Biography of Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Shlomo Freud, the creator of the movement that became famous under the name of depth psychology and psychoanalysis, was born on May 6, 1856 in the small Moravian town of Freiburg (now Příbor) into the family of a poor wool merchant. He was the first-born of a young mother. After Sigmund, the Freuds had five daughters and another son from 1858 to 1866. In 1859, when the wool trade declined, the family moved to Leipzig, and in 1860 the family moved to Vienna, where the future famous scientist lived for about 80 years. “Poverty and misery, misery and extreme squalor,” - this is how Freud recalled his childhood. There were 8 children in the large family, but only Sigmund stood out for his exceptional abilities, amazingly sharp mind and passion for reading. Therefore, his parents sought to create better conditions for him. While other children learned their lessons by candlelight, Sigmund was given a kerosene lamp. So that the children would not disturb him, they were not allowed to play music in front of him. For all eight years at the gymnasium, Freud sat on the first bench and was the best student. Freud felt his calling very early. “I want to know all the acts of nature that have taken place over thousands of years. Perhaps I will be able to listen to its endless process, and then I will share what I have acquired with everyone who thirsts for knowledge,” a 17-year-old high school student wrote to a friend. He amazed with his erudition, spoke Greek and Latin, read Hebrew, French and English, and knew Italian and Spanish.
He graduated from high school with honors at the age of 17 and entered the famous University of Vienna to study medicine in 1873.
Vienna was then the capital of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, its cultural and intellectual center. Outstanding professors taught at the university. While studying at the university, Freud joined the student union for the study of history, politics, and philosophy (this later affected his concepts of cultural development). But of particular interest to him were the natural sciences, the achievements of which produced a real revolution in minds in the middle of the last century, laying the foundation for modern knowledge about the body and living nature. From the great discoveries of this era - the law of conservation of energy and the law of evolution of the organic world established by Darwin - Freud drew the conviction that scientific knowledge is knowledge of the causes of phenomena under the strict control of experience. Freud relied on both laws when he later moved on to the study of human behavior. He imagined the body as a kind of apparatus, charged with energy, which is discharged either in normal or pathological reactions. Unlike physical apparatus, an organism is a product of the evolution of the entire human race and the life of an individual. These principles extended to the psyche. It was also considered, firstly, from the point of view of the individual’s energy resources, which serve as the “fuel” of his actions and experiences, and secondly, from the point of view of the development of this personality, which carries the memory of both the childhood of all humanity and one’s own childhood. Freud, thus, was brought up on the principles and ideals of precise, experimental natural science - physics and biology. He did not limit himself to describing phenomena, but looked for their causes and laws (this approach is known as determinism, and in all subsequent work Freud is a determinist). He followed these ideals when he moved into the field of psychology. His teacher was the outstanding European physiologist Ernst Brücke. Under his leadership, student Freud worked at the Vienna Institute of Physiology, sitting for many hours at a microscope. In his old age, being an internationally recognized psychologist, he wrote to one of his friends that he had never been as happy as during the years spent in the laboratory studying the structure of nerve cells in the spinal cord of animals. Freud retained the ability to work concentratedly, completely devoting himself to scientific pursuits, developed during this period, for subsequent decades.
In 1881, Freud graduated from the university. He intended to become a professional scientist. But Brücke did not have a vacant place at the physiological institute. Meanwhile, Freud's financial situation worsened. Difficulties intensified in connection with his upcoming marriage to Martha Verney, who was as poor as he was. I had to leave science and look for a means of subsistence. There was one way out - to become a practicing doctor, although he did not feel any attraction to this profession. He decided to go into private practice as a neurologist. To do this, he first had to go to work in a clinic, since he had no medical experience. At the clinic, Freud thoroughly mastered the methods of diagnosing and treating children with brain damage (patients with infantile paralysis), as well as various speech disorders (aphasia). His publications about this become known in scientific and medical circles. Freud gains a reputation as a highly qualified neurologist. He treated his patients using the methods of physiotherapy accepted at that time. It was believed that since the nervous system is a material organ, the painful changes that occur in it must have material causes. Therefore, they should be eliminated through physical procedures, influencing the patient with heat, water, electricity, etc. Very soon, however, Freud began to experience dissatisfaction with these physiotherapeutic procedures. The effectiveness of the treatment left much to be desired, and he thought about the possibility of using other methods, in particular hypnosis, using which some doctors achieved good results. One of these successfully practicing doctors was Joseph Breuer, who began to patronize the young Freud in everything (1884). They jointly discussed the causes of their patients’ illnesses and the prospects for treatment. The patients who approached them were mainly women suffering from hysteria. The disease manifested itself in various symptoms - fears (phobias), loss of sensitivity, aversion to food, split personality, hallucinations, spasms, etc.
Using mild hypnosis (a suggested state similar to sleep), Breuer and Freud asked their patients to talk about events that once accompanied the appearance of symptoms of the disease. It turned out that when patients managed to remember this and “talk it out,” the symptoms disappeared, at least for a while. Breuer called this effect the ancient Greek word “catharsis” (purification). Ancient philosophers used this word to denote the experiences caused in a person by the perception of works of art (music, tragedy). It was assumed that these works cleanse the soul of the affects that darken it, thereby bringing “harmless joy.” Breuer transferred this term from aesthetics to psychotherapy. Behind the concept of catharsis was the hypothesis according to which the symptoms of the disease arise due to the fact that the patient had previously experienced an intense, affectively colored attraction to some action. Symptoms (fears, spasms, etc.) symbolically replace this unrealized but desired action. The energy of attraction is discharged in a perverted form, as if “stuck” in organs that begin to work abnormally. Therefore, it was assumed that the main task of the doctor is to make the patient re-experience the suppressed attraction and thereby give the energy (neuro-psychic energy) a different direction, namely, to transfer it into the channel of catharsis, to defuse the suppressed attraction by telling the doctor about it. This version about affectively colored memories that traumatized the patient and were therefore repressed from consciousness, the disposal of which gives a therapeutic effect (movement disorders disappear, sensitivity is restored, etc.), contained the germ of Freud’s future psychoanalysis. First of all, in these clinical studies, the idea “cut through” to which Freud invariably returned. Conflict relations between consciousness and unconscious, but disrupting the normal course of behavior, mental states clearly came to the fore. Philosophers and psychologists have long known that behind the threshold of consciousness are past impressions, memories, and ideas that can influence its work. The new points on which the thought of Breuer and Freud lingered concerned, firstly, the resistance that consciousness provides to the unconscious, as a result of which diseases of the sensory organs and movements arise (up to temporary paralysis), and secondly, resorting to means that allow remove this resistance, first to hypnosis, and then to the so-called “free associations”, which will be discussed further. Hypnosis weakened control of consciousness, and sometimes completely removed it. This made it easier for the hypnotized patient to solve the task that Breuer and Freud set - to “pour out his soul” in a story about experiences repressed from consciousness.
In 1884, Freud, as a resident at the hospital, was sent a sample of cocaine for research. He publishes an article in a medical journal that ends with the words: “The use of cocaine, based on its anesthetic properties, will find its place in other cases.” This article was read by the surgeon Karl Koller, Freud's friend, and at the Stricker Institute of Experimental Pathology he conducted research on the anesthetic properties of cocaine on the eyes of a frog, a rabbit, a dog and his own. With the discovery of anesthesia by Koller, a new era began in ophthalmology - he became a benefactor of humanity. Freud indulged in painful thoughts for a long time and could not reconcile that the discovery did not belong to him.
In 1885, he received the title of privatdozent and was given a scholarship for a scientific internship abroad. French doctors used hypnosis especially successfully; to study their experience, Freud went to Paris for several months to see the famous neurologist Charcot (now his name is preserved in connection with one of the physiotherapeutic procedures - the so-called Charcot shower). He was a wonderful doctor, nicknamed the “Napoleon of neuroses.” Most of the royal families of Europe were treated by him. Freud, a young Viennese doctor, joined the large crowd of trainees who constantly accompanied the celebrity during rounds of patients and during sessions of their treatment with hypnosis. The incident helped Freud get closer to Charcot, to whom he approached with a proposal to translate his lectures into German. These lectures argued that the cause of hysteria, like any other disease, should be sought only in physiology, in disruption of the normal functioning of the body and nervous system. In one of his conversations with Freud, Charcot noted that the source of oddities in the behavior of a neurotic lies in the peculiarities of his sex life. This observation stuck in Freud’s head, especially since he himself and other doctors were faced with the dependence of nervous diseases on sexual factors. A few years later, under the influence of these observations and assumptions, Freud put forward a postulate that gave all his subsequent concepts, no matter what psychological problems they concerned, a special coloring and forever connected his name with the idea of \u200b\u200bthe omnipotence of sexuality in all human affairs. This idea about the role of sexual desire as the main driver of human behavior, their history and culture gave Freudianism a specific coloring and firmly associated it with ideas that reduce all the countless variety of manifestations of life to the direct or disguised intervention of sexual forces. This approach, designated by the term “pansexualism,” gained Freud enormous popularity in many Western countries - and far beyond the boundaries of psychology. This principle began to be seen as a kind of universal key to all human problems. 
As already mentioned, Breuer and Freud came to the clinic after working in a physiological laboratory for several years. Both were naturalists to the core and, before taking up medicine, they had already gained fame for their discoveries in the field of physiology of the nervous system. Therefore, in their medical practice, they, unlike ordinary empirical doctors, were guided by the theoretical ideas of advanced physiology. At that time, the nervous system was viewed as an energy machine. Breuer and Freud thought in terms of nervous energy. They assumed that its balance in the body is disturbed during neurosis (hysteria), returning to normal levels due to the discharge of this energy, which is catharsis. Being a brilliant expert on the structure of the nervous system, its cells and fibers, which he studied for years with a scalpel and a microscope, Freud made a brave attempt to sketch out a theoretical diagram of the processes occurring in the nervous system when its energy does not find a normal outlet, but is discharged along the paths leading to disruption of the organs of vision, hearing, muscles and other symptoms of the disease. Records have been preserved outlining this scheme, which has already received high praise from physiologists in our time. But Freud was extremely dissatisfied with his project (known as the "Project for Scientific Psychology"). Freud soon parted with him and with physiology, to which he had devoted years of hard work. This did not mean that from then on he considered turning to physiology pointless. On the contrary, Freud believed that over time knowledge about the nervous system would advance so far that a worthy physiological equivalent would be found for his psychoanalytic ideas. But he could not count on contemporary physiology, as his painful thoughts on the “Project of Scientific Psychology” showed.
Upon returning from Paris, Freud opens a private practice in Vienna. He immediately decides to try hypnosis on his patients. The first success was inspiring. In the first few weeks, he achieved instant healing of several patients. A rumor spread throughout Vienna that Dr. Freud was a miracle worker. But soon there were setbacks. He became disillusioned with hypnotic therapy, as he had been with drug and physical therapy.
In 1886, Freud married Martha Bernays. He met Martha, a fragile girl from a Jewish family, in 1882. They exchanged hundreds of letters, but met quite rarely. Subsequently, they had six children - Matilda (1887-1978), Jean Martin (1889-1967, named after Charcot), Oliver (1891-1969), Ernst (1892-1970), Sophia (1893-1920) and Anna ( 1895-1982). It was Anna who became a follower of her father, founded child psychoanalysis, systematized and developed psychoanalytic theory, and made a significant contribution to the theory and practice of psychoanalysis in her works. 
In 1895, Freud finally abandoned hypnosis and began to practice the method of free association - talking therapy, later called "psychoanalysis". He first used the concept of “psychoanalysis” in an article on the etiology of neuroses, published in French on March 30, 1896. From 1885 to 1899, Freud conducted intensive practice, engaged in in-depth self-analysis and worked on his most significant book, The Interpretation of Dreams. The exact date is known when Freud deciphered his first dream: July 14, 1895. Subsequent analyzes led him to the conclusion that unfulfilled desires come true in dreams. Sleep is a substitute for action; in its saving fantasy, the soul is freed from excess tension.
Continuing his practice as a psychotherapist, Freud turned from individual behavior to social behavior. In cultural monuments (myths, customs, art, literature, etc.) he sought the expression of the same complexes, the same sexual instincts and perverted ways of satisfying them. Following trends in the biologization of the human psyche, Freud extended the so-called biogenetic law to explain its development. According to this law, the individual development of an organism (ontogenesis) in a brief and condensed form repeats the main stages of development of the entire species (phylogeny). In relation to a child, this meant that, moving from one age to another, he follows the main stages that the human race has gone through in its history. Guided by this version, Freud argued that the core of the unconscious psyche of the modern child is formed from the ancient heritage of humanity. The unbridled instincts of our wild ancestors are reproduced in the child's fantasies and his desires. Freud did not have any objective data in favor of this scheme. It was purely speculative and speculative. Modern child psychology, having vast experimentally verified material on the evolution of child behavior, completely rejects this scheme. A carefully conducted comparison of the cultures of many peoples clearly speaks against it. It did not reveal those complexes that, according to Freud, hang like a curse over the entire human race and doom every mortal to neurosis. Freud hoped that by drawing information about sexual complexes not from the reactions of his patients, but from cultural monuments, he would give his schemes universality and greater persuasiveness. In fact, his excursions into the field of history only strengthened distrust in scientific circles towards the claims of psychoanalysis. His appeal to data concerning the psyche of “primitive people”, “savages” (Freud relied on the literature of anthropology), aimed to prove the similarity between their thinking and behavior and the symptoms of neuroses. This was discussed in his work “Totem and Taboo” (1913).
Since then, Freud took the path of applying the concepts of his psychoanalysis to fundamental questions of religion, morality, and the history of society. It was a path that turned out to be a dead end. Social relationships of people do not depend on sexual complexes, not on libido and its transformations, but it is the nature and structure of these relationships that ultimately determine the mental life of an individual, including the motives of his behavior.
Not these cultural and historical researches of Freud, but his ideas concerning the role of unconscious drives both in neuroses and in everyday life, his orientation towards deep psychotherapy became the center of unification around Freud of a large community of doctors, psychiatrists, and psychotherapists. The time has passed when his books did not arouse any interest. Thus, it took 8 years for the book “The Interpretation of Dreams,” printed in an edition of 600 copies, to be sold out. These days, in the West, the same number of copies are sold monthly. International fame comes to Freud.
In 1907, he established contact with the school of psychiatrists from Zurich and the young Swiss doctor K.G. became his student. Jung. Freud pinned great hopes on this man - he considered him the best successor to his brainchild, capable of leading the psychoanalytic community. The year 1907, according to Freud himself, was a turning point in the history of the psychoanalytic movement - he received a letter from E. Bleuler, who was the first in scientific circles to express official recognition of Freud's theory. In March 1908, Freud became an honorary citizen of Vienna. By 1908, Freud had followers all over the world, the “Wednesday Psychological Society”, which met at Freud’s, was transformed into the “Vienna Psychoanalytic Society”. In 1909, he was invited to the USA; many scientists listened to his lectures, including the patriarch of American psychology, William James. Hugging Freud, he said: “The future is yours.”
In 1910, the First International Congress on Psychoanalysis met in Nuremberg. True, soon among this community, which declared psychoanalysis a special science different from psychology, strife began that led to its collapse. Many of Freud's closest associates broke with him yesterday and created their own schools and directions. Among them were, in particular, researchers who became major psychologists, such as Alfred Adler and Carl Jung. Most parted with Freud because of his adherence to the principle of the omnipotence of the sexual instinct. Both the facts of psychotherapy and their theoretical understanding spoke against this dogma.
Soon Freud himself had to make adjustments to his scheme. Life forced me to do this. The First World War broke out. Among the military doctors there were also those familiar with the methods of psychoanalysis. The patients they now had suffered from neuroses associated not with sexual experiences, but with the traumatic experiences of wartime. Freud also encountered these patients. His previous concept of neurotic dreams, which arose under the influence of the treatment of the Viennese bourgeois at the end of the 19th century, turned out to be unsuitable for interpreting the mental trauma that arose in combat conditions among yesterday's soldiers and officers. The fixation of Freud's new patients on these traumas caused by an encounter with death gave him reason to put forward a version of a special drive, as powerful as sexual, and therefore provoking a painful fixation on events associated with fear, causing anxiety, etc. This special the instinct that lies, along with the sexual, in the foundation of any form of behavior, Freud designated by the ancient Greek term Thanatos, as the antipode of Eros - a force that, according to Plato’s philosophy, means love in the broad sense of the word, therefore, not only sexual love. The name Thanatos meant a special attraction to death, to the destruction of either others or oneself. Thus, aggressiveness was elevated to the rank of an eternal biological impulse inherent in the very nature of man. The idea of the primordial aggressiveness of man once again exposed the anti-historicism of Freud’s concept, permeated with disbelief in the possibility of eliminating the causes that give rise to violence.
In 1915-1917 He gave a large course at the University of Vienna, published under the title "Introductory Lectures in Psychoanalysis." The course required additions, which he published in the form of 8 lectures in 1933.
In January 1920, Freud was awarded the title of full professor at the university. An indicator of real glory was the honoring in 1922 by the University of London of five great geniuses of mankind - Philo, Memonides, Spinoza, Freud and Einstein.
In 1923, fate subjected Freud to severe trials: he developed jaw cancer caused by an addiction to cigars. Operations on this occasion were constantly carried out and tormented him until the end of his life.
In 1933, fascism came to power in Germany. Among the books burned by the ideologists of the “new order” were Freud’s books. Upon learning of this, Freud exclaimed: “What progress we have made! In the Middle Ages they would have burned me, in our days they are content to burn my books.” He did not suspect that several years would pass, and millions of Jews and other victims of Nazism would die in the ovens of Auschwitz and Majdanek, including Freud's four sisters. He himself, a world-famous scientist, would have faced the same fate after the capture of Austria by the Nazis if, through the mediation of the American ambassador in France, it had not been possible to obtain permission for his emigration to England. Before leaving, he had to give a signature that the Gestapo had treated him politely and carefully and that he had no reason to complain. Putting his signature, Freud asked: is it possible to add to this that he can cordially recommend the Gestapo to everyone? In England, Freud was greeted with enthusiasm, but his days were numbered. He suffered from pain, and at his request, his attending physician Max Schur gave two injections of morphine, which put an end to the suffering. This happened in London on September 21, 1939.
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On December 7, 1938, a BBC team visited Sigmund Freud at his new flat in north London, Hampstead. Just a few months earlier, he had moved from Austria to England to escape Nazi persecution. Freud is 81, his speech is extremely difficult - he has incurable cancer of the jaw. On that day, the only known audio recording of the voice of Sigmund Freud, the creator of psychoanalysis and one of the most influential intellectual figures of the 20th century, was created.
Text of his speech:
I started my professional activity as a neurologist trying to bring relief to my neurotic patients. Under the influence of an older friend and by my own efforts, I discovered some important new facts about the unconscious in psychic life, the role of instinctual urges, and so on. Out of these findings grew a new science, psychoanalysis, a part of psychology, and a new method of treatment of the neuroses. I had to pay heavily for this bit of good luck. People did not believe in my facts and thought my theories unsavory. Resistance was strong and unrelenting. In the end I succeeded in acquiring pupils and building up an International Psychoanalytic Association.But the struggle is not yet over.
I began my professional career as a neurologist, trying to bring relief to my neurotic patients. Under the influence of an older friend and my own efforts, I discovered a number of important new facts about the unconscious in mental life, the role of instinctive drives, and so on. From these discoveries grew a new science - psychoanalysis, part of psychology, and a new method of treating neuroses. I had to pay dearly for this little piece of luck. People didn't believe my facts and thought my theories were dubious. The resistance was strong and relentless. In the end I managed to find students and I created the International Psychoanalytic Association. But the fight is not over yet.
Sigmund Freud (Freud; German: Sigmund Freud; full name: Sigismund Shlomo Freud, German: Sigismund Schlomo Freud). Born 6 May 1856 in Freiberg, Austrian Empire - died 23 September 1939 in London. Austrian psychologist, psychiatrist and neurologist.
Sigmund Freud is best known as the founder of psychoanalysis, which had a significant influence on psychology, medicine, sociology, anthropology, literature and art of the 20th century. Freud's views on human nature were innovative for his time and throughout the researcher's life they continued to cause resonance and criticism in the scientific community. Interest in the scientist’s theories continues to this day.
Among Freud's achievements, the most important are the development of a three-component structural model of the psyche (consisting of the “Id”, “I” and “Super-Ego”), the identification of specific phases of psychosexual personality development, the creation of the theory of the Oedipus complex, the discovery of defense mechanisms functioning in the psyche, the psychologization of the concept the "unconscious", the discovery of transference and counter-transference, and the development of therapeutic techniques such as free association and dream interpretation.
Despite the fact that the influence of Freud's ideas and personality on psychology is undeniable, many researchers consider his works to be intellectual quackery. Almost every postulate fundamental to Freudian theory has been criticized by prominent scientists and writers, such as Erich Fromm, Albert Ellis, Karl Kraus and many others. The empirical basis of Freud’s theory was called “inadequate” by Frederick Crews and Adolf Grünbaum, psychoanalysis was called “fraud” by Peter Medawar, Freud’s theory was considered pseudoscientific by Karl Popper, which did not stop, however, the outstanding Austrian psychiatrist and psychotherapist, director of the Vienna Neurological Clinic, from writing his fundamental work “ Theory and therapy of neuroses” admit: “And yet, it seems to me, psychoanalysis will be the foundation for the psychotherapy of the future... Therefore, the contribution made by Freud to the creation of psychotherapy does not lose its value, and what he did is incomparable.”
During his life, Freud wrote and published a huge number of scientific works - the complete collection of his works consists of 24 volumes. He held the titles of Doctor of Medicine, Professor, Honorary Doctor of Laws from Clark University and was a Foreign Fellow of the Royal Society of London, winner of the Goethe Prize, and an Honorary Fellow of the American Psychoanalytic Association, the French Psychoanalytic Society and the British Psychological Society. Many biographical books have been published not only about psychoanalysis, but also about the scientist himself. Each year, more works are published on Freud than on any other psychological theorist.
Sigmund Freud was born on May 6, 1856 in the small (about 4,500 inhabitants) town of Freiberg in Moravia, which at that time belonged to Austria. The street where Freud was born - Schlossergasse - now bears his name. Freud's paternal grandfather's name was Shlomo Freud; he died in February 1856, shortly before the birth of his grandson - it was in his honor that the latter was named.
Sigmund's father, Jacob Freud, was married twice and from his first marriage had two sons - Philip and Emmanuel (Emmanuel). He married for the second time at the age of 40 - to Amalia Nathanson, who was half his age. Sigmund's parents were Jews who came from Germany. Jacob Freud had his own modest textile trading business. Sigmund lived in Freiberg for the first three years of his life, until in 1859 the consequences of the industrial revolution in Central Europe dealt a crushing blow to his father’s small business, practically ruining it - as did almost all of Freiberg, which found itself in significant decline: after that As the restoration of the nearby railway was completed, the city experienced a period of rising unemployment. In the same year, the Freud couple had a daughter, Anna.
The family decided to move and left Freiberg, moving to Leipzig - the Freuds spent only a year there and, without achieving significant success, moved to Vienna. Sigmund survived the move from his hometown quite hard - the forced separation from his half-brother Philip, with whom he was on close friendly terms, had a particularly strong impact on the child’s condition: Philip even partially replaced Sigmund’s father. The Freud family, being in a difficult financial situation, settled in one of the poorest areas of the city - Leopoldstadt, which at that time was a kind of Viennese ghetto, inhabited by the poor, refugees, prostitutes, gypsies, proletarians and Jews. Soon things began to improve for Jacob, and the Freuds were able to move to a more suitable place to live, although they could not afford luxury. At the same time, Sigmund became seriously interested in literature - he retained the love of reading, instilled by his father, for the rest of his life.
After graduating from high school, Sigmund doubted his future profession for a long time - his choice, however, was quite meager due to his social status and the anti-Semitic sentiment that reigned at that time and was limited to commerce, industry, law and medicine. The first two options were immediately rejected by the young man due to his high education; jurisprudence also faded into the background along with youthful ambitions in the field of politics and military affairs. Freud received the impetus to make a final decision from Goethe - one day, having heard the professor read an essay by the thinker entitled “Nature” at one of his lectures, Sigmund decided to enroll in the Faculty of Medicine. So, Freud’s choice fell on medicine, although he did not have the slightest interest in the latter - he subsequently admitted this more than once and wrote: “I did not feel any predisposition to practice medicine and the profession of a doctor,” and in later years he even said that in medicine, I never felt “at ease”, and in general I never considered myself a real doctor.
In the fall of 1873, seventeen-year-old Sigmund Freud entered the medical faculty of the University of Vienna. The first year of study was not directly related to the subsequent specialty and consisted of many courses of a humanitarian nature - Sigmund attended numerous seminars and lectures, still not finally choosing a specialty to his taste. During this time, he experienced many difficulties associated with his nationality - due to the anti-Semitic sentiment that reigned in society, numerous clashes occurred between him and his classmates. Steadfastly enduring regular ridicule and attacks from his peers, Sigmund began to develop resilience of character, the ability to give a worthy rebuff in an argument and the ability to withstand criticism: “From early childhood I was forced to get used to the lot of being in opposition and being banned by “majority agreement.” Thus the foundations were laid for a certain degree of independence in judgment.".
Sigmund began to study anatomy and chemistry, but received the greatest pleasure from the lectures of the famous physiologist and psychologist Ernst von Brücke, who had a significant influence on him. In addition, Freud attended classes taught by the eminent zoologist Karl Klaus; acquaintance with this scientist opened up broad prospects for independent research practice and scientific work, to which Sigmund gravitated. The efforts of the ambitious student were crowned with success, and in 1876 he got the opportunity to carry out his first research work at the Institute of Zoological Research of Trieste, one of the departments of which was headed by Klaus. It was there that Freud wrote the first article published by the Academy of Sciences; it was devoted to identifying sex differences in river eels. While working under the leadership of Klaus “Freud quickly distinguished himself among other students, which allowed him to become a fellow of the Institute of Zoological Research of Trieste twice, in 1875 and 1876.”.
Freud remained interested in zoology, but after receiving a position as a research fellow at the Institute of Physiology, he became completely influenced by Brücke’s psychological ideas and moved to his laboratory for scientific work, leaving zoological research. “Under his [Brücke’s] leadership, student Freud worked at the Vienna Institute of Physiology, sitting for many hours at a microscope. ...He was never as happy as during the years spent in the laboratory studying the structure of nerve cells in the spinal cord of animals.”. Scientific work completely captured Freud; he studied, among other things, the detailed structure of animal and plant tissues and wrote several articles on anatomy and neurology. Here, at the Physiological Institute, in the late 1870s, Freud met the doctor Joseph Breuer, with whom he developed a strong friendship; Both of them had similar characters and a common outlook on life, so they quickly found mutual understanding. Freud admired Breuer's scientific talents and learned a lot from him: “He became my friend and helper in the difficult conditions of my existence. We are used to sharing all our scientific interests with him. Naturally, I received the main benefit from these relationships.”.
In 1881, Freud passed his final exams with excellent marks and received a doctorate, which, however, did not change his lifestyle - he remained to work in the laboratory under Brücke, hoping to eventually take the next vacant position and firmly associate himself with scientific work . Freud's supervisor, seeing his ambition and considering the financial difficulties he faced due to his family's poverty, decided to dissuade Sigmund from pursuing a research career. In one of his letters, Brücke noted: “Young man, you have chosen a path that leads to nowhere. There are no vacancies in the psychology department for the next 20 years, and you don’t have enough money to make a living. I don’t see any other solution: leave the institute and start practicing medicine.”. Freud heeded the advice of his teacher - to a certain extent this was facilitated by the fact that in the same year he met Martha Bernays, fell in love with her and decided to marry her; in connection with this, Freud needed money. Martha belonged to a Jewish family with rich cultural traditions - her grandfather, Isaac Bernays, was a rabbi in Hamburg, and his two sons, Michael and Jacob, taught at the Universities of Munich and Bonn. Martha's father, Berman Bernays, worked as a secretary for Lorenz von Stein.
Freud did not have sufficient experience to open a private practice - at the University of Vienna he acquired exclusively theoretical knowledge, while clinical practice had to be developed independently. Freud decided that the Vienna City Hospital was best suited for this. Sigmund started with surgery, but abandoned the idea after two months, finding the work too tedious. Deciding to change his field of activity, Freud switched to neurology, in which he was able to achieve certain success - studying methods for diagnosing and treating children with paralysis, as well as various speech disorders (aphasia), he published a number of works on these topics, which became known in scientific and medical circles. He owns the term “cerebral palsy” (now generally accepted). Freud gained a reputation as a highly qualified neurologist. At the same time, his passion for medicine quickly faded, and in the third year of work at the Vienna Clinic, Sigmund was completely disappointed in it.
In 1883, he decided to go to work in the psychiatric department, headed by Theodor Meynert, a recognized scientific authority in his field. The period of work under the leadership of Meynert was very productive for Freud - exploring the problems of comparative anatomy and histology, he published such scientific works as “A case of cerebral hemorrhage with a complex of basic indirect symptoms associated with scurvy” (1884), “On the question of the intermediate location olive body", "A case of muscle atrophy with extensive loss of sensitivity (impaired pain and temperature sensitivity)" (1885), "Complex acute neuritis of the nerves of the spinal cord and brain", "Origin of the auditory nerve", "Observation of severe unilateral loss of sensitivity in a patient with hysteria "(1886).
In addition, Freud wrote articles for the General Medical Dictionary and created a number of other works on cerebral hemiplegia in children and aphasia. For the first time in his life, work overwhelmed Sigmund and turned into a true passion for him. At the same time, the young man, who was striving for scientific recognition, felt a feeling of dissatisfaction with his work, since, in his own opinion, he had not achieved truly significant success; Freud's psychological state rapidly deteriorated, he was regularly in a state of melancholy and depression.
For a short time, Freud worked in the venereal division of the dermatology department, where he studied the connection between syphilis and diseases of the nervous system. He devoted his free time to laboratory research. In an effort to expand his practical skills as much as possible for further independent private practice, from January 1884 Freud moved to the department of nervous diseases. Soon after, a cholera epidemic broke out in Austria's neighboring Montenegro, and the country's government asked for help in providing medical control at the border - most of Freud's senior colleagues volunteered, and his immediate supervisor was on a two-month vacation at the time; Due to the prevailing circumstances, Freud held the position of chief physician of the department for a long time.
In 1884, Freud read about the experiments of a certain German military doctor with a new drug - cocaine. Scientific papers have included claims that this substance can increase endurance and significantly reduce fatigue. Freud became extremely interested in what he read and decided to conduct a series of experiments on himself.
The first mention of this substance by scientists is dated April 21, 1884 - in one of his letters Freud noted: “I have obtained some cocaine and will try to test its effects in cases of heart disease and also in cases of nervous exhaustion, especially in the terrible state of morphine withdrawal.”. The effect of cocaine made a strong impression on the scientist; he characterized the drug as an effective analgesic, making it possible to carry out the most complex surgical operations; An enthusiastic article about the substance came from the pen of Freud in 1884 and was called "About Coke". For a long time, the scientist used cocaine as a painkiller, using it himself and prescribing it to his fiancée Martha. Admired by the “magical” properties of cocaine, Freud insisted on its use by his friend Ernst Fleischl von Marxow, who was sick with a serious infectious disease, had a finger amputated and suffered from severe headaches (and also suffered from morphine addiction).
Freud advised his friend to use cocaine as a cure for morphine abuse. The desired result was never achieved - von Marxov subsequently quickly became addicted to the new substance, and he began to have frequent attacks similar to delirium tremens, accompanied by terrible pain and hallucinations. At the same time, reports began to arrive from all over Europe about cocaine poisoning and addiction to it, about the disastrous consequences of its use.
However, Freud's enthusiasm did not diminish - he investigated cocaine as an anesthetic for various surgical operations. The result of the scientist’s work was a voluminous publication in the “Central Journal of General Therapy” about cocaine, in which Freud outlined the history of the use of coca leaves by South American Indians, described the history of the plant’s penetration into Europe and detailed the results of his own observations of the effect produced by the use of cocaine. In the spring of 1885, the scientist gave a lecture on this substance, in which he acknowledged the possible negative consequences of its use, but noted that he had not observed any cases of addiction (this happened before von Marxov’s condition worsened). Freud ended the lecture with the words: “I have no hesitation in recommending the use of cocaine in subcutaneous injections of 0.3-0.5 grams, without worrying about its accumulation in the body.”. Criticism was not long in coming - already in June the first major works appeared, condemning Freud's position and proving its inconsistency. Scientific controversy regarding the advisability of using cocaine continued until 1887. During this period, Freud published several more works - “On the issue of studying the effects of cocaine” (1885), "On the General Effects of Cocaine" (1885), "Cocaine addiction and cocaine phobia" (1887).
By the beginning of 1887, science had finally debunked the latest myths about cocaine - it “was publicly condemned as one of the scourges of mankind, along with opium and alcohol.” Freud, by that time already a cocaine addict, suffered from headaches, heart attacks and frequent nosebleeds until 1900. It is noteworthy that Freud not only experienced the destructive effects of a dangerous substance on himself, but also unwittingly (since at that time the harmfulness of cocaine addiction had not yet been proven) spread it to many acquaintances. E. Jones stubbornly hid this fact of his biography and preferred not to highlight it, but this information became reliably known from published letters in which Jones stated: “Before the dangers of drugs were identified, Freud was already a social menace, as he pushed everyone he knew to take cocaine.”.
In 1885, Freud decided to take part in a competition held among junior doctors, the winner of which received the right to a scientific internship in Paris with the famous psychiatrist Jean Charcot.
In addition to Freud himself, there were many promising doctors among the applicants, and Sigmund was by no means the favorite, as he was well aware of; his only chance was the help of influential professors and scientists in academic circles with whom he had previously had the opportunity to work. Enlisting the support of Brücke, Meynert, Leydesdorff (in his private clinic for the mentally ill, Freud briefly replaced one of the doctors) and several other scientists he knew, Freud won the competition, receiving thirteen votes in his support against eight. The chance to study under Charcot was a great success for Sigmund; he had great hopes for the future in connection with the upcoming trip. So, shortly before leaving, he enthusiastically wrote to his bride: “Little Princess, my little Princess. Oh, how wonderful it will be! I’ll come with money... Then I’ll go to Paris, become a great scientist and return to Vienna with a big, simply huge halo over my head, we’ll get married right away, and I’ll cure all the incurable neurotic patients.”.
In the autumn of 1885, Freud arrived in Paris to see Charcot, who at that time was at the zenith of his fame. Charcot studied the causes and treatment of hysteria. In particular, the neurologist's main work was to study the use of hypnosis - the use of this method allowed him to both induce and eliminate such hysterical symptoms as paralysis of the limbs, blindness and deafness. Under Charcot, Freud worked at the Salpêtrière clinic. Inspired by Charcot's methods of work and amazed by his clinical successes, he offered his services as a translator of his mentor's lectures into German, for which he received his permission.
In Paris, Freud became interested in neuropathology, studying the differences between patients who experienced paralysis due to physical trauma and those who developed symptoms of paralysis due to hysteria. Freud was able to establish that hysterical patients vary greatly in the severity of paralysis and the location of the injuries, and also revealed (with the help of Charcot) the presence of certain connections between hysteria and problems of a sexual nature. At the end of February 1886, Freud left Paris and decided to spend some time in Berlin, having the opportunity to study childhood diseases at the clinic of Adolf Baginsky, where he spent several weeks before returning to Vienna.
On September 13 of the same year, Freud married his beloved Martha Bernay, who subsequently bore him six children - Matilda (1887-1978), Martin (1889-1969), Oliver (1891-1969), Ernst (1892-1966), Sophie ( 1893-1920) and Anna (1895-1982). After returning to Austria, Freud began working at the institute under the direction of Max Kassovitz. He was engaged in translations and reviews of scientific literature, and conducted a private practice, mainly working with neurotics, which “urgently put on the agenda the question of therapy, which was not so relevant for scientists engaged in research activities.” Freud knew about the successes of his friend Breuer and the possibilities of successfully using his “cathartic method” for treating neuroses (this method was discovered by Breuer while working with the patient Anna O, and was later reused together with Freud and was first described in Studies on Hysteria). , but Charcot, who remained an indisputable authority for Sigmund, was very skeptical about this technique. Freud's own experience told him that Breuer's research was very promising; Beginning in December 1887, he increasingly resorted to the use of hypnotic suggestion when working with patients.
While working with Breuer, Freud gradually began to realize the imperfection of the cathartic method and hypnosis in general. In practice, it turned out that its effectiveness was not nearly as high as Breuer claimed, and in some cases the treatment did not bring results at all - in particular, hypnosis was not able to overcome the patient's resistance, expressed in the suppression of traumatic memories. Often there were patients who were not at all suitable for induction into a hypnotic state, and the condition of some patients worsened after the sessions. Between 1892 and 1895, Freud began searching for another method of treatment that would be more effective than hypnosis. To begin with, Freud tried to get rid of the need to use hypnosis, using a methodological trick - pressing on the forehead in order to suggest to the patient that he must remember events and experiences that had previously taken place in his life. The main task that the scientist solved was to obtain the required information about the patient’s past in his normal (and not hypnotic) state. The use of the palm overlay had some effect, allowing one to move away from hypnosis, but it still remained an imperfect technique, and Freud continued to search for a solution to the problem.
The answer to the question that so occupied the scientist turned out to be quite accidentally suggested by a book by one of Freud’s favorite writers, Ludwig Börne. His essay “The Art of Becoming an Original Writer in Three Days” ended with the words: “Write everything that you think about yourself, about your successes, about the Turkish war, about Goethe, about the criminal trial and its judges, about your bosses - and in three days you will be amazed at how much completely new, unknown things lie hidden in you ideas for you". This idea prompted Freud to use the entire array of information that clients reported about themselves in dialogues with him as a key to understanding their psyche.
Subsequently, the method of free association became the main method in Freud's work with patients. Many patients have reported that doctor pressure—the persistent pressure to “talk out” every thought that comes to mind—makes it difficult for them to concentrate. That is why Freud abandoned the “methodological trick” of pressing the forehead and allowed his clients to say whatever they wanted. The essence of the free association technique is to follow the rule according to which the patient is invited to freely, without concealment, express his thoughts on the topic proposed by the psychoanalyst, without trying to concentrate. Thus, according to Freud's theoretical principles, thought will unconsciously move towards what is significant (what worries), overcoming resistance due to lack of concentration. From Freud's point of view, no emerging thought is random - it is always a derivative of the processes that occurred (and are occurring) with the patient. Any association can become fundamentally important for establishing the causes of the disease. The use of this method made it possible to completely abandon the use of hypnosis in sessions and, according to Freud himself, served as an impetus for the formation and development of psychoanalysis.
The result of the joint work of Freud and Breuer was the publication of the book "Studies in Hysteria" (1895). The main clinical case described in this work - the case of Anna O - gave impetus to the emergence of one of the most important ideas for Freudianism - the concept of transference (this idea first arose in Freud when he was thinking about the case of Anna O, who was a patient at that time Breuer, who told the latter that she was expecting a child from him and imitated childbirth in a state of insanity), and also formed the basis of later ideas about the Oedipus complex and infantile (childish) sexuality. Summarizing the data obtained during the collaboration, Freud wrote: “Our hysterical patients suffer from memories. Their symptoms are remnants and symbols of memories of known (traumatic) experiences.". The publication of “Studies in Hysteria” is called by many researchers the “birthday” of psychoanalysis. It is worth noting that by the time the work was published, Freud’s relationship with Breuer had completely broken down. The reasons for the divergence of scientists in professional views to this day remain not entirely clear; Freud's close friend and biographer Ernest Jones believed that Breuer categorically did not accept Freud's views on the important role of sexuality in the etiology of hysteria, and this was the main reason for their breakup.
Many respected Viennese doctors - Freud's mentors and colleagues - turned their backs on him following Breuer. The statement that it was repressed memories (thoughts, ideas) of a sexual nature that underlie hysteria provoked a scandal and formed an extremely negative attitude towards Freud on the part of the intellectual elite. At the same time, the scientist began to develop a long-term friendship with Wilhelm Fliess, a Berlin otolaryngologist who attended his lectures for some time. Fliess soon became very close to Freud, rejected by the academic community, having lost old friends and desperately in need of support and understanding. Friendship with Fliss turned into a true passion for him, comparable to his love for his wife.
On October 23, 1896, Jacob Freud died, whose death Sigmund felt especially acutely: against the background of Freud’s despair and feeling of loneliness, neurosis began to develop. It was for this reason that Freud decided to apply analysis to himself, examining childhood memories using the method of free association. This experience laid the foundations of psychoanalysis. None of the previous methods was suitable for achieving the desired result, and then Freud turned to the study of his own dreams.
In the period from 1897 to 1899, Freud worked intensively on the work that he later considered his most important work - “The Interpretation of Dreams” (1900, German: Die Traumdeutung). An important role in preparing the book for publication was played by Wilhelm Fliess, to whom Freud sent the written chapters for evaluation - it was at Fliess’s suggestion that many details were removed from the Interpretation. Immediately after its publication, the book did not have any significant impact on the public and received only minor fame. The psychiatric community generally ignored the release of The Interpretation of Dreams. The importance of this work for the scientist throughout his life remained undeniable - for example, in the preface to the third English edition in 1931, seventy-five-year-old Freud wrote: “This book... in full accordance with my current ideas... contains the most valuable of the discoveries that favorable fate has allowed me to make. Insights of this kind fall to a person’s lot, but only once in a lifetime.”.
According to Freud, dreams have manifest and latent content. Explicit content is directly what a person talks about when remembering his dream. The hidden content is a hallucinatory fulfillment of some desire of the dreamer, masked by certain visual pictures with the active participation of the I, which seeks to bypass the censorship restrictions of the Superego, which suppresses this desire. The interpretation of dreams, according to Freud, is that on the basis of free associations that are sought for individual parts of dreams, it is possible to evoke certain substitute ideas that open the way to the true (hidden) content of the dream. Thus, thanks to the interpretation of dream fragments, its general meaning is recreated. The process of interpretation is the “translation” of the explicit content of a dream into those hidden thoughts that initiated it.
Freud expressed the opinion that the images perceived by the dreamer are the result of dream work, expressed in displacement (unimportant ideas acquire a high value originally inherent in another phenomenon), condensation (in one idea many meanings formed through associative chains coincide) and substitution (replacement specific thoughts with symbols and images) that transform the latent content of a dream into explicit. A person's thoughts are transformed into certain images and symbols through the process of visual and symbolic representation - in relation to dreams, Freud called this the primary process. Next, these images are transformed into some meaningful content (the plot of the dream appears) - this is how secondary processing (secondary process) functions. However, secondary processing may not occur - in this case, the dream turns into a stream of strangely intertwined images, becomes abrupt and fragmentary.
Despite the very cool reaction of the scientific community to the release of The Interpretation of Dreams, Freud gradually began to form around himself a group of like-minded people who became interested in his theories and views. Freud began to be occasionally accepted in psychiatric circles, sometimes using his techniques in his work; medical journals began to publish reviews of his works. Since 1902, the scientist regularly hosted doctors, artists and writers interested in the development and dissemination of psychoanalytic ideas in his home. The weekly meetings were started by one of Freud's patients, Wilhelm Stekel, who had previously successfully completed his course of treatment for neurosis; It was Stekel, in one of his letters, who invited Freud to meet at his house to discuss his work, to which the doctor agreed, inviting Stekel himself and several particularly interested listeners - Max Kahane, Rudolf Reuther and Alfred Adler.
The formed club was named "Psychological Society on Wednesdays"; its meetings were held until 1908. Over the course of six years, the society acquired a fairly large number of listeners, the composition of which changed regularly. It steadily gained popularity: “It turned out that psychoanalysis gradually aroused interest in itself and found friends, and proved that there are scientific workers ready to recognize it.”. Thus, the members of the “Psychological Society” who subsequently received the greatest fame were Alfred Adler (a member of the society since 1902), Paul Federn (from 1903), Otto Rank, Isidor Sadger (both from 1906), Max Eitingon, Ludwig Biswanger and Karl Abraham (all from 1907), Abraham Brill, Ernest Jones and Sandor Ferenczi (all from 1908). On April 15, 1908, the society was reorganized and received a new name - the “Vienna Psychoanalytic Association”.
The time of development of the “Psychological Society” and the growing popularity of the ideas of psychoanalysis coincided with one of the most productive periods in Freud’s work - his books were published: “The Psychopathology of Everyday Life” (1901, which discusses one of the important aspects of the theory of psychoanalysis, namely slips of the tongue), "Wit and Its Relation to the Unconscious" and "Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality" (both 1905). Freud's popularity as a scientist and medical practitioner grew steadily: “Freud’s private practice grew so large that it took up the entire working week. Very few of his patients, then or later, were residents of Vienna. Most of the patients came from Eastern Europe: Russia, Hungary, Poland, Romania, etc.”.
Freud's ideas began to gain popularity abroad - interest in his works manifested itself especially clearly in the Swiss city of Zurich, where, since 1902, psychoanalytic concepts were actively used in psychiatry by Eugen Bleuler and his colleague Carl Gustav Jung, who were engaged in research on schizophrenia. Jung, who highly valued Freud's ideas and admired him himself, published The Psychology of Dementia Praecox in 1906, which was based on his own developments of Freud's concepts. The latter, having received this work from Jung, rated it quite highly, and a correspondence began between the two scientists that lasted almost seven years. Freud and Jung first met in person in 1907 - the young researcher greatly impressed Freud, who, in turn, believed that Jung was destined to become his scientific heir and continue the development of psychoanalysis.
In 1908, the official psychoanalytic congress took place in Salzburg - rather modestly organized, it took only one day, but was in fact the first international event in the history of psychoanalysis. Among the speakers, in addition to Freud himself, there were 8 people who presented their work; the meeting attracted only 40-odd listeners. It was during this speech that Freud first presented one of the five main clinical cases - the case history of the “Rat Man” (also translated as “The Man with Rats”), or the psychoanalysis of obsessive-compulsive neurosis. The real success that opened the way for psychoanalysis to international recognition was Freud's invitation to the United States - in 1909, Granville Stanley Hall invited him to give a course of lectures at Clark University (Worcester, Massachusetts).
Freud's lectures were received with great enthusiasm and interest, and the scientist was awarded an honorary doctorate. More and more patients from all over the world turned to him for consultations. Upon his return to Vienna, Freud continued to publish, publishing several works, including The Family Romance of Neurotics and Analysis of a Phobia in a Five-Year-Old Boy. Encouraged by the successful reception in the United States and the growing popularity of psychoanalysis, Freud and Jung decided to organize a second psychoanalytic congress, held in Nuremberg on March 30–31, 1910. The scientific part of the congress was successful, unlike the unofficial one. On the one hand, the International Psychoanalytic Association was established, but at the same time, Freud's closest associates began to divide into opposing groups.
Despite the disagreements within the psychoanalytic community, Freud did not stop his own scientific work - in 1910 he published Five Lectures on Psychoanalysis (which he read at Clark University) and several other small works. In the same year, the book “Leonardo da Vinci. Childhood memories”, dedicated to the great Italian artist.
After the second psychoanalytic congress in Nuremberg, the conflicts that had been brewing by that time escalated to the limit, marking the beginning of a split in the ranks of Freud’s closest associates and colleagues. The first to leave Freud's inner circle was Alfred Adler, whose disagreements with the founding father of psychoanalysis began in 1907, when his work “A Study of Organ Inferiority” was published, which caused the indignation of many psychoanalysts. In addition, Adler was greatly disturbed by the attention that Freud paid to his protégé Jung; in this regard, Jones (who characterized Adler as “a gloomy and captious man, whose behavior fluctuates between grumpiness and sullenness”) wrote: “Any unchecked childhood complexes could find expression in rivalry and jealousy for his [Freud’s] favor. The demand to be a “favorite child” also had an important material motive, since the economic position of young analysts largely depended on the patients whom Freud could refer to them.. Due to the preferences of Freud, who placed the main emphasis on Jung, and Adler’s ambition, the relationship between them rapidly deteriorated. At the same time, Adler constantly quarreled with other psychoanalysts, defending the priority of his ideas.
Freud and Adler disagreed on a number of points. Firstly, Adler considered the desire for power to be the main motive determining human behavior, while Freud assigned the main role to sexuality. Secondly, the emphasis in Adler’s personality studies was placed on a person’s social environment - Freud paid most attention to the unconscious. Thirdly, Adler considered the Oedipus complex to be a fabrication, and this completely contradicted Freud's ideas. However, while rejecting the ideas fundamental to Adler, the founder of psychoanalysis recognized their importance and partial validity. Despite this, Freud was forced to expel Adler from the psychoanalytic society, obeying the demands of the rest of its members. Adler's example was followed by his closest ally and friend Wilhelm Stekel.
A short time later, Carl Gustav Jung also left the circle of Freud's closest associates - their relationship was completely spoiled by differences in scientific views; Jung did not accept Freud's position that repressions are always explained by sexual trauma, and besides, he was actively interested in mythological images, spiritualistic phenomena and occult theories, which greatly irritated Freud. Moreover, Jung disputed one of the main provisions of Freudian theory: he considered the unconscious not an individual phenomenon, but the heritage of the ancestors - all people who have ever lived in the world, that is, he considered it as "collective unconscious".
Jung also did not accept Freud’s views on libido: if for the latter this concept meant psychic energy fundamental to the manifestations of sexuality, aimed at various objects, then for Jung libido was simply a designation of general tension. The final break between the two scientists occurred after the publication of Jung's Symbols of Transformation (1912), which criticized and challenged Freud's basic postulates, and turned out to be extremely painful for both of them. In addition to the fact that Freud lost a very close friend, differences in views with Jung, in whom he initially saw a successor, a continuator of the development of psychoanalysis, were a strong blow for him. The loss of support from the entire Zurich school also played a role - with the departure of Jung, the psychoanalytic movement lost a number of talented scientists.
In 1913, Freud completed a long and very complex work on his fundamental work "Totem and Taboo". “Not since I wrote The Interpretation of Dreams have I worked on anything with such confidence and enthusiasm.”, he wrote about this book. Among other things, the work devoted to the psychology of primitive peoples was considered by Freud as one of the largest scientific counter-arguments to the Zurich school of psychoanalysis led by Jung: “Totem and Taboo,” according to the author, was supposed to finally separate his inner circle from the dissidents.
The First World War began, and Vienna fell into decay, which naturally affected Freud’s practice. The scientist's economic situation rapidly deteriorated, as a result of which he developed depression. The newly formed Committee turned out to be the last circle of like-minded people in Freud’s life: “We became the last comrades he was ever destined to have,” recalled Ernest Jones. Freud, experiencing financial difficulties and having enough free time due to the decreased number of patients, resumed his scientific work: “Freud withdrew into himself and turned to scientific work. ...Science personified his work, his passion, his relaxation and was a saving grace from external adversities and internal experiences.” The following years became very productive for him - in 1914, the works “Michelangelo’s Moses”, “An Introduction to Narcissism” and “Essay on the History of Psychoanalysis” came out from his pen. At the same time, Freud worked on a series of essays that Ernest Jones calls the deepest and most important in the scientist’s scientific work - these are “The Drives and Their Fate”, “Repression”, “The Unconscious”, “Metapsychological Addition to the Doctrine of Dreams” and “Sadness and Melancholy "
During the same period, Freud returned to the previously abandoned concept of "metapsychology" (the term was first used in a letter to Fliess in 1896). It became one of the key ones in his theory. By the word “metapsychology” Freud understood the theoretical foundation of psychoanalysis, as well as a specific approach to the study of the psyche. According to the scientist, a psychological explanation can be considered complete (that is, “metapsychological”) only if it establishes the presence of a conflict or connection between the levels of the psyche (topography), determines the amount and type of energy expended (economics) and the balance of forces in consciousness, which can be aimed at working together or opposing each other (dynamics). A year later, the work “Metapsychology” was published, explaining the main provisions of his teaching.
With the end of the war, Freud's life only changed for the worse - he was forced to spend the money he had saved for his old age, there were even fewer patients, one of his daughters, Sophia, died of the flu. Nevertheless, the scientist’s scientific activity did not stop - he wrote the works “Beyond the Pleasure Principle” (1920), “Psychology of the Masses” (1921), “I and It” (1923).
In April 1923, Freud was diagnosed with a tumor of the palate; the operation to remove it was unsuccessful and almost cost the scientist his life. Subsequently, he had to undergo another 32 operations. Soon the cancer began to spread, and Freud had part of his jaw removed - from that moment on, he used an extremely painful prosthesis that left non-healing wounds, in addition to which it also prevented him from speaking. The darkest period in Freud's life began: he could no longer give lectures because his audience did not understand him. Until his death, his daughter Anna took care of him: “It was she who went to congresses and conferences, where she read out the texts of speeches prepared by her father.” The series of sad events for Freud continued: at the age of four, his grandson Heinele (the son of the late Sophia) died of tuberculosis, and some time later his close friend Karl Abraham died; Freud began to be overcome by sadness and grief, and words about his own approaching death began to appear more and more often in his letters.
In the summer of 1930, Freud was awarded the Goethe Prize for his significant contribution to science and literature, which brought great satisfaction to the scientist and contributed to the spread of psychoanalysis in Germany. However, this event was overshadowed by another loss: at the age of ninety-five, Freud’s mother Amalia died of gangrene. The most terrible trials for the scientist were just beginning - in 1933, Adolf Hitler was elected Chancellor of Germany, and National Socialism became the state ideology. The new government adopted a number of discriminatory laws directed against Jews, and books that contradicted Nazi ideology were destroyed. Along with the works of Heine, Marx, Mann, Kafka and Einstein, the works of Freud were also banned. The Psychoanalytic Association was dissolved by government order, many of its members were persecuted, and its funds were confiscated. Many of Freud's associates persistently suggested that he leave the country, but he flatly refused.
In 1938, after the annexation of Austria to Germany and the subsequent persecution of Jews by the Nazis, Freud's situation became significantly more complicated. After the arrest of his daughter Anna and interrogation by the Gestapo, Freud decided to leave the Third Reich and go to England. It turned out to be difficult to implement the plan: in exchange for the right to leave the country, the authorities demanded an impressive amount of money, which Freud did not have. The scientist had to resort to the help of influential friends to obtain permission to emigrate. Thus, his longtime friend William Bullitt, then the US Ambassador to France, interceded on Freud's behalf with President Franklin Roosevelt. The German ambassador to France, Count von Welzeck, also joined the petitions. Through joint efforts, Freud received the right to leave the country, but the issue of “debt to the German government” remained unresolved. Freud was helped to resolve it by his longtime friend (as well as patient and student) Marie Bonaparte, Princess of Greece and Denmark, who lent the necessary funds.
In the summer of 1939, Freud suffered especially greatly from a progressive illness. The scientist turned to Dr. Max Schur, who was caring for him, recalling his earlier promise to help him die. At first Anna, who never left her sick father’s side, resisted his wishes, but soon agreed. On September 23, Schur injected Freud with several cubes of morphine - a dose sufficient to terminate the life of an old man weakened by illness. At three o'clock in the morning, Sigmund Freud died. The scientist's body was cremated in Golders Green, and the ashes were placed in an ancient Etruscan vase given to Freud by Marie Bonaparte. A vase containing the scientist's ashes stands in the Ernest George Mausoleum in Golders Green.
On the night of January 1, 2014, unknown persons snuck into the crematorium where a vase containing the ashes of Martha and Sigmund Freud stood and broke it. Now the London police have taken up the matter. The caretakers of the crematorium moved the vase with the ashes of the couple to a safe place. The reasons for the attacker's action are not clear.
Works of Sigmund Freud:
1899 Interpretation of Dreams
1901 Psychopathology of everyday life
1905 Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality
1913 Totem and Taboo
1920 Beyond the pleasure principle
1921 Psychology of masses and analysis of the human “I”
1927 The Future of an Illusion
1930 Cultural Discontent
The need to earn money did not allow him to remain at the department; he entered first the Physiological Institute, and then the Vienna Hospital, where he worked as a doctor.
In 1885, Freud received the title of Privatdozent and was given a scholarship for a scientific internship abroad.
In 1885-1886 he trained in Paris with psychiatrist Jean-Martin Charcot at the Salpêtrière clinic. Under the influence of his ideas, he came to the idea that the cause of psychoneural diseases could be unobservable dynamic trauma to the psyche.
Upon returning from Paris, Freud opened a private practice in Vienna, where he used the method of hypnosis to treat patients. At first, the method seemed effective: in the first few weeks, Freud achieved instant healing of several patients. But failures soon appeared, and he became disillusioned with hypnotic therapy.
Freud turned his attention to the study of hysteria and made significant contributions to the field through the use of free association (or "talk therapy"). The results of his joint research with the Austrian physician Joseph Breuer on hysterical phenomena and problems of psychotherapy were published under the title “Studies on Hysteria” (1895).
In 1892, Freud developed and used a new therapeutic method - the method of insistence, focused on constantly forcing the patient to remember and reproduce traumatic situations and factors. In 1895, he came to the conclusion that it was fundamentally illegal to identify the mental and the conscious and that it was important to study unconscious mental processes.
From 1896 to 1902, Sigmund Freud developed the foundations of psychoanalysis. He substantiated an innovative dynamic and energetic model of the human psyche, consisting of three systems: unconscious - preconscious - conscious.
He first used the concept of “psychoanalysis” in an article on the etiology of neuroses, published in French on March 30, 1896.
The psychoanalytic method of treating patients, developed by Freud, consists of analyzing, according to certain rules, the associations spontaneously arising in the patient regarding any element of his mental life (method of free associations), interpretation of dreams, as well as various erroneous actions (slips of the tongue, slips of the tongue, forgetting, etc.) .p.) with the aim of isolating, with the help of psychoanalysis, the true (unconscious) causes of these phenomena and bringing these causes to the consciousness of the patient.
The result of the generalization of Freud's psychoanalytic research of this period was the classic works “Interpretation of Dreams” (1900), “Psychopathology of Everyday Life” (1901), “Wit and Its Relation to the Unconscious” (1905), etc., published at the beginning of the 20th century.
The causes of many neuroses in Freud's patients at that time were various sexual problems, so Freud turned to studies of sexuality and its development in childhood. Since then, Freud placed the development of sexuality at the center of all mental development of a person ("Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality", 1905) and tried to explain to them such phenomena of human culture as art ("Leonardo da Vinci", 1913), the features of the psychology of primitive peoples ( "Totem and Taboo", 1913), etc.
In 1902, Freud became a professor at the University of Vienna.
In 1908 (together with Eugen Bleuler and Carl Gustav Jung) he founded the Yearbook of Psychoanalytic and Psychopathological Research, and in 1910 the International Psychoanalytic Association.
In 1912, Freud founded the periodical International Journal of Medical Psychoanalysis.
In 1915-1917, he lectured on psychoanalysis at the University of Vienna and prepared them for publication. At the same time, his new works were published, in which he continued his research into the secrets of the unconscious.
In January 1920, Freud was awarded the title of full professor at the University of Vienna.
In the 1920s, the scientist developed new problems of psychoanalysis: he revised the doctrine of drives ("Beyond the pleasure principle", 1920), highlighting the "drive to life" and "drive to death", proposed a new model of personality structure (I, It and Super-Ego), extended the ideas of psychoanalysis to the understanding of almost all aspects of social life.
In 1927, he published the book “The Future of an Illusion” - a psychoanalytic panorama of the past, present and future of religion, interpreting the latter in the status of obsessive neurosis. In 1929 he published one of his most philosophical works, “Anxiety in Culture.” In it, Freud described the theory according to which it is not Eros, libido, will and human desire in themselves that are the subject of the thinker’s creativity, but a set of desires in a state of permanent conflict with the world of cultural institutions, social imperatives and prohibitions, personified in parents, various authorities, social idols, etc. In 1939, Freud published the book “Moses and Monotheism,” dedicated to the psychoanalytic understanding of philosophical and cultural problems.
In 1930, Freud was awarded the Literary Prize. Goethe. He was elected an honorary member of the American Psychoanalytic Association, the French Psychoanalytic Society, and the British Royal Medical and Psychological Association.
In 1938, after the capture of Austria by Nazi Germany, Freud emigrated to Great Britain.
In 1923, Freud was diagnosed with jaw cancer caused by his addiction to cigars. Operations on this occasion were carried out constantly and tormented him until the end of his life. In the summer of 1939, Sigmund Freud's health began to deteriorate, and he died on September 23 of that year.
Freud's works had a tremendous impact on previously existing ideas about man and his world, and laid the foundation for the formation of new ideas and psychological theories.
There are museums named after him in St. Petersburg, Vienna, London, and Pribor. Freud. Monuments to Freud are erected in London, Pribor, Prague.
Sigmund Freud was married to Martha Bernays and had six children. The youngest daughter Anna (1895-1982) became a follower of her father, founded child psychoanalysis, systematized and developed psychoanalytic theory, and made a significant contribution to the theory and practice of psychoanalysis in her works.
The material was prepared based on information from RIA Novosti and open sources
Freud S., 1856-1939). An outstanding doctor and psychologist, founder of psychoanalysis. F. was born in the Moravian city of Freiburg. In 1860, the family moved to Vienna, where he graduated from high school with honors, then entered the medical faculty of the university and in 1881 received the degree of Doctor of Medicine.
F. dreamed of devoting himself to theoretical research in the field of neurology, but was forced to engage in private practice as a neuropathologist. He was not satisfied with the physiotherapeutic procedures used at that time to treat neurological patients, and he turned to hypnosis. Under the influence of medical practice, F. developed an interest in mental disorders of a functional nature. In 1885-1886 he visited the Charcot clinic (J.M. Charcot) in Paris, where hypnosis was used in the study and treatment of hysterical patients. In 1889 - a trip to Nancy and acquaintance with the works of another French school of hypnosis. This trip contributed to the fact that F. formed an idea about the basic mechanism of functional mental illness, about the presence of mental processes that, being outside the sphere of consciousness, influence behavior, and the patient himself does not know about it.
The decisive moment in the development of F.'s original theory was the departure from hypnosis as a means of penetration into forgotten experiences underlying neuroses. In many and even the most severe cases, hypnosis remained powerless, as it met resistance that it could not overcome. F. was forced to look for other paths to pathogenic affects and eventually found them in the interpretation of dreams, freely emerging associations, small and large psychopathological manifestations, excessively increased or decreased sensitivity, movement disorders, slips of the tongue, forgetting, etc. He paid special attention drew attention to the phenomenon of the patient transferring to the doctor feelings that took place in early childhood in relation to significant persons.
F. called the study and interpretation of this diverse material psychoanalysis - the original form of psychotherapy and research method. The core of psychoanalysis as a new psychological direction is the doctrine of the unconscious.
F.'s scientific activity spans several decades, during which his concept underwent significant changes, which gives grounds for conditionally distinguishing three periods.
In the first period, psychoanalysis mainly remained a method of treating neuroses, with occasional attempts at general conclusions about the nature of mental life. Such works by F. of this period as “The Interpretation of Dreams” (1900) and “The Psychopathology of Everyday Life” (1901) have not lost their significance. F. considered suppressed sexual desire to be the main driving force of human behavior - “Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality” (1905). At this time, psychoanalysis began to gain popularity, and a circle formed around F. of representatives of various professions (doctors, writers, artists) who wanted to study psychoanalysis (1902). F.'s extension of the facts obtained from the study of psychoneuroses to the understanding of the mental life of healthy people was met with very critical attention.
In the second period, the concept of psychology turned into a general psychological doctrine of personality and its development. In 1909, he gave lectures in the USA, which were later published as a complete, albeit brief, presentation of psychoanalysis - “On Psychoanalysis: Five Lectures” (1910). The most common work is the "Lectures on Introduction to Psychoanalysis", the first two volumes of which are a recording of lectures given to doctors in 1916-1917.
In the third period, F.'s teaching - Freudianism - underwent significant changes and received its philosophical completion. Psychoanalytic theory has become the basis for understanding culture, religion, and civilization. The doctrine of instincts was supplemented by ideas about the attraction to death and destruction - “Beyond the pleasure principle” (1920). These ideas, obtained by F. in the treatment of wartime neuroses, led him to the conclusion that wars are a consequence of the death instinct, that is, they are caused by human nature. The description of the three-component model of human personality - “I and It” (1923) dates back to the same period.
Thus, F. developed a number of hypotheses, models, and concepts that captured the uniqueness of the psyche and were firmly included in the arsenal of scientific knowledge about it. The range of scientific analysis involved phenomena that traditional academic psychology was not accustomed to taking into account.
After the occupation of Austria by the Nazis, F. was persecuted. The International Union of Psychoanalytic Societies, having paid a significant amount of money to the fascist authorities in the form of a ransom, obtained permission for F. to leave for England. In England he was greeted enthusiastically, but F.'s days were numbered. He died on September 23, 1939, aged 83, in London.
FREUD Sigmund
1856–1939) – Austrian neurologist, founder of psychoanalysis. Born on May 6, 1856 in Freiberg (now Příbor), located near the border of Moravia and Silesia, approximately two hundred and forty kilometers northeast of Vienna. Seven days later, the boy was circumcised and given two names - Shlomo and Sigismund. He inherited the Hebrew name Shlomo from his grandfather, who died two and a half months before the birth of his grandson. Only when he turned sixteen years old did the young man change his name Sigismund to the name Sigmund.
His father Jacob Freud married Amalia Nathanson, Freud's mother, being much older than her and having two sons from his first marriage, one of whom was the same age as Amalia. At the time of the birth of their first child, Freud's father was 41 years old, while his mother was three months away from turning 21. Over the next ten years, seven children were born into the Freud family - five daughters and two sons, one of whom died a few months after his birth, when Sigismund was less than two years old.
Due to a number of circumstances related to economic decline, the rise of nationalism and the futility of further life in a small town, Freud’s family moved in 1859 to Leipzig, and then a year later to Vienna. Freud lived in the capital of the Austrian Empire for almost 80 years.
During this time, he brilliantly graduated from high school; in 1873, at the age of 17, he entered the medical faculty of the University of Vienna, from which he graduated in 1881, receiving a medical degree. For several years, Freud worked at the E. Brücke Physiological Institute and the Vienna City Hospital. In 1885–1886, he completed a six-month internship in Paris with the famous French doctor J. Charcot in Salpêtrière. Upon returning from his internship, he married Martha Bernays, eventually becoming the father of six children - three daughters and three sons.
Having opened a private practice in 1886, S. Freud used various methods of treating nervous patients and put forward his understanding of the origin of neuroses. In the 90s of the nineteenth century, he laid the foundations for a new method of research and treatment, called psychoanalysis. At the beginning of the twentieth century, he developed the psychoanalytic ideas he put forward.
Over the next two decades, S. Freud made further contributions to the theory and technique of classical psychoanalysis, used his ideas and methods of treatment in private practice, wrote and published numerous works devoted to clarifying his original ideas about human unconscious drives and the use of psychoanalytic ideas in various fields knowledge.
Z. Freud received international recognition, was friends and corresponded with such outstanding figures of science and culture as Albert Einstein, Thomas Mann, Romain Roland, Arnold Zweig, Stefan Zweig and many others.
In 1922, the University of London and the Jewish Historical Society organized a series of lectures on five famous Jewish philosophers, including Freud, along with Philo, Maimonides, Spinoza, and Einstein. In 1924, the Vienna City Council awarded Z. Freud the title of honorary citizen. On his seventieth birthday, he received congratulatory telegrams and letters from all over the world. In 1930 he was awarded the Goethe Literary Prize. In honor of his seventy-fifth birthday, a memorial plaque was erected in Freiberg on the house in which he was born.
On the occasion of S. Freud's eightieth birthday, Thomas Mann read out an address he had written before the Academic Society of Medical Psychology. The appeal bore about two hundred signatures of famous writers and artists, including Virginia Woolf, Hermann Hess, Salvador Dali, James Joyce, Pablo Picasso, Romain Roland, Stefan Zweig, Aldous Huxley, and Herbert Wells.
S. Freud was elected an honorary member of the American Psychoanalytic Association, the French Psychoanalytic Society, and the British Royal Medical-Psychological Association. He was given the official title of Corresponding Fellow of the Royal Society.
After the Nazi invasion of Austria in March 1938, the life of S. Freud and his family was under threat. The Nazis seized the library of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, visited the house of S. Freud, conducting a thorough search there, confiscated his bank account, and summoned his children, Martin and Anna Freud, to the Gestapo.
Thanks to the help and support of the American Ambassador to France, W.S. Bullitt, Princess Marie Bonaparte and other influential persons, S. Freud received permission to leave and at the beginning of June 1938 left Vienna to move to London through Paris.
S. Freud spent the last year and a half of his life in England. In the very first days of his stay in London, he was visited by Herbert Wells, Bronislav Malinowski, Stefan Zweig, who brought with him Salvador Dali, secretaries of the Royal Society, acquaintances, friends. Despite his advanced age, the development of cancer, which was first discovered in him in April 1923, accompanied by numerous operations and steadfastly endured by him for 16 years, S. Freud carried out almost daily analyzes of patients and continued to work on his handwritten materials.
On September 21, 1938, S. Freud asked his attending physician Max Schur to fulfill the promise he had made to him ten years earlier at their first meeting. To avoid unbearable suffering, M. Schur twice injected his famous patient with a small dose of morphine, which turned out to be sufficient for the dignified death of the founder of psychoanalysis. On September 23, 1939, S. Freud died without learning that a few years later his four sisters who remained in Vienna would be burned in a crematorium by the Nazis.
From the pen of S. Freud came not only various works devoted to the technique of medical use of psychoanalysis, but also such books as “The Interpretation of Dreams” (1900), “Psychopathology of Everyday Life” (1901), “Wit and Its Relation to the Unconscious” (1905), “Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality” (1905), “Delusions and Dreams in V. Jensen’s Gradiva” (1907), “Memories of Leonardo da Vinci” (1910), “Totem and Taboo” (1913) , “Lectures on Introduction to Psychoanalysis” (1916/17), “Beyond the Pleasure Principle” (1920), “Mass Psychology and Analysis of the Human Self” (1921), “I and Id” (1923), “Inhibition, Symptom and fear" (1926), "The Future of an Illusion" (1927), "Dostoevsky and Parricide" (1928), "Discontent with Culture" (1930), "Moses the Man and the Monotheistic Religion" (1938) and others.
Alexander/ 01/8/2019 erfolg.ru/erfolg/v_vyasmin.htm
An article by Vadim Vyazmin: Painting, Psychoanalysis and the Golden Game is available at this link.
“Sigmund Freud is a great feat of one, individual person! - made humanity more conscious; I'm talking more conscious, not happier. He deepened the picture of the world for an entire generation, I say deepened, not embellished. For the radical never gives happiness, it brings with it only certainty” (Stefan Zweig).
Anna/ 03/06/2016 I advise everyone who is tormented by mental problems to read dissatisfaction with culture several times. Especially the last three chapters. This is the solution to all your problems.
Reader1989/ 01/19/2016 Freud, Jung, Adler, Fromm, like many other people, felt other people’s mood (good or bad), will, and mind. But everyone described these qualities in their own way.
Each of them adjusted the facts to their own theory and interpreted the facts in their own way. On the contrary, it is necessary that the theory be created on the basis of facts, so that the theory logically, clearly, clearly, and consistently describes the facts.
I don't want to say that they were bad psychologists. Each of them was right in some way (or maybe in many ways). But still there is too much subjectivity.
They (even Freud and Adler) could describe any action or character of a person in mutually exclusive ways. This means that at least one of them is wrong. This also applies to other psychologists.
Sad/ 01/07/2016 Freud was a member of the Masonic Jewish community... Freud's views on people. nature in many ways do not combine with information from the books of Bekhtereva Natalya Petrovna - Soviet and Russian neurophysiologist. Academician of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences (1975). Academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1981). Since 1990 - scientific director of the Brain Center of the USSR Academy of Sciences
doChtor/ 01/05/2016 Freud only said that the psychic energy of a person is of sexual origin and therefore sexually colored, but it serves not only sexual purposes, but in general all the goals of a person in society. This is the essence of sublimation. This is the destiny of all instincts in the atmosphere of society. Not only in humans, but in animals. All instincts are deprived to a certain extent of their individual purpose and are forced to serve the interests of a society of people or a pack. " ------ - question: if creativity, etc. is sublimation, that we are driven by hormones, then how to justify creativity in young children, creativity in those who were born without ovaries and testicles (this happens)?)) I advise you to read with the more scientific work of sociobiologists such as M. Bowen - one of the few who have beautifully explained human behavior from a scientific point of view (with all due respect to the largely subjective work of Freud)
And Freud does not need to be “defended”; let the truth (if it exists) prove itself in the form of a scientific experiment. Freud wrote well, but if he were understood correctly (without taking phrases out of context) many of his adherents would simply leave him, because... Freud was by no means a proponent of sex; he positioned himself as quite emotionally restrained in this regard, extremely subject to the morality of bourgeois society.
question/ 01/05/2016 learn biology better)) Much of Freud and others is purely subjective. The WHO currently recommends a behavioral approach. Still, there must be some objective evidence))
/ 11/19/2015 You guys have nothing to do. And this is the worst thing
/ 10/8/2015 Thanks to Freud, I realized a long time ago that all our emotions and behavior are deeply sexual. We cannot deny what is inherent in us by nature, no matter how much we disagree with it.
Guest/ 08/15/2015 no matter what anyone throws at Freud, the basics of his teaching are very significant, in particular, the components of the psyche (id, ego and supoego), and his statement regarding the existence of a supernatural mind (god) really pleased me: people are afraid of non-existence and therefore, in order to sweeten the bitterness of death, I invented bullshit about eternal life, about heaven and hell and other crap... remember from Gogol: the Pipels want a miracle and I can give it to them, because I have traveled a lot and know how to create a new religion... - > i.e. rule the stupid herd of ignoramuses, hehe
Valera/ 3.11.2014 Sigmund Freud - I and It (audio book)
http://turbobit.net/6rncs5r51pl8.html
Guest/ 3.11.2014 audio options
Essay on the history of psychoanalysis http://turbobit.net/zhm0gfctnrxx.html
Introduction to Psychoanalysis
http://turbobit.net/o625zzasovlh.html
Dissatisfaction with culture
http://turbobit.net/0ff4wrh2ukdc.html
Psychology religion culture
http://turbobit.net/5c4btrz6o935.html
Psychopathology of everyday life
http://turbobit.net/pk2cgcporvwn.html
Anna Aleksandrovna/ 04/01/2014 Freud is one of the best psychologists....Very interesting books!
Lyokha/ 01/16/2014 I realized that Freud’s books are some of the best and help you understand not only yourself but also those to whom you want to provide invaluable help. How many books on psychology have I read and Freud helps you look at the “bottom of the Ocean” and not just float on the surface of a drop of the ocean ...
Maria/ 12/9/2013 he did not live in the UK from 1938, but in the USA
Disappointed optimist/ 10/20/2013 Dear Doctor, I am concerned about a different kind of problem...why do people want to be psychotherapists...is it really out of love for humanity and the masses? Perhaps they just like to push some buttons in people and enjoy secret power or simply rejoice in the fact that someone has even more problems than they do. Agree, the coolest way to make money. haha. Doctor, I see that you have a great future. You need to get on the big air, and there you can promote Freud, as well as the correct pronunciation. Why stoop to squabbles on a site where almost no one can hear you? Professionals don't mess with amateurs. Well, I don’t know about you in Paris, but here in Washington it’s a wonderful autumn day. No respect.
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