acid and other processes.
Silage conditions. To obtain high quality silage, a number of conditions must be met. First of all, green mass must be harvested at the optimal time. Corn should be cut at the end of the phasemilky ripenessgrains and in the phase of waxy ripeness, chickpea-oat mixtures in the phase of waxy ripeness of grains in the first two lower tiers of beans, sunflower in the period from the beginning to 50% flowering of the heads, perennial cereal grasses in the heading phase. Mowing grass late in the growing season has a negative impact on the quality of silage.
The moisture content of the silage mass should be optimal. For ensiling plants of most species, optimalhumidity is considered to be 65...75%.Ensiling feed with high humidity (75...80%) is accompanied by large losses of nutrients with leaking juice.
Grinding the silage mass significantly affects the quality of the feed, as it promotes the release of cell sap, which contains sugars and nutrients necessary for the normal functioning of lactic acid bacteria. The main silage mass should be crushed into particles of 2...4 cm in size, and green mass with high humidity - 5...10 cm (no more).
Haylage this is food from grasses, cut and dried, crushed and preserved in hermetic towers or trenchesup to humidity 45...55%.
When preparing haylage, food conservation is determined by the physiological dryness of plants, characterized by the absence of moisture in them, necessary for the life of most bacteria. As a result, significantly less organic acids are formed in haylage than in silage, and a larger amount of sugar is retained.
The advantages of haylage over hay and silage are as follows. Losses of nutrients during its preparation amount to 6...10%. In addition, flowers and leaves, which contain large amounts of valuable nutrients, are completely preserved. When using haylage, the mechanization of the preparation and distribution of feed is greatly facilitated. In terms of taste and nutritional properties, haylage is closer to green mass than silage, and livestock eat it more readily. Haylage fresh food, pH 4.8...5.5. Due to the relatively low humidity, it does not freeze in winter.
To obtain highly nutritious haylage, it is recommended to mow grass in earlier phases of the growing season than when making hay: legumes at the beginning of budding, cereals during the booting period, at the beginning of heading.Grass harvesting should be completed before flowering begins..
Haylage is prepared as follows. The grasses are mowed and flattened at the same time (legumes and legume-cereal grass mixtures), withered, picked up from windrows with the green mass crushed, loaded into vehicles, transported to a tower or trench, loaded, compacted and hermetically sealed. In good weather, the grass is left in the swaths for no more than 4 hours. Usually, to wilt the green mass to a humidity of 45...55%, in good weather it takes 6...7 hours, in cloudy weather without precipitation - about a day.
Root and tuber cropsdivided into root vegetables and tubers. The first include: fodder, sugar and semi-sugar beets, turnips, carrots, rutabaga; for the second potatoes, earthen pear (jerusalem artichoke). Root tubers are included in the group of succulent feeds. They contain a lot of water (70...90%), little protein (1...2%), about 1% fiber and almost no fat.
The dry matter of root tuber crops is dominated by easily digestible carbohydrates (starch and sugar). The energy nutritional value of 1 kg of dry matter of root tubers and 1 kg of concentrates is approximately the same.
Of all the types of fodder root crops used in our country, the largest share isfor fodder beet. It contains an average of 12% dry matter (variation range 7...25%). Fodder beet is one of the main carbohydrate feeds in the diets of cattle, sheep and partly pigs.
5. Concentrated feed.
The group of concentrated feeds is represented mainly by grains s we feed. They have high nutritional value (1...1.34 feed units per 1 kg of feed).
Grain feeds are divided into 2 groups:
rich in carbohydrates (oats, barley, rye, corn);
rich in protein (legumes peas , lupine, vetch, soybean).
Soybeans contains up to 30 ... 45% protein and is therefore considered the most highly nutritious food.
6. Animal feed.
Feeds of animal origin include dairy, meat and fish feeds, which are characterized by a high content of protein and B vitamins.
Whole milk substitute(CM) is a mixture of high-quality products: dry and fresh skim milk, whey powder, animal and cooking fats, vitamin, mineral and flavor additives. Composition of milk replacer: 80% skimmed milk powder, 15% vegetable lard (hydrogenated vegetable fat) and 5% phosphatide concentrate.
Fish flour one of the best protein feeds, containing up to 60% protein. This product is obtained from food fish and fish waste. Fishmeal is fed to young farm animals, pigs and poultry, and is used to prepare compound feeds and as additives to diets that balance them in protein and minerals.
Meat and meat and bone mealproduced from the carcasses and internal organs of animals unsuitable for human consumption and used for the preparation of feed. Protein content 30...60%.
Feed yeast valuable protein and vitamin feed, an excellent component of compound feed. Feed yeast is produced by meat processing and sulphate-cellulose industries, as well as alcohol factories from waste in the form of a dry product (8...10% moisture).
Food waste (remnants of catering establishments and home kitchens). On average, 5...6 kg of waste corresponds to 1 feed. units Food waste (mixed with other feed) should be used as much as possible for fattening pigs in agricultural enterprises located around large cities and industrial centers. Before feeding, food waste is disinfected, i.e. steamed, and freed from foreign objects.
7. Mineral supplements and vitamin preparations.
Mineral supplements.These include table salt, shells, bone meal, feed phosphate, limestone, sapropel (lake silt), phosphorus-calcium supplements, tricalcium phosphate, feed precipitate, etc. The industry produces special briquettes consisting mainly of table salt with the addition of the necessary microelements.
Vitamin preparations.To meet the vitamin needs of animals, concentrates are added to the feed composition.vitamin A and carotene.Fish oil is obtained from cod liver, adding concentrates of vitamins A and D . Nutritional yeast containing vitamins D 2 and group B, are produced by irradiating a yeast suspension with ultraviolet rays.
- Combined and feed additives.
Compound feed is a complex homogeneous mixture of feed products (grain, bran, animal feed, mineral additives, etc.). Mixing them and introducing biologically complete premixes and additives into the diet makes it possible to increase the efficiency of using natural feed.
Compound feeds are divided into:
full (full);
mixed feed concentrates;
balancing feed additives (BFA);
premixes.
Balancing feed additives(BVD, BMVD, urea concentrate, etc.) are homogeneous mixtures of high-protein feedstuffs and microadditives crushed to the required degree. They are used mainly for the preparation of feed based on grain fodder. BVD and BMVD are introduced into the grain mixture in an amount of 10...30% of its mass.
Premixes mixtures crushed to the desired degree of coarseness h personal substances (mineral feed, amino acids, vitamins, antibiotic And kov, etc.) and fillers used for the enrichment of mixed feed and l co-vitamin supplements.
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
FEDERAL STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION
HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
IZHEVSK STATE AGRICULTURAL ACADEMY
Farm Animal Feeding Basics
COMPLETED: student of group 422
Kudryavtsev F.E.
CHECKED BY: Zhuk G.M.
Izhevsk 2011
Introduction 3
Chemical composition of feed 3
The concept of nutritional value of feed 11
Energy nutritional value of feed 13
Basics of rationed feeding 15
Used literature 19
Introduction
Creating a strong feed base is not only an increase in the production and improvement of the quality of feed of various types, but, above all, the introduction of highly effective methods and means of their production and preparation, promoting high digestibility of the nutrients contained in feed by animals and ensuring their rational use.
Feeding affects the development, growth rate, body weight and reproductive functions of the animal. Only with full provision of livestock and poultry with high-quality feed can livestock farming be successfully developed. Of all environmental factors, feeding has the greatest influence on productivity. In the structure of the cost of livestock products, the share of feed is 50–55% for milk production, 65–70% for beef, and 70–75% for pork.
In modern livestock farming, much attention is paid to ensuring balanced nutrition for animals. By using scientifically based feeding systems, animal productivity can be increased and feed can be used efficiently. During the feeding process, the constituent substances affect the animal’s body not in isolation from each other, but in combination. The balance of feed components in accordance with the needs of animals is the main indicator of this complex.
For livestock farming, not only the quantity, but mainly the quality of feed is important, i.e. their value is determined by their nutrient content. Complete diets and feeds are considered to be those that contain all the substances necessary for the animal’s body and are capable of ensuring the normal functioning of all its physiological functions for a long time.
Chemical composition of feed
For feeding farm animals, mainly feed of plant origin is used.
Currently, the nutritional value of plant feeds is characterized by chemical composition by more than 70 different indicators. Almost all the elements known to modern chemistry are found in varying quantities in plants and the body of animals. The bulk of plant and animal matter is formed by carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen. On average, plants contain 45% carbon, 42% oxygen, 6.5% hydrogen, 1.5% nitrogen and 5% minerals. In the body of animals, the share of carbon accounts for an average of 63%, oxygen - 14%, hydrogen - 9.5%, nitrogen - 5% and minerals - 8.5%. Thus, there is more oxygen in plants, and more nitrogen, carbon and hydrogen in animals. The composition of animal feed and body includes water and dry matter.
Water is the main component of the contents of plant and animal cells. It serves as the environment in which all metabolic biochemical processes take place.
The water content in different feeds varies, it ranges from 5 to 95%. There is little water (about 10%) in cakes, meal, dry pulp, herbal flour; in grain feed (oats, barley, corn, wheat, etc.) - about 12-14%, in hay, straw - 15-20%, in green feed (grass) - 70-85%, in silage - 65-75 %, in haylage - 45-60%, in root tubers - 80-92%, in stillage, pulp, pulp - 90-95%. The more water in the food, the lower its nutritional value. Many technological properties of feed also depend on the water content: the ability to mix, granulate, briquet, transport and store. During storage, high humidity of feed promotes the development of microorganisms, activates enzymatic processes and leads to rapid spoilage of feed.
Approximately half of the body weight of animals is water. In the body of a newborn animal, the water content reaches 80%, and with age it decreases to 50-60%. When fattening animals, the water content in the body quickly decreases as a result of fat accumulation. There is an inverse relationship between the water and fat content in the body of animals: the more fat, the less water, and vice versa.
Animals' need for liquid is partially satisfied by water supplied with food. Consumption of drinking water depends on the species and physiological characteristics of animals. Pigs consume 7-8 liters, cattle - 4-7 liters, horses, sheep and goats - 2-3 liters, chickens - 1-1.5 liters per 1 kg of dry matter of feed.
In the dry matter of feed and animal bodies, a distinction is made between the mineral part and the organic part.
Minerals. The total amount of ash characterizes the mineral nutritional value of the feed. Macro- and microelements are distinguished in ash. Among the macroelements, there are alkaline (calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium) and acidic (phosphorus, sulfur, chlorine). Among the trace elements, feed contains iron, copper, cobalt, zinc, manganese, iodine, fluorine, selenium, etc. Minerals in feed are in the form of various compounds. Alkaline elements are most often found in the form of salts of organic and mineral acids; a certain amount of phosphorus, sulfur, magnesium, iron is found in combination with organic substances - proteins, fats and carbohydrates.
Plant foods contain relatively little ash, on average less than 5%, only in rare cases does the amount reach 10%. In plants, ash is distributed unevenly: stems and leaves are more than two times richer in ash than grains and roots; There is more ash in the grain in the outer parts than in the inner parts.
Plants of different botanical families differ significantly in their mineral content. The seeds and vegetative organs of legumes contain 4-6 times more calcium than cereals. Root ash is rich in potassium, but poor in calcium and phosphorus. Relatively much phosphorus and little calcium are contained in grain ash and products of their processing, for example, in bran ash.
Animal bodies contain the same mineral elements, but in different proportions than plants. Animal body ash compared, for example, with grass ash is poorer in potassium and sodium, but richer in calcium and phosphorus; On average, about 50% of animal body ash consists of calcium and phosphorus, while in the ash of green plants these elements make up only 13%.
Mineral substances in feed, unlike organic ones, cannot serve as a source of energy material; in order to assimilate them, the body must expend a certain part of the energy that it receives from organic substances.
Organic substances. The organic part of the feed consists of nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous substances. The total amount of nitrogenous compounds, or crude protein, characterizes the protein nutritional value of the feed. Crude protein is divided into proteins and amides. In most feeds, proteins account for a significant portion of the protein. For example, protein grains contain up to 90-97% and only 3-10% are amides. The elemental composition of proteins is diverse. Proteins contain 52% carbon, 23% oxygen, 16% nitrogen, 7% hydrogen, 2% sulfur, 6% phosphorus. Based on their physical and chemical properties, feed proteins are divided into simple and complex. TO simple proteins include albumins (soluble in water), globulins (soluble in saline solutions), glutelins (soluble in dilute acids and alkalis), prolamins (soluble in alcohol). Thus, albumins and globulins are classified as easily soluble proteins, while glutelins and prolamins are classified as sparingly soluble.
Complex proteins (proteids) They are compounds of simple proteins with non-protein groups and are found in the nuclei of plant cells. These include phosphoproteins, glycoproteins, lecitoproteins, etc.
Amino acids are part of proteins in different quantities, combinations, and ratios, which determines different properties of proteins.
Animals are able to synthesize some amino acids from nitrogen-containing compounds supplied with food. These include: glycine, series, alanine, cystine, proline, tyrosine, glutamic acid, aspartic acid, norleucine, etc. These amino acids are called replaceable. Other amino acids, called essential amino acids, cannot be synthesized in the body of animals. These include: lysine, methionine, tryptophan, valine, histidine, phenylalanine, leucine, isoleucine, threonine and arginine. Essential amino acids must be supplied to the body with food. Proteins that do not contain essential amino acids are classified as incomplete proteins.
The content of amino acids in feed protein varies. Proteins from cereal plants contain little arginine and histidine and very little lysine and tryptophan; legume proteins, unlike cereals, are relatively rich in arginine and lysine; oilseed proteins are high in arginine and low in histidine and lysine; Green food proteins are rich in lysine, arginine and tryptophan. In the animal body, from 13 to 18% of body weight are proteins, which are formed and continuously renewed due to the constant consumption and use of amino acids.
Amides. Crude protein in feed contains organic nitrogen-containing non-protein compounds called amides. Amides include: free amino acids and amino acid amides containing nitrogen glycosides, organic bases, ammonium salts, nitrites and nitrates.
Amides are products of incomplete protein synthesis from inorganic substances (nitric acid, ammonia) or are formed during the breakdown of proteins under the action of enzymes and bacteria. Therefore, feed harvested during the period of intensive growth is rich in amides: young green grass, silage, haylage. About half of the crude protein comes from amides in root vegetables and potatoes.
The nutritional value of amides varies for different types of farm animals. Amides are of particular importance for ruminants. Their presence in feed stimulates the development and activity of microorganisms in the forestomach of cattle and sheep. Due to their solubility in water, amides are very accessible to microorganisms, forming the so-called microbial protein, which is digested and used by animals in the small intestine. For pigs, poultry and other animals with a simple stomach, amides cannot serve as a source of nitrogen nutrition and, if they enter the blood in excess quantities, can cause animal poisoning; in this regard, nitrates and nitrites are especially dangerous.
The organic part of the feed includes nitrogen-free substances which predominate in the dry matter of most plant feeds, and occupy first place in feeding farm animals. Nitrogen-free feed substances include fats and carbohydrates.
Fats, or lipids, by their chemical nature they are compounds of alcohol, fatty acids and other components. All feed lipids are divided into simple and complex (lipoids). Simple lipids contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen; complex lipids contain, in addition to these elements, nitrogen and phosphorus .
The properties of lipids depend on the properties of fatty acids, which are divided into saturated and unsaturated. TO saturated fatty acids include: stearic, palmitic, oil, caprylic, myristic, etc. unsaturated acids include: oleic, linoleic, linolenic, arachidonic, etc. Unsaturated fatty acids are of particular importance in feeding pigs and poultry, which must be ingested with feed.
feeding animal diet gender and age
Feed is prepared in order to increase its palatability, digestibility and utilization of nutrients, improve technological properties, and disinfection. The main methods of preparing feed for feeding are divided into mechanical, physical, chemical and biological.
Mechanical methods(grinding, crushing, flattening, mixing) are used mainly to increase the palatability of feed and improve their technological properties.
Physical methods(hydrobarometric) are used to increase the palatability of feed and partially its nutritional value.
Chemical methods(alkaline, acid treatment) make it possible to increase the availability of indigestible nutrients to the body by breaking them down into simpler compounds.
To the number biological methods feed preparation includes: yeasting, ensiling, fermentation, enzymatic processing, etc. The purpose of these methods is to improve the taste of feed, increase their complete protein (as a result of microbial synthesis), and enzymatic breakdown of indigestible carbohydrates into simpler compounds accessible to the body.
In practice, these methods are used in various combinations with each other.
The use of one or another preparation method is determined by the type of feed, its purpose, and practical feasibility in each specific farm.
Organization of animal feeding
Feeding cows in the first days after calving depends on their condition and the nature of feeding before calving. If calving went well and the new-calving cow feels well, then there is no need to make restrictions on feeding, especially if the feed supply was not reduced before calving. Hay, haylage and high-quality silage can be fed ad libitum at this time. However, the full norm of concentrates and root vegetables should be given no earlier than a week after calving. Restriction in feeding these foods is a preventive measure against excessive strain on the mammary gland and possible its severe inflammation.
Very abundant feeding of cows before and after calving, especially giving a large amount of concentrated feed, can cause loss of appetite, indigestion, hardening of the udder, mastitis, and in some cases maternity paresis. This applies most of all to highly productive, well-nourished cows, which should be fed sparingly after calving. When organizing feeding of fresh cows, special attention should be paid to the quality of feed.
In the first days after calving, the udder needs careful care. At this time it is elastic and hard. Careful milking is a necessary measure to quickly bring the udder to normal condition. Swelling of the udder, which most often occurs in first-calf heifers and highly productive cows, with proper feeding and maintenance of animals usually decreases after 4 - 5 days, and completely disappears after 7 - 10 days.
Improper feeding of fresh cows sometimes causes a serious illness - acetonemia, or ketosis. An increased amount of acetone bodies appears in the blood and urine, and the glucose level in the blood decreases. Ketosis is accompanied by loss of live weight, loss of appetite, rapid decrease in milk yield and nervous disorders. One of the reasons for the occurrence of ketosis may be protein overfeeding and a lack of energy and easily digestible carbohydrates in the diet.
Cows must be milked from the first days after calving. By the end of the preventive period, the cow should have a normal udder and sufficiently high productivity.
Milk yield means a set of measures aimed at increasing the milk productivity of cows throughout lactation. These include: organization of standardized, adequate feeding, use of proper milking with udder massage, good maintenance of animals, etc.
Direct milking occurs in the first 100 days of lactation. This period accounts for 40 - 50% of milk production during lactation. At this time, they strive to obtain the maximum daily milk yield from the cows and strive to maintain it for as long as possible.
During milking, in addition to the required amount of feed for actual milk yield, cows are given an advance payment of 2 - 3 feeds to increase milk yield. units in a day. An advance for milking is given as long as the cows respond to it with an increase in milk yield. After this, rations are gradually brought into line with actual milk yield.
When feeding highly productive cows, advance payment does not matter, since after calving they usually produce much more milk than they eat feed. The challenge is to ensure maximum palatability of high-quality feed in balanced diets without causing digestive upset.
Increasing the consumption of nutrients by cows during milking can be achieved by improving the quality of feed, using various methods of preparing them for feeding, and increasing the concentration of energy per 1 kg of dry matter of the diet. The energy concentration increases with an increase in milk yield, while the fiber content in the diet is reduced.
On industrial farms, as a rule, double feeding and milking are used. This is due to the need to reduce labor costs for milk production, although with this mode the production is somewhat less than with a three-fold mode. With double feeding, the digestibility of nutrients in diets is 2 - 3% lower compared to three times. Feed costs per unit of production are higher by the same amount.
On large farms, a flow-shop milk production system is organized. There is a dry cow section and a calving section. The rest of the cows, depending on the level of productivity and physiological state, are divided into groups, which are kept in separate sections.
The main feeds of the diet - chopped hay or cuttings, haylage and silage, as well as some root crops and concentrates - are fed as part of the general feed mixture. Highly productive cows are additionally given root crops or a special feed mixture is prepared for them.
Concentrates not included in the feed mixture are fed individually, taking into account the productivity of the cows. When milking cows in the milking area, concentrates are fed during milking. Feeding cows with concentrates during milking does not have a negative effect on either milk yield or milk yield.
The time cows spend in the milking parlor is limited, therefore, so that highly productive animals can consume more concentrates, it is advisable to feed them in granular form. It has been established that the rate of consumption of granulated feed is one and a half times higher than that of loose feed. Feeding concentrates in a moist form deserves attention.
The nutritional value of dairy cattle increases sharply when feeding concentrates in the form of compound feed, and rations are balanced according to detailed standards by introducing premixes.
Loading...