Different in meaning, but the same in sound and spelling.
They are divided into lexical and lexico-grammatical. Lexical ones are different in meaning, but the same in sound and spelling in all grammatical forms: faucet: construction and water supply.
Lexico-grammatical homonyms do not coincide in sound and spelling in all grammatical forms: plant (enterprise) and factory (device for operating a mechanism) - the word does not have the second meaning plural.
It must be distinguished from polysemy: with homonymy there are no identical meanings, because the words are completely different.
Formation: most often during the formation of new words (suffix formation: . wallet (wallet) and wallet (working paper. factory) and during the disintegration of polysemy (put out: 1. cook; 2. fire).
Reasons for the collapse: 1. As a result of archaization and loss of the intermediate meaning of the word (bench - bench - bench for goods - premises). 2. The change is not in the meaning of the word, but in the object itself (paper - cotton, and paper - fabric). 3. Phonetic processes in a word (onion is a plant, and onion is a weapon). 4. Coincidence of borrowed words (cook - a type of hairstyle - French, and cook - a cook on a ship - goal).
Homophones - different in meaning and spelling, but identical in sound (raft and fruit).
1. Steam, different prefixes: typos - imprints, pay - pay;
2. Steam, different suff: unresponsible - irresponsible, being - essence;
3. Steam, different characteristics of the base: one has a non-derivative base, the other has a derivative. In this case, the pair can be: brake - braking; load - load.
In this regard, two groups were found among the couples.
1. Steam, varying in subtle shades of meaning: long - long, desirable - desirable, The majority of them. Many of them are characterized by individuals in the lex sot; compare: economic consequences - economical housekeeping, rich inheritance - difficult legacy; complete the task - perform a song.
2. Steam, sharply different in meaning nest - nesting, defective - defective. There are not many of them.
A special group of pairs consists of such, the cat has excellent function, style, closure or style of coloring; Wed: work (general use) - work (simple and special) live (general use) - live (official).
Polysemy, synonymy, antonymy, homonymy, paronymy in the Russian language
Most Russian words have not one, but several meanings. They're called polysemantic or polysemantic(gr. poly - many + semantikos - meaning) and are contrasted with unambiguous words. The ability of lexical units to have several meanings is called polysemy or polysemy.
The ambiguity of a word is usually realized in speech: the context (i.e., a semantically complete segment of speech) clarifies one of specific values ambiguous word. For example, in the works of A. S. Pushkin we encounter the word house in these values: The secluded manor house, fenced off from the winds by a mountain, stood above the river(house - building, structure); I'm scared to leave the house(house - dwelling); The whole house was ruled by one Parasha(house - household); Three houses are calling for the evening(home - family); The house was in motion(house - people living together).
Usually even the narrowest context is enough to clarify the shades of meaning of polysemantic words; cf.: quiet 1 voice - quiet, quiet 2 disposition - calm, quiet 3 driving - slow, quiet 4 weather - calm, quiet 5 breathing - even, etc. Here the minimum context - a phrase - allows you to distinguish the meanings of the word quiet.
Different meanings of a word, as a rule, are interconnected and form a complex semantic unity, which is called semantic structure of the word. The connection between the meanings of a polysemantic word most clearly reflects the systemic nature of language and, in particular, vocabulary.
Among the meanings inherent in polysemantic words, one is perceived as main, main thing, and others - like derivatives from this main, initial value. The main value is always listed first in explanatory dictionaries, and behind it, under numbers, are the derived values. There can be quite a lot of them.
Yes, the word go in the seventeen-volume Dictionary of Modern Russian literary language" (BAS) 26 meanings are noted, and in the "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" edited by D. N. Ushakov - 40 meanings.
Taken in isolation, out of context, a word is perceived in its basic meaning, in which it most often functions in speech. Derived meanings are revealed only in combination with other words. So, when mentioning the verb go action arises in consciousness - move with one's feet: Tatiana walked alone for a long time(P.). But when we encounter this word in speech, we easily distinguish its various meanings; Wed from A. S. Pushkin: Go where your free mind takes you(go 1 - follow, move in some direction to achieve something); There the stupa with Baba Yaga walks, wanders by itself(go 2 - go somewhere (about objects); What motivates a proud soul?.. Is war going to Rus' again?(go 3 - oppose someone); P I received your letter... It took exactly 25 days(go 4 - be on the way, being sent); The hours go by and the days go by(go 5 - flow, pass (about time, age)); I took a few steps where there seemed to be a path, and suddenly I got stuck waist-deep in the snow.(go 6 - have a direction, fly over, extend); And there are some rumors about you(go 7 - spread (about rumors, news)); Steam comes from the fireplace(go 8 - come out, flow out from somewhere); It seemed like it wanted to snow...(go 9 - about precipitation); How's your bargaining going?(go 10 - complete, pass); Go to anything with hope and cheerful faith(go 11 - show readiness for something); Red goes better with your black hair(go 12 - be to the face), etc.
The word acquires ambiguity in the process of historical development of the language, reflecting changes in society and nature, their cognition by man. As a result, our thinking is enriched with new concepts. The volume of the vocabulary of any language is limited, so the development of vocabulary occurs not only through the creation of new words, but also as a result of an increase in the number of meanings of previously known ones, the death of some meanings and the emergence of new ones. This leads not only to quantitative, but also to qualitative changes in vocabulary.
At the same time, it would be incorrect to assume that the development of word meanings is caused only by extralinguistic (extralinguistic) factors. Polysemy is also determined purely linguistically: words can be used in figurative meanings. Names can be transferred from one item to another if these items have general signs. After all, the lexical meaning of words does not reflect all the differential features of the named object, but only those that attracted attention at the time of nomination. Thus, many objects have common connections, which can serve as the basis for the associative rapprochement of these objects and the transfer of names from one of them to another.
Synonyms (gr. synonymos - same name) are words that differ in sound, but are identical or similar in meaning, often differing in stylistic coloring: here - here, wife - spouse, look - look; homeland - fatherland, fatherland; brave - courageous, courageous, fearless, fearless, undaunted, daring, dashing.
A group of words consisting of several synonyms is called synonymous row(or nest). Synonymous series can consist of both multi-root and single-root synonyms: face - face, overtake - overtake; fisherman - fisherman, fisherman. The first place in the synonymous row is usually given to the word that is decisive in meaning and stylistically neutral - dominant(lat. dominans - dominant) (it is also called the core, main, support word). Other members of the series clarify, expand its semantic structure, and complement it estimated values. So, in the last example the dominant of the series is the word brave, it most succinctly conveys the meaning that unites all synonyms - “not experiencing fear” and is free from expressive and stylistic shades. The remaining synonyms are distinguished in semantic-stylistic terms and by the peculiarities of their use in speech. For example, intrepid- a book word, interpreted as “very brave”; daring- folk poetic, means “complete prowess”; dashing- colloquial - “brave, taking risks.” Synonyms brave, courageous, fearless, fearless differ not only in semantic nuances, but also in the possibilities of lexical combinability (they are combined only with nouns that name people; you cannot say “brave project”, “fearless decision”, etc.).
Members of the synonymous series can be not only individual words, but also stable phrases (phraseologisms), as well as prepositional case forms: a lot - over the edge, without counting, the chickens don’t peck. All of them, as a rule, perform the same syntactic function in a sentence.
Synonyms always belong to the same part of speech. However, in the word formation system, each of them has related words that relate to other parts of speech and enter into the same synonymous relationships with each other; Wed handsome - charming, enchanting, irresistible --> beauty - charm, enchantment, irresistibility; think - think, reflect, ponder, ponder --> thoughts - thoughts, reflections, thoughts, thoughts. Such synonymy is consistently preserved between derived words: harmony - euphony; harmonious - euphonious; harmony - euphony; harmonious - euphonious[Peshkovsky A. M. Selected works. M., 1959. P. 174]. This pattern clearly demonstrates the systemic connections of lexical units.
The Russian language is rich in synonyms; rare synonymous series have two or three members, more often there are many more. However, compilers of synonym dictionaries use different criteria for their selection. This leads to the fact that the synonymous series of different lexicographers often do not coincide. The reason for such discrepancies lies in the different understanding of the essence of lexical synonymy.
Some scientists consider it an obligatory sign of synonymous relations between words that they designate the same concept. Others take their interchangeability as a basis for identifying synonyms. The third point of view comes down to the fact that the decisive condition for synonymy is the proximity of the lexical meanings of words. In this case, the following criteria are put forward: 1) proximity or identity of lexical meanings; 2) only the identity of lexical meanings; 3) proximity, but not identity of lexical meanings.
In our opinion, the most important condition synonymous words - their semantic proximity, and in special cases - identity. Depending on the degree of semantic proximity, synonymy can manifest itself to a greater or lesser extent. For example, synonymy of verbs hurry - hurry up is expressed more clearly than, say, laugh - laugh, burst into laughter, roll up, roll, giggle, snort, splash, having significant semantic and stylistic differences. Synonymy is most fully expressed when the words are semantically identical: here - here, linguistics - linguistics. However, there are few words in the language that are absolutely identical; As a rule, they develop semantic nuances and stylistic features that determine their uniqueness in vocabulary. For example, in the last pair of synonyms there are already differences in lexical compatibility; compare: domestic linguistics, But structural linguistics.
Full (absolute) parallel scientific terms are most often synonymous: orthography - spelling, nominative - nominative, fricative - fricative, as well as single-root words formed using synonymous affixes: wretchedness - wretchedness, guard - guard.
As language develops, one of a pair of absolute synonyms may disappear. Thus, for example, the original full-voice variants fell out of use, giving way to Old Church Slavonic ones in origin: licorice - sweet, good - brave, shelom - helmet. Others change the meanings, and, as a result, there is a complete break in synonymous relations: lover, lover; vulgar, popular.
Synonyms, as a rule, denote the same phenomenon of objective reality. The nominative function allows us to combine them into open series, which are replenished with the development of language, with the emergence of new meanings for words. On the other hand, synonymous relationships can disintegrate, and then individual words are excluded from the synonymous series and acquire other semantic connections. Yes, word scrupulous , formerly synonymous with the word haberdashery[cf.: scrupulous London trades (P.)], now synonymous with the words thin, delicate; word vulgar ceased to be synonymous with words widespread, popular(cf. the hope expressed by the writer Trediakovsky that the book he wrote would be at least a little vulgar) and came close to the following: vulgar - rude, low, immoral, cynical; at the word dream the semantic correlation with the word is currently broken thought[cf.: What a terrible dream! (P.)], but preserved with the words dreaming, daydream. The systemic connections of related words change accordingly. The semantic structures of the given lexical units influenced the formation of such, for example, synonymous series: scrupulousness - refinement, delicacy; vulgarity - rudeness, baseness; dream - daydream.
Since synonyms, like most words, are characterized by polysemy, they are included in complex synonymic relationships with other polysemantic words, forming a branched hierarchy of synonymous series. With other words, synonyms are connected by relations of opposition, forming antonymic pairs with them.
Antonyms(gr. anti- against + onyma- name) are words that differ in sound and have directly opposite meanings: truth - lie, good - evil, speak - remain silent . Antonyms usually refer to one part of speech and form pairs.
Modern lexicology considers synonymy and antonymy as extreme, limiting cases of, on the one hand, interchangeability, and on the other, opposition of words in content. At the same time, synonymous relations are characterized by semantic similarity, while antonymic relations are characterized by semantic difference.
Antonymy in language is presented as narrower than synonymy: only words that are correlative on some basis - qualitative, quantitative, temporal, spatial and belonging to the same category of objective reality as mutually exclusive concepts - enter into antonymic relations: beautiful - ugly, much - little, morning - evening, remove - bring closer . Words with other meanings usually do not have antonyms; compare: house, thinking, write, twenty, Kyiv, Caucasus. Most antonyms characterize qualities ( good - bad, smart - stupid, native - alien, dense - rare and under.); There are also many that indicate spatial and temporal relationships ( large - small, spacious - cramped, high - low, wide - narrow; early - late, day - night ) ; fewer antonymous pairs with quantitative meaning ( many - few; single - numerous ). There are opposite names for actions, states ( cry - laugh, rejoice - grieve ), but there are few of them.
The development of antonymic relations in vocabulary reflects our perception of reality in all its contradictory complexity and interdependence. Therefore, contrasting words, as well as the concepts they denote, are not only opposed to each other, but are also closely related to each other. Word Kind , for example, evokes in our minds the word wicked ,far reminds of close , speed up - O slow down .
Antonyms "are on extreme points lexical paradigm" [Fomina M.I. Modern Russian language: Lexicology. P. 140], but between them there may be words in the language that reflect the specified feature to varying degrees, i.e. its decrease or increase. For example: rich - wealthy - poor - poor - beggar; harmful- harmless - useless - useful . This opposition suggests a possible degree of strengthening of a characteristic, quality, action, or gradation(lat. gradatio- gradual increase). Semantic gradation (graduality), therefore, is characteristic only of those antonyms whose semantic structure contains an indication of the degree of quality: young - old, big - small, small - large and under. Other antonymic pairs are devoid of the sign of gradualism: up - down, day - night, life - death, man - woman .
Antonyms that have a gradual attribute can be interchanged in speech to give the statement polite form; so, it's better to say thin , how skinny ; elderly , how old . Words used to eliminate the harshness or rudeness of a phrase are called euphemisms(gr. eu- good + phemi- I say). On this basis they sometimes talk about antonyms-euphemisms, which express the meaning of the opposite in a softened form.
In the lexical system of a language we can distinguish antonyms-converts(lat. conversio- change). These are words that express the relation of opposition in the original (direct) and modified (reverse) statement: Alexander gave book to Dmitry. - Dmitry took book from Alexander; Professor accepts test from the trainee.- Trainee rents out test for professor[See: Novikov L.A. Antonymy in Russian. M., 1973. S. 35, 145].
There is also intra-word antonymy in the language - antonymy of the meanings of polysemantic words, or enantiosemy(gr. enantios- opposite + sema - sign). This phenomenon is observed in polysemous words that develop mutually exclusive meanings. For example, verb move away can mean “come back to normal, feel better,” but it can also mean “die, say goodbye to life.” Enantiosemy becomes the reason for the ambiguity of such statements, for example: Editor looked through these lines; I listened to divertissement; Speaker misspoke and under.
According to their structure, antonyms are divided into multi-rooted (day Night ) And single-rooted (come - go, revolution - counter-revolution ). The former constitute a group of actual lexical antonyms, the latter - lexico-grammatical. In single-root antonyms, the opposite meaning is caused by various prefixes, which are also capable of entering into antonymic relationships; compare: V lay down - You lay down at put - from put, behind cover - from cover. Consequently, the opposition of such words is due to word formation. However, it should be borne in mind that adding prefixes to qualitative adjectives and adverbs Not- , without- most often gives them the meaning of only a weakened opposite ( young - middle-aged ), so that the contrast of their meaning in comparison with prefix-free antonyms turns out to be “muted” ( middle-aged - this does not mean “old”). Therefore, not all prefix formations can be classified as antonyms in the strict sense of the term, but only those that are extreme members of the antonymic paradigm: successful - unsuccessful, strong - powerless .
Antonyms, as already mentioned, usually form a pairwise correlation in a language. However, this does not mean that a particular word can have one antonym. Antonymic relations make it possible to express the opposition of concepts in an “unclosed” polynomial series, cf.: concrete - abstract, abstract; cheerful - sad, melancholy, dull, boring .
In addition, each member of an antonymic pair or antonymic series can have its own synonyms that do not intersect in antonymy. Then a certain system is formed in which synonymous units are located vertically, and antonymous units are located horizontally. For example:
Such a correlation of synonymous and antonymic relations reflects the systemic connections of words in the lexicon. Systematicity is also indicated by the relationship between polysemy and antonymy of lexical units.
Paronyms(gr. para - near + onima - name) are words with the same root, similar in sound, but not the same in meaning: signature - painting, dress - put on, main - capital. Paronyms, as a rule, refer to one part of speech and perform similar syntactic functions in a sentence.
Taking into account the peculiarities of word formation of paronyms, the following groups can be distinguished.
1. Paronyms that differ prefixes: O signets - from signets, at to pay - O to pay;
2. Paronyms that differ suffixes: no response n y - unanswered stvenn y, noun eats o - noun ness; commander ovanna y - commander vegetable th;
3. Paronyms that differ the nature of the basis: one has a non-derivative base, the other has a derivative. In this case, the pair may include:
a. words with a non-derivative base and prefixes: height - WHO growth;
b. words with a non-derivative base and non-prefixed words with suffixes: brake - braking tion ;
c. words with a non-derivative base and words with a prefix and suffix: cargo - on cargo To A.
Semantically, two groups are found among paronyms.
1. Paronyms that differ subtle shades of meaning: long - long, desirable - desirable, maned - maned, life - everyday, diplomatic - diplomatic and under. There are a majority of such paronyms; their meanings are commented on in linguistic dictionaries(explanatory, dictionaries of difficulties, dictionaries of single-root words, dictionaries of paronyms). Many of them are characterized by features in lexical compatibility; compare: economic consequences - economical farming, rich inheritance- heavy heritage; fulfill exercise - perform song.
2. Paronyms, sharply different in meaning: nest - nesting place, defective - defective. There are few such units in the language.
A special group of paronyms consists of those that are distinguished by functional-style fixation or stylistic coloring; compare: work(common use) - work(simple and special) live(common use) - reside(official).
Some authors interpret the phenomenon of paronymy in an expanded manner, classifying as paronyms any words that sound similar in sound (and not just words with the same root). In this case, such consonant forms as drill - trill, lancet - tweezers, mince - farce, escalator - excavator, turn - stained glass etc. However, their convergence in speech is random and is not fixed by the whole variety of systemic relations in language. In addition, the comparison of consonant words with different roots is often subjective in nature (one may think similar words turn - stained glass, to another - turn - mirage).
Polysemy (polysemy) arises as a result of the fact that a word names and denotes not one object and not one concept, but several, and has a potentially multi-subject and multi-conceptual orientation. Mustard ( herbaceous plant with yellow flowers and spicy seasoning for food, made from mustard) and bald spot (a place on the head where hair has come out and does not grow, and White spot in fur of a different color on the forehead of animals)..
Words that are the same in sound form, but differ in meaning (and these meanings are now not related to each other) are called homonyms. Unlike polysemy, homonymy arises on the basis of the commonality of only the sound form: the meanings of homonym words do not have a common semantic core. Scythe1 - hair woven into one strand, scythe2 - an agricultural tool for mowing, scythe3 - a peninsula in the form of a narrow shallow - are brought closer to each other by the coincidence of the sound form. In the German language one can note such homophones as: Schauer - observer and Schauer - horror; in English: ear - ear and ear - ear. Random coincidences of the sound form of words various languages cannot be considered homonyms.
Full homonyms are different words that have the same sound and written form. Such are, for example, the words onion - plant and onion - weapon. However, there may be discrepancies between pronunciation and spelling, and on this basis homophones and homographs arise. Homophones are different words that, although different in their spelling, are the same in pronunciation, for example: the Russian words onion and meadow, the German Seite - side and Saite - string. Homographs are different words that have the same spelling, although they are pronounced differently. For example: the Russian words castle and castle, the English words tear - tear and tear - to tear. Different forms of words that match in sound form are called homoforms.
Synonyms. Different words, especially words of the same lexical-semantic group, begin to be used synonymously in speech. For example, to denote a person’s living space, not only the words house and apartment are used, but also the words nest, hole, den.
Synonymy is the process of the speaker establishing the semantic similarity of words in a text.
Based on the predominance of one or another type of distinctive feature, three types of synonyms are distinguished. 1. Conceptual (or ideographic) synonyms. They differ from each other primarily in lexical meaning (frost - cold) 2. Stylistic (or functional) synonyms. They differ from each other in their scope of use. money - the colloquial word for pennies. 3. Synonyms emotional and evaluative. They openly express the speaker’s attitude towards the designated person, object or phenomenon. For example, a child can be solemnly called a child, affectionately a little boy and a little boy, contemptuously a boy and a sucker, and also intensified and contemptuously a puppy, a sucker, a brat.
Synonymy - the richness of language; knowledge of it and the ability to skillfully use it is an indicator high culture speech: synonyms help us convey our thoughts accurately, clearly and vividly.
Much less often than synonyms, in a language there is a combination of words that are opposite in their lexical meanings, for example: top - bottom, white - black, talk - be silent, loud - quiet. Unlike most synonyms, antonyms are combined not in rows, but in pairs. Antonymous pairs (unlike synonyms) differ not in stylistic and emotional-evaluative features, but almost exclusively in conceptual ones. There are two types of incompatible concepts - opposite (contrary) and contradictory (contradictory). 1. Contrary antonyms. They mean incompatible concepts, which not only deny each other, but also do not name the opposite in return. For example, the concepts “white” and “black” denote opposite concepts of color. 2. Contradictory antonyms. Contradictory antonyms usually have different roots: brave man - coward, darkness - light, day - night. They denote such incompatible concepts that completely negate each other. Between There is no one in between with contradictory concepts; moreover, the concept “non-white” excludes all other designations of color, including black.
Paronyms are words that sound similar, but differ in meaning. It is also common to mistakenly use one of them instead of the other. For example, addressee -address n T .
Paronymy is explained by unsteady knowledge of the meaning of one of the words or even both, and the incompetence of the speaker (writer) in the field of activity from which the word is taken. It is especially important to pay attention to paronyms when studying foreign languages, since many paronyms may not be distinguished by students foreign language due to discrepancies in
HOMONYMY AND ANTONYMY MORPHEME
1. Intramorphemic paradigmatics of morphemes. Formal variation of morphemes.
2. Intramorphemic paradigmatics of morphemes. Polysemy and homonymy of morphemes.
3. Intermorphemic paradigmatics of morphemes. Synonymy and antonymy of morphemes.
1
Another side of the systematic nature of morphemics is paradigmatics. Let us recall that paradigmatics is manifested in the fact that units (in our case, morphs within a morpheme or the morphemes themselves with each other), having common features by which they are opposed to other morphemes, at the same time differ from each other in some particular features. General basis, the basis for identifying modifying characteristics is called an invariant. Variants must be within the general invariant.
Typically, paradigmatic relations are the relations of commonality of certain units in form, in semantics, in form and semantics at the same time. Paradigmatics are possible intramorphemic and intermorphemic. The phenomena of intramorphemic paradigmatics include formal and semantic variation.
Formal variation of morphs within one morpheme means that certain elements that have formal proximity and identity of meaning are recognized by the native speaker as a kind of unity, i.e. are summarized by him into the morpheme: MOROZ-Y / MOROZ’-IT / WALRUS-ENOE / FREEZE-IVAT.
This phenomenon must be distinguished from the phonetic variation MOROZ [S] – MOROZY [Z]. Phonetic variation extends beyond the morpheme and is indifferent to it. We are talking about variants of a non-phonetic nature, determined by other patterns, which we above called morphonological. In the same way, the purely orthographically different renderings UT//YUT, RAS//RAZ are not a variation - in these cases we have one morph, just differently recorded.
Modifications of morphs within one morpheme are of two types (as in phonetics) depending on the types of relationships. Morphs can freely change each other (attitude free variation) and may be in a relationship positional conditionality (additional distribution): in one position one option is natural, in another – another option, and they do not intersect.
Morphs that are in relationships of free variation are called morpheme variants. They are possible complete: OKHONK // OSHENK (BELEKHONKY // WHITE), KOY // KOE (KOY-SOMEONE // SOMEONE), OY // OYU (SOUL // SOUL), EE // EY (comparative degree) B , LICE in the gerund – and partial: for example, Иj//j (HAPPINESS // HAPPINESS) exchange is not always possible (INACTION, CALM is not possible). An indicator of this type of variation is their possible semantic and stylistic marking. Due to this circumstance, some scientists do not consider them to be variants of morphemes, but consider them to be different morphemes.
Morphs that are in relation to a complementary positional distribution are called allomorphs. This is what we called in the last lecture a morphonologically significant position. For example, the change EC/C - CAP // CAP: the vowel E disappears only when a vowel appears after the morpheme.
Such conditioned modifications of morphs include, for example, the changes IZ//IZO (in the position before the root beginning with a combination of consonants); EN/N (KRASEN//RED – before the vowel appearing after the morph), ESTV//STV (FRIENDLY //RELATED – if the generating stem ends in a hissing sound); EK//IK (the school rule formulates the morphological position); CHIC//CHICK; fluent vowel (DAY//DAY); EY (II)//Y (NIGHTINGALE // NIGHTINGALE); L – epentheticum, SYA/SLY, etc. The indicator of allomorphs is their natural, regularly expected appearance in this position, which generalizes newly emerged words in the language, when there are no longer any reductions or palatalizations: FRANMUGA//FRANMUZHKA.
The regularity of distribution and repetition in certain positions can combine into one morpheme even such morphs that do not have a phonetic commonality: OVA/UY; change in the root K//CH, G//F, X//SH (ARM//HANDLE); K and OCH (WELD-K-A – SWAR-OCH-N-YY).
Roots and suffixes: IK-OTA and DOM-IK
Roots and postfixes: EITHER and SOMEONE
Prefixes and suffixes: IN-VARIANT and OSETRE-IN-A
Roots, prefixes and suffixes: OT, OT-BIT, DOBR-OT-A
Suffixes and endings: LIS-IY / BLUE-IY, CHITA-EM-Y and CHITA-EM
Prefixes, roots, suffixes and endings: A, A-MORAL, LEZH-A, TABLE-A
It is necessary to distinguish grammatical homonymy from lexical homonymy (as in lexicology): with grammatical homonymy, lexical similarity is preserved, but different grammatical functions: for example, O and ОY in names are endings, and in adverbs they turn into suffixes (EASY, WINTER).
3
Other cases of intermorphemic paradigmatic variation are synonymy and antonymy of morphemes.
The synonymy of morphemes differs from the phenomena of variation of morphs in that here there is a semantic convergence of dissimilar phonetically and positionally not determined segments. As in vocabulary, we talk about synonymy, meaning only one of the possible meanings (synonymy may not appear in another meaning).
Synonymy of prefixes. Derivative – PRE-NAST // THE BEST + TIME (CHERIOUS); YOU and FROM; NOT, WITHOUT, A with the meaning of negation; ANTI and AGAINST. Shape-building – MAKE // INVENT (soviet).
Synonymy of roots: like polysemy, it is expressed in that. Different, but similar in meaning, roots require different environments, compatibility of morphemes: BIG // HUGE
Synonymy of suffixes is the most common. Word-formation synonymy – TEL/CHIK/IST/NIK/ETS/ARY/ATOR/ANT with the meaning of an actor. K/B/N/NIY/OT/STV/ENIY/IY – with the meaning of abstract action. OST//IZN/STV/OTIN – with the meaning of an abstract attribute. Formative synonymy: НН//Т in the participle, B and A in the gerund. EE, E, SHE - to the degree of comparison.
Synonymy of postfixes: EITHER/EITHER.
Synonymy of endings: different endings of the same category in different types declination or conjugation. As in vocabulary, complete synonymy, as a rule, does not exist: morphemes differ either semantically, or stylistically, or semantically-stylistically.
Antonymy of morphemes also manifests itself in only one of the meanings of the morpheme that interests us.
Antonymy of roots manifests itself in the roots of words - lexical antonyms.
Antonymy of prefixes: ON//OFF, CLOSED// OPEN, CO-CLOSED//UNLOCKED.
Antonymy of suffixes. Derivative: GUS-AK / GUS-YNYA, CITIZEN-IN / CITIZEN-K-A; HOUSE-IK//HOUSE-IN-A; RUC-K-A//RUCH-ISCH-A. Formative: INCLUDE-I-TH/INCLUDE-A-TH; SAY-A-T//TELL-YVA-T.
Antonymy of inflections: singular//plural; husband//female etc.
As in vocabulary, a curious phenomenon occurs in morphemics enantiosemy. Let us recall that in this phenomenon, elements that have the same sound (as homonyms) have the opposite meaning (as antonyms) - “in one bottle.” Word-formation: ZA-RUST (perform an action) – ZA-SING (start an action). COVER (not completely) – THINK (completely perform an action). Formative: THROW-A-TH (unsov.vil) – SKAZ-A-TH (sov.view).
22. SYNCHRONIC LEXICOLOGY. POLYSEMY. HOMONYMY. SYNONYMY. ANTONYMY
Lexicology is the science of the vocabulary of a language. It is also called lexical, and the units included in it are lexemes. We can also call these units lexical forms of words. The fact is that the word is realized in speech in different forms: during the lexical period of phrase formation it is realized in its lexical form, in the morphological period - in morphological form, and in the syntactic period - in syntactic form.
The lexical form of a word (lexeme) is the starting point in constructing a new sentence. That is why it represents the initial, initial form of a word. The latter is usually understood as the nuclear form of the morphological paradigm. For nouns, for example, this is the nominative and singular form. In the morphological period, it can acquire the form of an oblique case or plural, and in the syntactic period, it can acquire one or another syntactic function (for example, become a carrier of new information - a rheme). Thus, lexemes are forms of words that the speaker deals with in the initial period of his activity, when he selects words as construction material for the offer it creates.
Suppose we are creating a sentence, one of the objects of which is man of science. What lexical possibilities do we have to designate it?
The first such possibility is nuclear(main, main) lexeme – “ scientist". The second possibility is synonym – « researcher" The third possibility is associated with the use of words with a generic meaning - hypernyms – « author, specialist, analyst", etc. The fourth possibility will be words with a specific meaning - hyponyms – « philosopher, physicist, biologist, psychologist, cultural scientist" Fifth possibility - proper name (onym)- For example, " IN AND. Vernadsky" Finally, the sixth possibility for designating a man of science would be trails, i.e. words in figurative meaning(for example, transferred from the religious sphere - “ soothsayer, soothsayer, prophet, magician, magician" and so on.).
What follows from this? It follows that the lexical system of a particular language can be constructed in the following sequence: nuclear vocabulary – synonymy – hyperonymy – hyponymy – onymy – polysemy(polysemy). But one more thing should be added to this chain. antonymy And homonymy. Antonyms and homonyms can also be associated in the speaker’s mind with words that he selects in the act of phrase formation (thus, in connection with the name of a person of science, antonyms may arise in his mind “ pseudoscientist, amateur, layman, adventurer, schemer, scholastic" and so on.). By tradition, we will consider here only four lexical phenomena– polysemy, homonymy, synonymy and antonymy.
Polysemy. Polysemy (polysemy) of a word is understood as its ability to act not only in a direct (primary) but also in a figurative (secondary) meaning. There are two types of polysemy - metaphor and metonymy. In the first case, the transfer of a word from the designation of one object to another is carried out by the similarity of these objects, and in the second - by contiguity (proximity, connection, relationship).
Metaphor – characteristic feature poetic speech. By the unusualness and novelty of the metaphors used in it, we largely judge the skill of its author. A brilliant metaphorist was A.S. Pushkin:
…Memory silently in front of me
Its long develops a scroll:
And, with disgust reading my life
I I'm in awe, and I curse
AND bitterly I'm complaining and bitterly I'm shedding tears -
But lines sad I don’t wash it off.
And take H.A. Nekrasova:
It's stuffy! without happiness and will,
Night infinitely long.
Storm would have struck, or what?
Bowl full to the brim!
Every first word in this quatrain is a metaphor.
However, metaphor is a sign not only of poetic, but also of our everyday prosaic speech. Let's not look far for an example and remember how men can call women. On the one side: swallow, darling, kitty, doe, sunshine etc., and on the other: cobra, cow, pig, mare, board, mop etc.
Metonymy is less common than metaphor, but it is also a frequent phenomenon in language. Her shining example– transfer of a proper name to an object associated with it: attic(named after the French architect), French(named after the English field marshal), Mauser And Browning(by the names of their inventors), bolivar(the hat is named after General Bolivar), etc. This also includes examples of this kind: I read Pushkin, listened Mozart, admired Repin etc., where we are not talking about artists as such, but about their works.
Homonymy. If with polysemy we are dealing with different meanings of the same word, then with homonymy we are dealing with different words that just sound the same. Take for example the English words spring« spring» , spring« spring» , spring« source, spring", and even simpler - Russians: braid(curled hair) braid(as a tool) and braid(near the shore).
Some homonyms appear in the language as a result of the disintegration of a polysemantic word: world(Universe)- world(friendship); feather(in a bird)- feather(as a writing tool), and the other - as a result of a random coincidence of words in form: onion(weapon) - onion(plant, germ, origin); marriage(marriage, from “to take”) – marriage(poor quality product, borrowed from German).
We see here only an external, sound similarity between these words, while in meaning they are different to such an extent that it is not possible to talk about polysemy here.
But it is not always easy to distinguish homonymy from polysemy. Let's start with this example: in English the word hand can be used in different meanings. Let's take only three of them: it can mean 1) wrist (he had a book in his hand); 2) handwriting (I know his hand); 3) worker, performer (a factory hand). How should we regard these meanings - as meanings of the same word or as homonyms? A.I. Smirnitsky in his book “Lexicology of the English Language” (Moscow, 1965, p. 156) considers the word hand as ambiguous. It is treated in a similar way in “ English-Russian dictionary" VC. Muller (M., 1967. P. 351). Moreover, to the four indicated meanings, this dictionary adds fourteen more! A.I. Smirnitsky and V.K. Müller is right: despite the fact that these meanings differ significantly from each other, the semantic proximity between them is still recognized, they are united by the image of a hand.
What about such cases: man in meaning " Human" and in the meaning " man» , men in meaning " men» ( men and women) and in the meaning " privates» ( men and officers)! Apparently, we have polysemy, since the “male” seme continues to unite all these meanings. We can think of these examples as a type synecdoche, which is included in metonymy and which involves the use of a part instead of the whole ( pars pro toto): men instead of people, privates instead of men.
But what about this example? Word table used in the following meanings: table(nuclear meaning), food, board, table. If the first three values still remain connected to each other ( food is on the table, the table is made of boards), then with table the situation is more complicated. Obviously, in this case we are no longer dealing with polysemy, but with homonymy. But V.K. Mueller disagrees.
He considers all these meanings as semantic variants of the same word, adding five others to them.
Lexicographers (compilers of lexical dictionaries) strive not to disperse a word into many homonyms, considering, as a rule, only undisputed cases as homonyms.
Homonyms are divided into full and partial. In the first case, we are dealing with the coincidence of homonymous words in all forms. Complete homonymy is possible only if the homonym words belong to the same part of speech (the case braids in Russian or spring in English). To belong to different parts speech provides partial homonymy: poem(poem)- poem(from " subside"), three(numeral) – three(from " rub"); English bear(bear)– bear(carry). Partial homonyms are otherwise called homoforms. In rare cases, homoforms belong to the same part of speech: I'm flying(from treat)- I'm flying(from fly), where homonymy disappears in other forms of the specified verbs ( you heal, you fly). A similar example was used by A.S. Pushkin:
And what does he do? spouse
Alone in absence spouse?
Homonymy allows poets to choose very beautiful rhymes:
In the mists, above the sparkle grew up,
Merciless, holy and wise,
I'm in the old grandfather's park grew up
And the sun gilded the curls.
It is necessary to distinguish from homonyms paronyms And homographs. The first are words that sound similar, but not completely ( dictation - dictate, addressee - addressee), and others are similar in spelling, but in sound diverge from each other in the place of stress ( castle - castle, flour - flour).
Synonymy. Synonyms are words that sound different but either have the same meaning ( alphabet - alphabet, export - export, linguistics - linguistics), or close (so, in English in a meaning close to the Russian word " silence", use the following synonyms: stilness, silence, calmness, quietness, tranguillity). In the first case, we are dealing with absolute (doublet) synonymy, and in the second - relative (relative).
There are few doublet synonyms in the language, since there is no particular need to have two (or more) words with exactly the same meaning. Another thing - relative synonymy. It allows you to express different semantic and stylistic shades of words with similar meanings ( wind - storm - blizzard - blizzard - blizzard, good - wonderful - wonderful - magnificent - lovely, sleep - rest - sleep, deceive - lie - lie - lie). Here is a poetic example from the last synonymous series:
I could have done more, but it was in a hurry,
However, treasure that
What happened lied for a laugh,
Never lied for lies.
(A.T. Tvardovsky)
In speech, synonyms act as homogeneous members of a sentence. A synonymous series can acquire such a breadth in speech that is absent in the language (synonymous dictionaries). Occasional synonyms endow general meaning context: " Let everything be - illness, prison, accident, but don’t fly like that, life!"(L.A. Filatov).
Antonymy. Antonyms, as you know, are words with opposite meanings ( god - devil, faith - unbelief, truth - lie, beauty - ugliness, poor - rich, good - evil).
There are two types of antonyms - single-rooted and multi-rooted. Examples of single-root antonyms: evolution - involution, moral - immoral, calm - restless, popular - anti-national, pass - fail. The opposite meaning here is due to the presence of a prefix with a negative meaning. Most of antonyms have different roots: light - darkness, day - night, life - death, youth - old age, love - hate etc. They were often used in his poems by M.Yu. Lermontov:
Was without joy Love,
There will be no separation sadness.
Antonymy is associated with enantiosemy. The latter refers to the appearance of opposite meanings for the same word. For example: I'll give you peace of mind(with ironic intonations) life!
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