Physiological bases of temperament

People have long tried to find an organic basis for temperament. There are three main systems of explanations for its essence, where the first two are currently only of historical interest and are based on biological concepts of temperament. Let us first consider how ideas about the biological foundations of temperament have changed.

The idea and doctrine of temperament in their origins go back to the works of the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates. He described the main types of temperaments, gave them characteristics, however, he connected temperament not with the properties of the nervous system, but with the ratio of various fluids in the body: blood, phlegm (from the Greek phlegma - mucus) and bile. It was believed that each liquid has a special property and special purpose. The property of blood is warmth, and its purpose is to warm the body. The property of phlegm is cold and it serves to cool the body. The property of yellow bile is dryness. Purpose - to maintain dryness in the body, "dry" it. Mine

the content of black bile is dampness. It makes it possible to maintain dampness, moisture in the body. Proceeding from this theory, the most famous physician of antiquity after Hippocrates, Claudius Galen, developed the first typology of temperaments, which he outlined in the famous treatise "De temperamentum" (from Latin temperamentum - proportionality, correct measure). This first classification of temperaments was called humoral.

Humoral the theory connected the state of the body with the ratio of various fluids in it, in connection with which four types of temperament were distinguished. It was believed that if blood predominates (Latin "sanguis"), then the temperament will be sanguine, if bile ("chole") - choleric, if mucus ("phlegm") - phlegmatic, and black bile ("melana chole") determines melancholic temperament. Despite the fact that this terminology and description of various types of temperament arose in the 5th century. BC. (Galen, Hippocrates) they have survived to our time. For all the naivety of the explanation of the phenomenon of temperament, such a feature as the combination in the human psyche of all types of temperament with the predominance of one of them was correctly noted.

The humoral (fluid) theory of temperament reflected some elements of true knowledge and became a kind of prototype, a model of modern, more developed ideas about the natural prerequisites of individual differences. The ancient Greeks did not know and could not know all the richness of the natural characteristics of a person: the structure of his brain, the properties of the nervous system, etc. However, based on ideas about the integrity and unity of the organism, they brilliantly foresaw a possible connection between the properties of the organism and the properties of the psyche.

The second is constitutional system, which arose in the twentieth century (E. Kretschmer, W. Sheldon). Its essence was to explain temperament on the basis of linking temperament with a person's physique. The main idea of ​​this theory: the structure of the body determines the temperament, which is its function.

E. Kretschmer identified four constitutional types: leptosomatics, athletic, picnic and dysplastic.

Leptosomatic characterized by a fragile physique, tall, flat chest. The shoulders are narrow, the legs are long and thin.

Athletic- a person with well-developed muscles, strong physique, characterized by high or medium height, broad shoulders, narrow hips.

Picnic- a person with pronounced adipose tissue, excessively obese, characterized by small or medium growth, a diffuse body with a large belly and a round head on a short neck.

Dysplastics- people with a shapeless, irregular body structure. Individuals of this type are characterized by various deformities of the physique (for example, excessive growth, disproportionate physique).

With the first three types of body structure, E. Kretschmer correlated the three types of temperament he identified, to which he gave the following names: schizotimic, ixotimic and cyclothymic.

Schizotimic, having a lepto-somatic (asthenic) physique, withdrawn, prone to fluctuations in emotions, stubborn, not amenable to changes in attitudes and attitudes, with difficulty adapting to a new environment.

Unlike him, ixotimic, possessing an athletic physique, manifests itself as a calm, unimpressive person with restrained facial expressions and gestures, with low flexibility of thinking. He is often characterized by pettiness.

Have cyclothymics, who has a picnic physique, emotions fluctuate between joy and sadness, he easily contacts people and is realistic in his views.

The American researcher W. Sheldon also proposed to derive a certain type of temperament from the body type. The physique was assessed by him by the development of three main human tissues: ecto-, meso- and endomorphies. According to W. Sheldon, ectomorphs -... people who are dominated by ectomorphic tissues (skin, hair, nervous system) are characterized by cerebrotonic temperament, namely: craving for aesthetic pleasures and coldness in dealing with people. Endomorphs - people with well-developed internal organs, they are distinguished by a lively, sociable temperament. Persons with well-developed bone and muscle tissue ( mesomorphs) is characterized by a craving for competition, aggressiveness.

As soon as they emerged, constitutional concepts became the object of sharp scientific criticism. The main disadvantage of this approach is that it underestimates and sometimes simply ignores the role of the environment and social conditions in the formation of the mental properties of the individual.

The third approach to explaining the essence of temperament connects types of temperament with activity of the central nervous system.

A decisive shift in the understanding of the basis of temperament occurred in the early 1930s. XX century, thanks to the works of I.P. Pavlov (I.P. Pavlov, 1951). He was the first to express the idea that temperament is based not on the properties of fluids or bodily tissues, but on the peculiarities of the functioning of the nervous system.

In the teachings of I.P. Pavlov about the influence of the central nervous system on the dynamic characteristics of behavior, three main properties of the nervous system are distinguished - strength, poise, mobility excitatory and inhibitory processes. The power of excitement and braking force the scientist considered two independent properties of the nervous system. I.P. Pavlov unambiguously linked the properties of the nervous system - a combination of strength, balance and mobility - with one or another type of temperament.

The power of excitement reflects the performance of the nerve cell. It manifests itself in functional endurance, i.e. in the ability to withstand long-term or short-term, but strong excitement, without passing into the opposite state of inhibition. Braking force is understood as the functional efficiency of the nervous system during the implementation of inhibition and manifests itself in the ability to form various inhibitory conditioned reactions.

Talking about balance of nervous processes, I.P. Pavlov had in mind the balance of processes of excitation and inhibition. The ratio of the strengths of both processes determines whether a given individual is balanced or unbalanced when the strength of one process exceeds the strength of the other.

Third property nervous system - the mobility of the excitatory and inhibitory processes - manifests itself in the rapidity of the transition from one process to another. The mobility of nervous processes is manifested in the ability to change behavior in accordance with changing living conditions. A measure of this property of the nervous system is the speed of transition from one action to another, from a passive state to an active one, and vice versa. The opposite of mobility is the inertia of nervous processes. The nervous system is the more inert, the more time or effort it takes to move from one process to another.

The properties of nervous processes highlighted by I.P. Pavlov form various combinations that determine the type of the nervous system. Their four main typical combinations are presented as four types higher nervous activity:

o strong, balanced, agile ( sanguine);

o strong, balanced, inert ( phlegmatic person);

o strong, unbalanced ( choleric);

o weak ( melancholic).

These types of the nervous system, not only in terms of quantity, but also in terms of basic characteristics, correspond to the four classical types of temperament.

In the 50s. In the USSR, laboratory studies of temperament were carried out under the leadership of first B.M. Teplov, then V.D. Nebylytsin and subsequently V.M. Rusalov, as a result of which the typology of I.P. Pavlov was supplemented with new elements. On the basis of numerous techniques for studying the properties of the human nervous system, two more properties of nervous processes were experimentally identified and described: lability and dynamism.

Lability of the nervous system manifests itself in the speed of occurrence and termination of nervous processes. The essence dynamism of nervous processes make up the ease and speed of formation of positive (dynamism of stimulation - excitation) and inhibitory (dynamism of inhibition) conditioned reflexes.

In accordance with this, the traditional psychophysiological assessment of temperament changes and instead of two parameters - activity and sensitivity - it already includes four components: ergic (endurance), plasticity, speed and emotionality (sensitivity). All these components of temperament, according to V.M. Rusalov, are biologically and genetically determined. Temperament depends on the properties of the nervous system, and they, in turn, are understood as the main characteristics of functional systems that provide integrative, analytical and synthetic activity of the brain, the entire nervous system as a whole.

Thus, temperament is a psychobiological category, consisting in the fact that its properties are neither completely innate nor dependent on the environment. They, in the words of the author, represent a "systemic generalization" of originally genetically given individual biological properties of a person, which, "being involved in a variety of activities, are gradually transformed and form, regardless of the content of the activity itself, a generalized, qualitatively new, individually stable system of invariant properties." ...

In accordance with the two main types of human activity - objective activity and communication - each of the selected properties of temperament should be considered separately, since it is assumed that in activity and communication they manifest themselves in different ways.

One more circumstance that characterizes the connection between temperament and the properties of the nervous system should be noted. The psychological characteristics of temperament are not the properties of the nervous system per se or their combination, but the typical features of the course of mental processes and behavior that these properties generate.

Let us consider these properties in relation to cognitive processes, objective activity and human communication. The corresponding properties can include activity, productivity, excitability, inhibition and switchability.

The active side of perception, attention, imagination, memory and thinking is characterized, respectively, by how much a person is able to focus, concentrate his attention, imagination, memory and thinking on a certain object or its aspect. The pace is manifested in how quickly the corresponding mental processes work. For example, one person remembers, recalls, examines, imagines, thinks about solving a problem faster than another.

The productivity of all the listed cognitive processes can be assessed by their products, by the results obtained over a certain period of time. Productivity is higher where at the same time it is possible to see, hear, remember, remember, imagine, solve more. Productivity should not be confused with efficiency. A person who has highly productive (in the indicated sense of the word) cognitive processes does not necessarily have an increased working capacity, that is, the ability to maintain a given pace of work for a long time.

Excitability, inhibition and switchability characterize the rapidity of the emergence, termination or switching of one or another cognitive process from one object to another, the transition from one action to another. For example, some people need more time than others to engage in mental work or switch from thinking about one topic to another. Some people remember information or recall it faster than others. It should also be borne in mind here that these differences do not determine the abilities of people.

In relation to objective activity, activity means the strength and amplitude of the movements associated with it. They are instinctively wider in an active person than in a less active person. For example, increased temperamental activity in sports gives rise to wider and stronger movements in an athlete, included in various exercises, than in someone who has this property of temperament weakly expressed. A more active person has a more sweeping handwriting, his letters are higher, and the distance between them is more significant than that of a less active individual. It is more difficult for a person with increased activity to perform weak, thin, small-amplitude movements, while for a person with reduced activity, it is more difficult to perform strong and sweeping movements.

The pace of work in objective activity is determined by the number of operations, actions, movements performed per unit of time. One person prefers to work at a fast pace, the other at a slow pace.

The productivity of actions associated with movements depends on the activity and pace of work, if no additional requirements, except for frequency and intensity, are imposed on the corresponding actions.

In the communication of people, the discussed properties of temperament are manifested in a similar way, only in this case they relate to the verbal and non-verbal interaction of a person with a person. In an individual with increased activity, speech, facial expressions, gestures, and pantomime are more pronounced than in a person with reduced activity. More active people tend to have a stronger voice. The tempo of their speech, as well as the tempo of their emotionally expressive movements, is quite high.

The communication style of strongly and weakly excitable people differs significantly. The former react faster, they get in touch more easily, and they adapt better to communication than the latter. Inhibited individuals are easier to stop communication, less talkative than those whose inhibitory reactions are slowed down. These latter are often distinguished by the fact that they talk a lot, do not let go of the interlocutor and create the impression of annoyance.

They hardly switch in communication from one topic to another, from one person to another. The "productivity" of their communication, that is, the ability to communicate and perceive information per unit of time, is also greater than that of people of the opposite type - inactive and having a low rate.

In foreign countries, most psychologists are characterized by the empirical orientation of research on temperament, which is reflected in the so-called “factorial” approach to understanding the structure of temperament. The most famous studies in this regard are G. and M. Aizenkov. Their characteristic feature is the reliance on a huge (more than thirty years of experimental material), which confirmed the existence of such fundamental traits of temperament (personality - in the Eysenck's terminology) as extraversion - introversion, neuroticism (emotional stability - emotional instability) and psychotism. According to Eysenck, it is these three fundamental dimensions of temperament that are universal, inherent in all representatives Homo sapiens and which can be used as the basis for the typology of temperament (G. Yu. Eysenk, 1993).

Thus, in the history of the development of the doctrine of temperament, two aspects are clearly distinguished: the first is associated with the transformation of ideas about the biological foundations of temperament, the second is with a change in the understanding of the psychological components of temperament themselves.

“One vortex curl means poverty; two vortex curls - wealth; three curls, four curls - open a pawnshop; five curls - become a commission agent; six curls - a thief; seven - misfortune; eight - eat straw; nine curls and one loop - you don't have to work, you have enough food until you die. "

Chinese folk proverb

Each person is characterized by individual psychological characteristics. This concept includes the peculiar properties of a person's mental activity, which are expressed in temperament, character, motivational-need-sphere and abilities. Knowledge of this makes it possible to identify many important personality traits, to choose a peculiar style of training and development, which will significantly expand the range of possibilities for choosing a type of activity, and will contribute to the fullest realization of a person as a person. In the modern age of information, a person must be able to quickly predict, correct and control their actions and deeds, that is, constantly change and adapt to the new wave of life.

All information about our character, abilities, diseases is literally drawn on the pads of our fingers. Finger patterns are laid even in the womb of the 3rd - 5th month of pregnancy, along with the tissues of the nervous system. Consequently, finger patterns and the type of the human nervous system are interrelated. The dermatoglyphics method allows you to decipher the psychological portrait.

There is an amazing and not yet fully understood commonality of the origin of human skin and brain from the same embryonic layer - ectoderm. Therefore, having looked at the drawing of a newly born person, one can already say whether he will be a leader, how much he will be coordinated, what qualities need to be developed in him from childhood, in which area his personality will be most fully revealed. How many mistakes parents could have avoided if they knew in advance about some of the features of the mental structure of their child.

This problem is relevant, since many people begin to feel the fullness of life, strive to be fully realized in it, to master the necessary information, because they choose the law of their life: “He who does not sail anywhere, for that there is no tailwind” (M. Montaigne) ...

The word "dermatoglyphics" is formed from the two words derma (skin) and glyphe (engrave). Dermatoglyphics studies lines and folds on the entire surface of the skin of the human body, however, the hands are usually examined, less often the feet.

The laying of dermatoglyphic patterns on the palms and fingers occurs between the 6th and 19th weeks of intrauterine development, and their formation ends by the 5-6th month. At the same time, on the pads of the fingers, palms and soles, the formation of patterns does not occur simultaneously: on the soles it begins 2-3 weeks later. From the moment of laying and formation, the skin pattern has an individual and unique character that persists throughout a person's life.

The stability of the leather pattern has been tested many times over. After thermal and chemical burns, the old pattern invariably appears on young skin. This feature was noted by the ancients. In ancient China, Japan, Korea, India, a finger smeared with paint was applied to important documents - his fingerprint replaced signatures.

Dermatoglyphics is a fairly young science: its origins date back to 1892, when one of the most original biologists of his time, Charles Darwin's cousin Sir Francis Galton, published his now classic work on fingerprints.

This date, however, is rather arbitrary. Since the beginning of the 17th century. In the writings of very authoritative anatomists there are descriptions of dermatological patterns, and at the beginning of the nineteenth century. The famous Czech researcher Jan Purkinje created a fundamental classification of finger patterns. Later, it was largely used by Galton, and then by the authors of the most widespread classification to date - the Americans H. Cummis and C. Middlelo.

As an independent science, dermatoglyphics took shape by the end of the 19th - the beginning of the 20th century. The very term "dermatoglyphics" was adopted in 1926 at the 42nd Congress of the American Association of Anatomists at the suggestion of H. Cummins and C. Middlelo.

And in 1880. two authors - G. Fulds and V. Herschel - published in the authoritative English scientific journal "Nature" reports on the possibilities of personal identification by fingerprints. One of the authors even suggested that Scotlond-Yard use this discovery, but this proposal was initially rejected. As a method of personal registration (creation of a bank of dermatoglyphic data of people), dermatoglyphics was introduced in England in 1894. In Russia, dermatoglyphic data have been used since 1907.

The largest contribution to the development of dermatoglyphics was made by our compatriots M.I.

In addition to forensic science and forensic medicine, dermatoglyphics are also used in anthropology. In recent years, genetics and doctors have become interested in dermatoglyphics, since it was found that in a number of hereditary diseases and violations of the human karyotype, changes in the structure of the skin pattern are observed. For the first time this method was applied in genetics in 1939, when H. Cummins described the characteristic features of dermatoglyphs in Down syndrome. The dermatolyphical method is also used in racial anthropology, since the presence of racial differences in the skin pattern has been established.

Actually dermatoglyphic signs

Actually dermatoglyphic signs, or true patterns, are represented by three types of patterns (arcs, loops, curls).

Finger Pattern Type Features

Arc (arch) -Arch The simplest drawing. It has no triradii (triradius, or delta-place or point on the palmar drawing, where three differently directed papillary lines converge, they form a pattern that resembles the Greek letter "delta")

Loop –Loops A pattern that has only one delta. Semi-closed pattern, in which skin combs, starting from one edge, go to the other, but, before reaching it, return back, forming a loop.

* Radial loops (R) are relatively uncommon. They have a pronounced tendency to localization on the index finger for all populations and a rare frequency of occurrence on the 3rd and 4th fingers, extremely rare on the little fingers. This loop opens towards the radial side of the palm, towards the thumb.

* Ulnar loops (U) - common pattern, rarely diagnosed.

This loop opens to the ulnar side of the palm, to the little finger.

Curl -Whorls (W) The most complex drawing with two deltas. A closed pattern in which papillary lines are concentric around the middle of the pattern.

A relatively common pattern, more often localized on the 1st and 4th fingers.

Temperament

The concept of temperament

The word temperament comes from the Latin "temperamentum" - ratio, proportion.

Temperament is the result of a combination of a variety of biological components that are involved in the functioning of a behavioral system. This is a generalized, qualitatively different system of various psychobiological properties of individual behavior, therefore temperament is manifested in mental orientation, programming, regulation, and assessment of human life in the form of dynamic processes and states. The latter also include: intensity, speed, pace, rhythm, as well as emotional sensitivity and plasticity.

Temperament belongs to the primary forms of higher mental synthesis. Its physiological basis is the type of higher nervous activity, determined by the ratio of strength, balance, mobility of excitatory and inhibitory processes. However, the relationship between the types of higher nervous activity and the traditionally distinguished types of temperament (sanguine, choleric, melancholic, phlegmatic) are far from unambiguous.

Temperament, as a psychobiological property of a person, manifests itself in the peculiarities of mastering the objective world in the pursuit of mental and physical labor, social contacts, in the speed of transition from one type of activity to another or from one way of thinking to another, in the speed of monotonous motor acts, in speed speech, in emotional sensitivity to discrepancies between conceived and the results of communication and activity, and in sensitivity to failure and assessment of people.

Temperament characterizes the mobility of a person, but not her beliefs, views, interests. It is not an indicator of the greater or lesser social value of an individual, does not determine its ultimate capabilities. One should not confuse the properties of temperament with the properties of character or with the abilities of the individual. People of very different temperaments can achieve very high achievements in the same kind of activity. If we take the greatest writers, then A.I. Herzen was a typical sanguine person, I.A.Krylov was a phlegmatic, A.S. Pushkin was a choleric, and N.V. Gogol was a melancholic.

Thus, temperament is the individual characteristics of a person that determine the dynamics of his mental activity and behavior.

Physiological bases of temperament

The ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (V-IV centuries BC) believed that temperaments are explained by the different ratio of the main types of fluid in the body and which of them prevails: blood (in Latin "sanguis"), mucus (in Greek "Phlegm"), red - yellow bile (in Greek "chole") or black bile (in Greek "melain hole").

A truly scientific explanation of temperament is provided by the teaching of I.P. Pavlov about the types of higher nervous activity. He believed that the individual characteristics of behavior, the dynamics of mental activity depends on individual differences in the vital activity of the nervous system. The basis of these differences, in his opinion, is the connection and relationship of nervous processes - excitation and inhibition.

I.P. Pavlov discovered three properties of the processes of excitation and inhibition:

1) the strength of the processes of excitation and inhibition;

2) the balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition;

3) the mobility of the processes of excitation and inhibition.

The strength of nervous processes characterizes the working capacity, endurance of the nervous system and means the ability to endure it either long-term or short-term, but very strong excitement and inhibition. The opposite property - weakness of nervous processes - is characterized by the inability of nerve cells to withstand prolonged and concentrated excitation and inhibition. The cells have reduced efficiency, their energy is quickly depleted. But on the other hand, a weak nervous system has increased sensitivity, it reacts to any even the smallest stimuli.

The balance of nervous processes is the ratio of excitation and inhibition. In some people, these two processes are balanced, while in others the balance is not observed: the process of excitement or inhibition prevails.

The mobility of nervous processes is the ability to quickly replace each other, the speed of movement of the nervous processes, the speed of the appearance of the nervous process in response to irritation, the speed of the formation of new conditioned connections.

Combinations of these properties of nervous processes were used as the basis for determining the type of higher nervous activity. Depending on the combination of strength, balance and mobility of the nervous processes of excitation and inhibition, four main types of higher nervous activity are distinguished.

IP Pavlov correlated the types of nervous activity identified by him with psychological types of temperaments and found a complete coincidence. Thus, temperament is a manifestation of the type of the nervous system in the activity, in the behavior of a person.

As a result, the ratio of types of the nervous system and temperaments according to I.P. Pavlov looks as follows:

1. strong, balanced, mobile type ("live") - sanguine temperament;

2. strong, balanced, inert type ("calm") - phlegmatic temperament;

3. strong, unbalanced, with a predominance of excitement ("unrestrained") - choleric temperament;

4. weak type ("weak") - melancholic temperament.

The type of the nervous system is a natural, innate property of the personality, which practically cannot be corrected under the influence of the conditions of life and activity. The type of the nervous system gives originality to a person's behavior, but does not determine either a person's actions, or his beliefs, or moral foundations that are formed in the process of education by society. Temperament can be passed down from generation to generation.

Characteristic of temperament

As mentioned above, there are four types of temperament.

Representatives of a choleric temperament are impetuous, easily excitable. Mental processes in this type are fast and intense. People with this temperament are energetic, efficient, constantly looking for new interests, routine work tires them. The instability of mental processes often leads to nervous breakdowns, which is manifested by excessive irritability, irascibility, egocentrism. They are very prone to neurotic disorders. The positive aspects of choleric temperament are energy, activity, passion, initiative. And the negative sides are general incontinence, rudeness and harshness, irascibility, the ability to affect.

A representative of a sanguine temperament is a lively, inquisitive, agile (but without sharp, impulsive movements) person. As a rule, people with such a temperament are cheerful and cheerful. Emotionally unstable, easily gives in to feelings, but they are usually not deep in him. They have a highly balanced type of nervous activity. Nervous processes are excited and develop quickly enough, grow to a certain limit and fade away in time as soon as the problem becomes irrelevant. People who have this temperament predominant are energetic, sociable, benevolent, responsive, flexible in decision-making, easily gain the point of view of others, if it corresponds to their foundations and does not contradict morality. They are very hardy, with strong and prolonged stress, they rarely develop neurotic states. Negative features of this type: frivolity, scattering, inability and unwillingness to bring the work started to the end, overestimation of oneself and one's capabilities.

The representative of the phlegmatic temperament is slow, calm, unhurried. Psychologically strong enough inert type to unbalance him, you need to make a lot of effort. They have a low threshold of excitability. They are balanced, not prone to aggression, as well as to the formation of neurotic disorders. They slowly reproduce and assimilate information, but rather pedantic, digging into every essence. They hardly accept someone else's point of view, but if they did, it becomes their own. People who have this temperament predominant do not like changes in life, they are prone to order. His main positive qualities: perseverance, efficiency, perseverance. Negative features of this type: lethargy, inertia, passivity, laziness, sometimes indifference, indifferent attitude to work can be manifested.

Representatives of a melancholic temperament are prone to isolation, avoid communication with unfamiliar, new people, are often embarrassed, show awkwardness in a new environment. Psychologically highly mobile nervous system, but in type it is very weak. Excitation processes are very quickly replaced by inhibition processes, which leads to general weakness and exhaustion. Pessimistic, very painful experiencing everything that happens. More often they do not undertake to carry out difficult tasks, worrying about an impending failure, but if they have a strong will, they will complete the work they have begun, torturing themselves mentally. Most of all of the types are prone to the formation of mental disorders and being in stress and depression. It is alarming that stress can cause a variety of physical illnesses. But impressionability, subtle sensitivity and acute sensitivity of the world around him allow him to achieve great success in art - music, drawing, poetry. People who have this temperament prevail are distinguished by gentle tact, delicacy, sensitivity and responsiveness.

Character

The concept of character

The character is a stable combination of the mental properties of a person, which expresses his attitude to the world around him, ways of behavior and reaction. Character is individual and typical, because the symptom complex of character traits has special substructures with their unique relationships. Probably, the main ones in the symptom complex of character are volitional traits, which, when integrated into personality traits, determine weakness or strength of character. It is important to note that all character traits are interconnected, interdependent. As a result of the natural relationships of character traits, there are leading (defining, main) traits, as well as subordinates. Each of the structural units of character is formed during life in ontogenesis as a way of realizing relationships in activity and communication.

The structure of character may be dominated by intellectual, emotional or volitional components.

The physiological basis of character is a dynamic stereotype. His features, as well as the upbringing and complexities of relationships with people, can give rise to character accentuations, that is, excessive enhancements of individual traits, which lead to disharmonious treatment of a person with other people, inadequate attitude towards himself, activities, and so on. Thus, the physiological basis of character is a fusion of traits such as the nervous system and complex stable systems of temporary connections.

Traits

Character traits are understood as individual habitual forms of human behavior, in which his attitude to reality is realized.

Character traits must be considered and evaluated in conjunction with each other. Each character trait acquires its own meaning, often different, depending on its relationship with other traits. For example, persistence has a positive meaning only in combination with high ideological and critical nature, without them it can degenerate into stubbornness.

Character traits are usually divided into two groups:

Character traits in which the orientation of the personality is expressed (that is, the system of attitudes towards reality: towards society, towards work, towards people, towards oneself, etc.).

The orientation of the personality determines the goals and aspirations of a person, it is also important whether these goals and aspirations of a person are realized in life, whether a person knows how to overcome obstacles on the way to the goal.

These character traits include: collectivism, selfishness, sensitivity, rudeness, honesty, sociability, isolation, secrecy, hard work, negligence, laziness, initiative, conservatism, solicitude, self-criticism, self-esteem, self-esteem.

Strong-willed character traits.

Depending on the development of a person's strong-willed character traits, they speak of a strong or weak character. Weakness gives a negative assessment of the character as a whole, even in the presence of a positive personality orientation. Setting high, noble goals is of no value if they are not realized in life. At that time, a strong character, if misdirected, will not be a valuable personality trait.

Strong-willed character traits include dedication, independence, decisiveness, perseverance, endurance, courage and courage, discipline.

Formation of character.

The character is formed, develops and changes in the practical activity of a person, reflects the conditions and way of life. Thus, character is less stable than temperament. In its formation, social factors play a more important role, rather than biological ones.

Character formation begins in early childhood. Already in preschool age, the first outlines of character are outlined, a habitual way of behavior, certain attitudes towards reality begin to take shape. The traits of collectivism, perseverance, endurance, courage are formed, first of all, in the game, especially in collective games with rules. The surrounding society has a great influence, as well as various types of work activities. Character traits of adolescents develop especially intensively.

It should be noted that despotic upbringing causes stress in the child, and therefore the development of such qualities as submissiveness, dependence, self-doubt, lack of acceptance, dependence, sacrifice and others. But it is not worthwhile to allow everything, to be at the mercy of the whims of children, because this contributes to the development of self-confidence, increased demands on oneself, selfishness, callousness, and so on.

Also, one of the ways to educate character is self-education. It is most often used by adults. To cultivate character means to be able to be responsible for your actions and to control your actions.

In character education, an individual approach is especially important. An individual approach requires the selection and implementation of educational activities that would correspond to the characteristics of the individual and his state of mind at the moment. And irritability, impatience, rudeness, passivity, excessive immodesty of the teacher (parent) will have a negative impact on the character of the child.

Relationship of individual - psychological personality traits with dermatoglyphic patterns on the fingers

The patterns of the skin on the fingertips, formed during the intrauterine development of a person, remain unchanged throughout life. The skin in embryonic development is closely related to the nervous system. And the pattern on the fingertips is determined by the structure of the nerve endings in them. Therefore, skin patterns can be used to study the characteristics of the human nervous system. It is already one step from here to his behavior and character.

There are three types of patterns on our fingertips. Loops are more common than others.

If your child has a large number of loops on his fingers, do not be upset that this drawing is, so to speak, banal. But the character of such children is "golden". They are calm, benevolent, agreeable, responsive, the first to come to the rescue. At school, they may not "grab the stars from the sky," but they do their homework diligently. They are very responsible, but they will not show any particular initiative. As a rule, these guys make friends easily.

By temperament, the owners of loops are choleric or approaching them. Holders of ten loops during normal work are very energetic, but in extreme situations they "go out", because they have limited physical potential. Most of all, they are exhausted in boring, monotonous work that they are not interested in.

But the owners of a large number of curls give the impression of people "on their own mind".

In friendship, they are very picky. Often they do not bring the work begun to the end, although if they manage to interest them in something, they can produce a kind of masterpiece. Sometimes they surprise teachers and parents with an unexpected successful initiative. For this they have to forgive a lot. True, such people are rare. Much more often, a person has only one or two curl patterns on his hands, and he is closer to the owners of loop patterns with all their advantages and disadvantages. It also happens that all the curls are located only on the fingers of one hand. In this case, the child often behaves, to put it mildly, unbalanced. If the curls are located on the fingers of the right hand, then although he is quick-tempered, he is quick-tempered. If, on the contrary, he will be silent, holding a grudge for a long time. For those who prefer the left hand when writing and eating, the curl is most often located on the index finger of the left hand, while on the right hand there is a loop. If the curl is on the ring finger of the left hand, then this is an indication of musical ability. It is extremely rare in humans that such a pattern is located only on the thumb of the left hand, and on the right there is a loop. They are very vulnerable and vindictive. It is better not to put pressure on such a child, and you need to beware of quarreling with him. The third type of patterns - arcs - is also rare. If they are on the index fingers, that's nothing, but if they are on the others, then such people are very peculiar.

They are very creatively gifted, they grasp everything on the fly, learn very quickly, grab on to many things at once, but often they are not completed, they lose interest. A large number of curls speaks of a subtle, excitability of the psyche. On the one hand, there is a very high nervous organization, on the other, the instability of the psyche, a tendency to depression.

The owner of a large number of arcs always and everywhere considers himself a "bearer of truth".

This is not always pleasant for those around you. It will not be possible to convince such a child, to force him to admit his mistake. And it is not necessary. Such guys do not learn from mistakes. However, this is redeemed by the fact that they are unforgiving and frank. And if they do smile, they are really happy. In their studies and in business, they do well, they are distinguished by speed and concreteness. All unnecessary is cut off.

For people with arcs, physical potential is not the main thing, psychological and personal qualities prevail in them. They tend to be ambitious, ambitious, responsible and authoritarian, and they take responsibility for the entire group. Most often this type of leader is very stubborn, purposeful. We can say about them: "rushing like a tank", and in the life of "arcs" the moment of overcoming is very important.

But these are only the most general principles. The character of a person depends not only on the prevailing type of patterns, but also on their location in relation to each other.

Chapter II. Material and research methods

To identify the relationship between individual psychological characteristics with dermatoglyphic patterns on the fingers, the following methods were used:

1. Testing to find out the temperament, level of extraversion and emotional stability, to establish the prevailing characterological tendencies of the personality.

1) Teenage test - a questionnaire for studying the temperament of G. Eysenck in order to diagnose the degree of severity of properties put forward as essential components of personality: neuroticism, extra-, introversion and psychoticism.

2) Test "Formula of temperament".

3) Test - questionnaire of the DME, compiled by the American psychologist T. Leary.

With the help of fingerprinting and a magnifying glass, dermatoglyphic patterns on the fingers were examined and determined.

The studies were carried out from May 2008 to January 2009.

The study involved 30 students of grades 8.9, including 8 boys, 22 girls.

According to the research results, tables and diagrams were built.

Having made the primary processing of the answer forms according to Eysenck's method, it is possible to determine the type of temperament of the subjects. The results are analyzed, the data obtained are summarized in tables 1-4.

Table 3

Summary table based on the results of the temperament study questionnaire (Eysenck) in grades 8-9.

signs Num. boy Qty. virgins Total %

(8 people) (22 people) (30 people)

Extraversion Significant extrovert - 4 4 13.3

Moderate extrovert 5 11 16 53.3

Introversion Significant introvert - 1 1 3.3

Moderate introvert 3 6 9 30.0

Neuroticism Signs of looseness 2 1 3 10.0

nervous system

Emotional stability 2 8 10 33.3

Emotional 4 13 17 56.7

instability

True / False Trustworthy 5 14 19 63.3

Doubtful 2 4 6 20.0

Unreliable 1 4 5 16.7

Diagram 1. Extraversion-introversion among students of 8-9 grades (%).

Diagram 2. Extraversion-introversion among boys and girls in grades 8-9.

The data entered in the summary table 3 according to the results of the temperament study questionnaire test (Eysenck) in grades 8-9 indicate that 53.3% of students in these classes are moderate extroverts, among them 16.6% are boys and 36.7% girls.

Extroverts are characterized by the fact that they are sociable and outward-facing, they have a wide circle of acquaintances, the need for contacts. They act under the influence of the moment, impulsive, quick-tempered, carefree, optimistic, good-natured, cheerful. They prefer movement and action, and tend to be aggressive. Feelings and emotions do not have strict control, they are prone to risky actions. You can't always rely on them. In 13.3% of the respondents, these qualities are strongly expressed.

30% of the respondents are moderate introverts - they are calm, shy, and inclined to introspection. Restrained and distant from everyone except close friends. They plan and think about their actions in advance, do not trust sudden urges, are serious about making decisions, they love order in everything. Control their feelings, they are not easily pissed off. They are pessimistic and value moral standards. In 3.3% (1 girl), these qualities are strongly expressed.

Table 3 contains data on the neuroticism of the surveyed schoolchildren. Neuroticism characterizes emotional stability or instability (emotional stability or instability). Neuroticism is associated with indicators of the lability of the nervous system.

Among the respondents, 56.7% are characterized by signs of emotional instability, most of them are girls. Neuroticism is expressed in extreme nervousness, instability, poor adaptation, a tendency to rapidly change moods (lability), feelings of guilt and anxiety, anxiety, depressive reactions, distraction of attention, instability in stressful situations. Neuroticism corresponds to emotionality, impulsivity; unevenness in contacts with people, variability of interests, self-doubt, pronounced sensitivity, impressionability, tendency to irritability. The neurotic personality is characterized by inadequately strong reactions in relation to the stimuli that cause them. Individuals with high indices on the neuroticism scale may develop neurosis in unfavorable stressful situations.

33.3% have emotional stability - this is a trait that expresses the preservation of organized behavior, situational purposefulness in ordinary and stressful situations. It is characterized by maturity, excellent adaptation, lack of great tension, anxiety, as well as a tendency towards leadership, sociability.

In 10% of schoolchildren, signs of a shattered nervous system, psychoticism - speaks of a tendency to asocial behavior, pretentiousness, inadequacy of emotional reactions, high conflict, non-contact, egocentricity, selfishness, indifference.

According to Eysenck, high scores for extraversion and neuroticism correspond to a psychiatric diagnosis of hysteria, and high scores for introversion and neuroticism correspond to anxiety or reactive depression. Neuroticism and psychotism in the case of the severity of these indicators are understood as a "predisposition" to the corresponding types of pathology.

Most of the respondents answered the questions sincerely - 63.3% and only 16.7% of schoolchildren gave unreliable answers.

Drawing on data from the physiology of higher nervous activity, Eysenck hypothesizes that the strong and weak types, according to Pavlov, are very close to the extraverted and introverted personality types. The nature of intro - and extraversion is seen in the innate properties of the central nervous system, which ensure the balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition.

Thus, using the survey data on the scales of extra-, introversion and neuroticism, it is possible to derive indicators of personality temperament according to the classification of Pavlov, who described four classical types: sanguine (according to the main properties of the central nervous system, it is characterized as strong, balanced, mobile), choleric (strong , unbalanced, mobile), phlegmatic (strong, balanced, inert), melancholic (weak, unbalanced, inert). The graph shows how the types of temperament correlate with the scales of the questionnaire.

Table 4

Types of temperament in students of grades 8-9 according to Eysenck.

Qty. boy Qty. virgins Total %

Eysenck temperament (8 people) (22 people) (30 people)

Melancholic 1 6 7 23.3

Choleric 3 11 14 46.7

Sanguine 2 3 5 16.7

Phlegmatic 2 1 3 10.0

Choleric - sanguine - 1 1 3.3

Diagram 6. Types of temperament among students of 8-9 grades according to Eysenck (%).

Diagram 7. Types of temperament among students of 8-9 grades according to Eysenck among boys and girls.

The results of the study showed that the majority of respondents (46.7%) have a choleric type of temperament, the majority are girls (11 people). 23.3% of schoolchildren are melancholic, 10% are phlegmatic, 16.7% are sanguine. 1 girl is a sanguine choleric.

As a rule, one should talk about the predominance of certain temperamental traits, since in life in their pure form they are rare.

Temperament is one of the most significant personality traits. It determines the presence of many mental differences between people, including the intensity and stability of emotions, emotional impressionability, pace and vigor of actions, as well as a number of other dynamic characteristics. In order to find out which of the types of temperament dominates over others, the test "Formula of temperament" by A. Belov was carried out. Summary data on the results of the test "Formula of temperament" in grades 8-9 are entered in table 6.

Table 6

Summary data on the results of the test "Formula of temperament" in grades 8-9.

Temperament according to Belov Kol. boy Qty. virgins Total %

(8 people) (22 people) (30 people)

Melancholic 1 1 2 6.7

Choleric 1 5 6 20

Sanguine 2 5 7 23.3

Phlegmatic 2 6 8 26.7

Phlegmatic sanguine 1 3 4 13.3

Choleric sanguine 1 2 3 10.0

Comparing the data obtained by the methods of Eysenck and Belov, the following conclusions can be drawn:

1. According to Eysenck's method, 46.7% of the subjects have a choleric temperament, 16.7% have a sanguine temperament, 23.3% melancholic and 10% phlegmatic.

2. In the study according to Belov's method, 20% of the subjects showed choleric temperament, 23.3% sanguine temperament, 6.7% - melancholic, 26.7% phlegmatic temperament.

3. The discrepancy in the percentage of choleric and sanguistic temperaments can be explained as follows: in the study according to Eysenck's method on the introversion-extraversion scale, 43.3% of the subjects showed boundary values ​​from 11 to 14 points (that is, they can be defined as ambiverts), but if we consider the total percentage of choleric and sanguine people using both methods, the difference reaches 16.6%. Inaccurate data only in 5 people. Maybe they were responding in opposition to their ideas about themselves, for example, what they want to be, and not what they are. Consequently, the data obtained by the methods of Eysenck and Belov have similar values, respectively, we can talk about the reliability of the data obtained.

What is temperament

Temperaments.

A look at younger students through the prism of their

Temperament and ability.

Temperament and character.

Temperament and communication.

Psychological characteristics of temperaments.

Physiological bases of temperament.

What is temperament.

Topic 1 TEMPERAMENT

All people are distinguished by the peculiarities of their behavior: some are mobile, energetic, emotional, others are slow, calm, imperturbable, someone is reserved, secretive, sad. In the speed of occurrence, the depth and strength of feelings, in the speed of movements, in the general mobility of a person, his temperament finds expression - a personality trait that gives a peculiar color to all activities and behavior of people.

Temperament- these are the individual characteristics of a person that determine the dynamics of his mental activity and behavior.

Psychologists distinguish two main indicators of the dynamics of mental processes and behavior: activity and emotionality. Activity- these are the features of the tempo, rhythm of "activity, the speed and strength of the course of mental processes, the degree of mobility, the speed or slowness of reactions. Emotionality it is expressed in various experiences of a person and is characterized by varying degrees, the speed of occurrence and the strength of emotions, emotional impressionability. S.L. Rubinstein emphasized that the impressionability of a person and his impulsiveness are especially important for temperament, and that impressionability is characterized by the strength and stability of the impact that the impression has on a person, and impulsivity is characterized by the strength of motivation and the speed of transition from motivation to action.

Back in ancient Greece, the physician Hippocrates proposed the concept of temperament. He taught that temperament depends on the ratio of four body fluids and which of them prevails: blood (in Latin "sanguine"), mucus (in Greek "phlegm"), red-yellow bile (in Greek "chole" ), black bile (in Greek "melain hole"). The mixture of these liquids, argued Hippocrates, is the basis of the basic types of temperaments: sanguine, choleric, melancholic and phlegmatic. The term "temperament" itself, translated from Latin, means "the proper ratio of parts."

Having given a generally correct description of the main temperaments, Hippocrates could not provide a scientific basis for them.

What are the scientific foundations of temperament?

I.P. Pavlov, studying the work of the cerebral hemispheres, found that all the traits of temperament depend on features of human higher nervous activity. He proved that the typological differences in strength, balance and mobility of the processes of excitation and inhibition in the cerebral cortex change in representatives of different temperaments.

The strength of nervous processes is the ability of nerve cells to tolerate strong excitement and prolonged inhibition, i.e. endurance and performance of nerve cells. The strength of the nervous process is expressed in a corresponding reaction to strong stimuli: strong irritations cause strong excitation processes in a strong nervous system, and weak excitation and inhibition processes in a weak nervous system.

Equilibrium assumes a proportional relationship between these nervous processes. The predominance of excitation processes over inhibition is expressed in the rapidity of the formation of conditioned reflexes and their slow extinction. The predominance of inhibition processes over excitation is determined by the delayed formation of conditioned reflexes and the speed of their extinction.

Mobility of nervous processes- this is the ability of the nervous system to quickly, in response to the requirements of environmental conditions, replace the process of excitation by the process of inhibition and vice versa.

Various ratios of these properties of nervous processes were used as the basis for the definition type of higher nervous activity.

The relationship between these processes is shown in the diagram:

Depending on the combination of strength, mobility and balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition, I.P. Pavlov identified four types of the nervous system, which correspond to four temperaments:

1. Sanguine- strong, balanced, agile.

2. Phlegmatic- strong, balanced, inactive (inert).

3. Choleric- strong, but unbalanced, with weak inhibitory processes in comparison with excitation.

4. Melancholic- weak processes of excitation and inhibition.

We all know that people differ in temperament. It is easy to determine the temperament of your friends and acquaintances, but it is much more difficult to determine your temperament. And this is no coincidence.

Not all people are "pure" representatives of basic temperaments. In life, there are many mixed and intermediate types of higher nervous activity, and therefore temperaments. In most cases, there is a combination of features of one temperament with features of another. Often, temperament changes somewhat with age.

1.3. Psychological characteristics of temperaments

Sanguine- a person is fast, agile, responds emotionally to all impressions; however, his joy, grief, sympathy and other feelings are bright, but unstable and easily replaced by opposite feelings. I.P. Pavlov characterized such people as follows: “A sanguine person is an ardent, very productive figure, but only when he has a lot of interesting things to do, that is, there is constant excitement. When there is no such thing, he becomes dull, lethargic. "

The sanguine person quickly establishes social contact. He is almost always the initiator in communication, immediately responds to the desire to communicate on the part of another person, but his attitude towards people can be changeable and unstable. He feels like a fish in water in a large company of strangers, and the new, unusual environment only excites him (for example, Steve Oblonsky in Leo Tolstoy's novel Anna Karenina).

Phlegmatic person- a person who is slow, balanced and calm, who is not easily emotionally hurt and cannot be pissed off; his feelings are almost not manifested outside. In relationships with other people, they are calm, stable in their emotions. I.P. Pavlov remarked: "The phlegmatic is a calm, always even, persistent and stubborn worker of life." Let us recall Pierre Bezukhov from the novel by L.N. Tolstoy's "War and Peace". But under certain conditions, indifference to work, to the life around, and lack of will can develop (for example, Oblomov in the novel of the same name by I. Goncharov). The phlegmatic person establishes social contacts slowly, shows little of his feelings and for a long time does not notice that someone is looking for an excuse to make acquaintance with him. But he is stable and constant in his attitude to a person. He likes to be in a narrow circle of old acquaintances, in a familiar environment.

Choleric- a person is fast, impetuous, with strong, igniting feelings, which are vividly reflected in expressive facial expressions, gestures, and speech. He is often prone to violent emotional outbursts. Choleric people experience a rapid change of mood, imbalance, which is explained by the predominance of excitation over inhibition in the higher nervous activity. I.P. Pavlov defined this type of temperament as follows: "A fighting type, perky, easily and quickly irritated" (a vivid example of this type is the old prince Bolkonsky in Leo Tolstoy's novel "War and Peace").

With enthusiasm starting a business, the choleric person quickly cools down, interest in work disappears, and he continues without enthusiasm, and sometimes leaves it.

In communication, people of choleric temperament are difficult.

Melancholic- not emotionally responds to everything. He has a small variety of emotional experiences, but these experiences are of considerable depth, strength, and duration. He does not respond to everything, but when he does, he experiences strong feelings, although she does little to express his feelings outwardly (for example, Princess Marya in Leo Tolstoy's novel War and Peace). I.P. Pavlov noted that the melancholic, "getting into new conditions of life, is very lost." In a familiar, calm environment, people of this type work very productively, differ in the depth, content of their emotional and moral behavior and attitude towards the people around them. Melancholic people are very touchy, they can hardly endure failures and resentments. They are disposed to isolation, loneliness, feel uncomfortable in a new, unfamiliar environment, and are often embarrassed.

2. Physiological foundations of temperament

I.V. Pavlov, studying the higher nervous activity of animals, found that dogs, which differ in the nature of the formation and course of conditioned reflexes, also differ in temperament; he came to the conclusion that temperament depends on the same reason as the individual characteristics of conditioned reflex activity.

The reason for the individual characteristics of the formation of conditioned reflexes, according to I.N. Pavlov, these are the properties of the nervous system. He distinguished three such basic properties:

1) the strength of the excitation process and the inhibition process;

2) the degree of balance between the power of excitement and the power of inhibition, or, in other words, the balance of the nervous system;

3) the rate of change of excitation by inhibition and vice versa, or, in other words, the mobility of nervous processes;

I.P. Pavlov found out that the temperament of each animal depends not on any one of these properties separately, but on their combination. This combination of properties of the nervous system, on which both the individual characteristics of conditioned reflex activity and temperament depend, he called the type of the nervous system. I.P. Pavlov distinguished four types of the nervous system:

1) strong, unbalanced, agile;

2) strong, balanced, agile;

3) strong, balanced, wobbly;

4) weak type

B.M. Teplov and his collaborators continued the research of I. Pavlov, studying the properties of human nervous processes, using instrumental registration of subtle neurophysiological processes and methods of processing mathematical statistics. They found that some of the individual characteristics of conditioned reflexes and humans are related. Each such system of interconnected individual characteristics depends on one common cause, namely, on a certain property of an uneven system. So, for example, the following interrelated features depend on the strength of the excitation process: the degree of extinction of the conditioned reflex, despite the ongoing reinforcement of the conditioned stimulus; the difference between the magnitude of the conditioned response to strong and weak stimuli; the degree of positive or negative influence of a third-party stimulus on the sensitivity to the main stimulus and many others.

In the same way, groups of mutually related individual characteristics of conditioned reflex activity were established, depending on the strength of inhibition and on the balance of nervous processes.

A group of individual characteristics was also discovered that characterize the rate of formation of positive and inhibitory conditioned reflexes. The putative property of the nervous system underlying them has been designated as the dynamism of the nervous system. Without interrelated individual characteristics of conditioned reflex activity, the researchers interpreted it as a result of the rate of onset and termination of the excitation process and designated this property as lability.

Assumptions were made about the existence of some other properties of the nervous system, established by I.P. Pavlov, as a result of the latest research has been significantly expanded.

The physicochemical nature of all these properties is currently unknown. Therefore, what is called a property of the nervous system is only an interpretation of the general cause on which a group of mutually related individual characteristics of conditioned reflex activity depends.

The dependence of temperament on the properties of the nervous system is manifested in the following factors. The more a certain group of mutually related individual characteristics of conditioned reflex activity is expressed in a person, each is based on the supposed physiological property of the nervous system, the more, or, conversely, the less pronounced the corresponding property of temperament. For example, if during physiological tests in a person, despite reinforcement, the conditioned reflex quickly fades away, if an external stimulus causes a strong inhibition of the conditioned reflex, if a person reacts to weak stimuli as strongly as to strong ones, i.e. if he reveals features that depend on the weakness of the excitation process, then at the same time he has increased emotional excitability, distraction of attention, etc.

Just as in the experiments of I.P. Pavlov on animals, it was shown that the psychological characteristics of temperament as a whole are associated not with any one of their properties of the nervous system, but with their combination, i.e. type of nervous system. In the same way, each individual property of temperament does not depend on any one, but on several different properties of the nervous system, and the properties of temperament change qualitatively. So, for example, incontinence depends on the strength of the nervous processes and on their imbalance. But the imbalance of nervous processes is possible with a different quantitative ratio of the strength of the nervous processes - a person turns out to be unbalanced if strong excitation prevails over less strong inhibition, and at the same time he is balanced if weak excitation prevails over even weaker inhibition. Accordingly, incontinence in both cases will have a different character. In the first case, we are dealing with passionate unrestraint, in the second case, with hysterical imbalance. Thus, not only the integral characteristic of temperament, but also each property of temperament ultimately depends on the type of the nervous system.

At present, a connection has been found between the integral characteristics of temperament and its individual properties only with those four types of the nervous system that were identified by I.P. Pavlov on his animals. Since the types of the nervous system, on which temperament depends, are common in humans and in animals, they are called common types. Thus, the physiological basis of temperament is the general type of the nervous system.

This, however, does not mean that the general types of the nervous system established by I.P. Pavlov are the only possible typical combinations of a wider set of properties of the nervous system, which at the time of I.P. Pavlov. Pavlova were not yet known. In addition, among the four types of the nervous system established by I.P. Pavlov, not all are of equal importance. Three of these are only a variation of the strong type. Thus, the main types are, in essence, only the strong and weak type.

3. Two approaches to the study of temperament

In the study of temperament, two approaches to its study have emerged - structural and typological

Representatives of the structural approach describe temperament through a set of characteristics of personality traits. At the same time, the opinions of various authors differ in the number and name of features. One thing is indisputable: temperament has a set of mental characteristics, such as:

Activity - the intensity of interaction with the outside world;

Reactivity - the level of intensity of the reaction as a response to certain stimuli;

Temporal characteristics - the speed of performing any actions;

Emotional stability - emotional instability;

Extraversion - Introversion;

Rigidity is practicality;

Subordination - dominance (speed of submission or subjugation);

Sensitivity - the subtlety of the perception of the external world;

Anxiety, etc.

Representatives of the typological approach believe that there are a number of types of temperament, although they also disagree about their number. It was shown above that in its pure form the type of temperament (sanguine - extrovert, choleric - extrovert, phlegmatic introvert, melancholic - introvert) do not exist. Between the four types of temperament, there are (according to some psychologists) 16 intermediate forms, as variations of the main types, in addition, it should be taken into account that the supporters of the typological approach, the types of temperament identified by them are endowed for the most part with the same characteristic features of temperament and the properties of higher nervous activity that they use supporters of the structured approach.

A peculiar approach to the logic of temperament was proposed by E. Kregmer. In his classification, temperaments are represented by two large groups, cycloid and schizoid temperaments.

There are more detailed gradations within these groups.

According to E. Kregmer, a related type of constitution for cyclothymics is the pycnic type. Related types of constitution for schizotimics are asthenic and athletic types of constitution and their combinations. In the studies of E. Kregmer, it was revealed that people with extremely pronounced traits of the technician most often suffer from manic-depressive psychosis. Asthenics and athletes are more prone to schizophrenic diseases. Schizophrenics are also characterized by such traits as subtle sensitivity, coldness, a tendency to abstract reasoning, alienation, imperiousness, dryness, lack of expression of emotions.

Cyclothymics are funny people. They are chatty and careless, they are thoughtful, emotional, and have an easy perception of life.

All this shows the diversity of approaches to the study of the temperament and properties of a v.n.d. each of the approaches has its own "+" and "-". Which of them should be chosen, which tool is most suitable is the business of the user of psychodiagnostic techniques.

4. Origin of types of temperament

The ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (5th century BC) is considered the creator of the doctrine of types of temperament. He argued that people differ in the ratio of the four main "body juices" - blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile - that are part of it. Each liquid has special properties and special purpose. The property of blood is warmth. Its purpose is to warm the body. The property of phlegm is cold, and the purpose is to cool the body. The property of yellow bile is dryness. Its purpose is to maintain dryness in the body, "dry" it. The property of black bile is dampness. Its purpose is to maintain dampness, moisture in the body. Based on this theory, the most famous physician of antiquity after Hippocrates, Claudius Galen (II century BC), developed the first typology of temperaments, which he outlined in the famous tract "Re temperamentum" (from Latin temperamentum - proportionality, correct measure).

According to the teachings of Galen, the type of temperament depends on which of the "juices" prevails in the human body. He identified the types of temperament, the names of which have survived to our time and are widely known: sanguine (from Latin Sanqius-roof), phlegmatic (from Greek Phlegma-phlegm), choleric (from Greek Chole-bile) and melancholic (from Greek . Meloschole-black bile). This fantastic concept has had a tremendous impact on scientists over the centuries.

Other scientists have tried to explain temperament by the peculiarities of a person's appearance. Since ancient times, people, observing a variety of behavior that coincides with differences in physique and physiological functions, have tried to streamline these factors, somehow group them. This is how the most varied typologies of temperaments arose. Of these, the most interesting are those in which the properties of temperament, understood as hereditary or congenital, were associated with individual differences in the characteristics of the physique. Since the features of a person's physique are called construction, these typologies are called constitutional typologies. The most widespread was the typology of E. Kretschmer, which he outlined in his famous work "The structure of the body and character" published in 1921. Kretschmer's main idea is that people with a certain body type have certain mental characteristics. The scientist took many measurements of body parts, which allowed him to identify four constitutional types.

1. Lentosomatic - characterized by a fragile physique, tall, flat chest. The shoulders are narrow, the lower limbs are long and thin.

2. Picnic - a person with pronounced adipose tissue, excessively obese, small or medium in stature, with a loose body, a large belly and a round head on a short neck.

3. Athletic - a person with well-developed muscles, a strong build, characterized by high and medium height, broad shoulders, narrow hips.

4. Dysplastic is a person with a shapeless, irregular structure. Individuals of this type are characterized by various deformities of the physique (excessive growth, disproportionate physique, etc.).

With the above types of body structure, Kretschmer correlates three types of temperament, which he calls schizotimic, ixotimic and cyclothymic. The schizotimic has an asthenic physique, withdrawn, inclined to fluctuating emotions, stubborn, susceptible to changes in attitudes and attitudes, with difficulty adapting to the environment. This is a calm, unimpressive person with restrained gestures and facial expressions, with low flexibility of thinking, often petty. The picnic physique has a cyclothymic, his emotions fluctuate between joy and sadness, he easily contacts people and is realistic in his views.

K. Jung (1923) proposed a peculiar solution to the problem. He identified two main types of behavior. The first type is extroverted. People of this type are prone to adventures, open to others and sociable. The second type is introverted. For people of this type, shyness, isolation, a desire to avoid risk and social interactions are characteristic.

According to Jung, the predominance of estroversion is observed in choleric and sanguine people, and the predominance of introversion is observed in melancholic and phlegmatic people.

If we single out some features of the play communication of children belonging to both types, it will be found that extraverts are more proactive in the initial, organizing phase of play: in a meeting when choosing a topic, assigning roles, and choosing their own role. Introverts, on the other hand, more often “communicate” with play attributes, talk with a toy, plan their actions without prompting from other children, and more often say what they are doing, what play actions they perform.

Physiologists, and above all, our compatriots Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, made a great contribution to the development of the doctrine of temperament. It is known from the course of biology that I.P. Pavlov studied the features of the development of conditioned reflexes in dogs. The scientist revealed great differences in the behavior of animals and in the course of conditioned reflex activity. These differences were manifested primarily in the speed and accuracy of the formation of conditioned reflexes, as well as in the features of their extinction. This circumstance allowed the researcher to suggest that conditioned reflexes are based on some properties of nervous processes. Later, the scientist determined that these properties include the power of excitation and inhibition, their balance and mobility. Features of the nervous system established in animal studies, I.P. Pavlov suggested extending it to people.

So, Pavlov distinguished between the power of imagination and the power of inhibition, considering them to be two independent properties of the nervous system. The power of excitement shows the efficiency of the nerve cell. It manifests itself in endurance, that is, the ability of the cell to withstand prolonged or short-term, but strong excitement, without passing into the opposite state of inhibition. Children with high indicators of the power of excitement are distinguished by high efficiency, courage, a tendency to take risks, and the ability to overcome difficulties in work; persistent and persistent in achieving their goals, strive for independence, easily experience failure.

The force of inhibition is understood as the functional efficiency of the nervous system during the implementation of inhibition. This feature is manifested in restraint, in actions, in conversation; in the ability to keep a secret, to follow the rules; in composure, in anticipation of danger, slowness in decision-making; in thoroughly chewing food while eating; in a good dream.

Speaking about the balance of nervous processes, I.P. Pavlov had in mind the balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition. The ratio of the strengths of both processes decides whether the individual is balanced. If the strength of one process exceeds the strength of another, a person becomes either too easily excitable, or too calm. A balanced person leads in a collected manner in the most tense environment. He easily suppresses unnecessary and inadequate desires, drives away extraneous thoughts. Works evenly, no accidental ups or downs.

The third property of the nervous system associated with temperament is the mobility of nervous processes. This property lies in the rapidity of the transition from arousal to inhibition and vice versa, that is, in the ability to change behavior in accordance with changes in life conditions. The measure of this property is the speed of transition from one action to another, from a passive state to an active one and vice versa. People with high mobility of nervous processes are distinguished by general mobility, a fast pace of activity, lively speech, quick mastering of new material and its quick forgetting, ease of making acquaintances, striving for new impressions, fast falling asleep and waking up.

The opposite of the mobility of nervous processes is inertia. The nervous system is the more inert, the more time or effort it takes to move from one process to another. Inert people find it difficult to enter and exit work, their emotions are manifested slowly and weakly. They do not like to change their habits, environment, friends, daily routine, work.

The properties of nervous processes established by I.P. Pavlov form certain systems, combinations, which, in his opinion, form the so-called types of the nervous system, or types of higher nervous activity. The type of the nervous system consists of a set of basic properties of the nervous system characteristic of individual individuals - strength, balance and mobility of the processes of excitation and inhibition.

Despite the fact that theoretically the specified properties of the nervous system can be grouped into nine types, I.P. Pavlov experimentally confirmed the existence of four main types, close to the traditional typology of Hippocrates. Its classification is primarily based on the strength of nervous processes, distinguishes strong and weak types. The next criterion is the balance of nervous processes, but only in relation to strong types, which are divided into balanced and unbalanced. In this case, the unbalanced type is characterized by the predominance of excitement over inhibition. And, finally, from the point of view of the mobility of nervous processes, strong balanced types are divided into mobile and inert ones.

The types of nervous system identified by I.P. Pavlov, not only in terms of their number, but also in terms of their main characteristics, correspond to 4 classical types of temperament:

1. Strong, balanced, mobile (according to Pavlov - "live" type) - sanguine;

2. Strong, balanced, inert ("calm" type) - phlegmatic;

3. Strong, unbalanced type with a predominance of excitement ("unrestrained" type) - choleric;

4. Weak type - melancholic.

I.P. Pavlov believed that the type of the nervous system is innate and relatively weakly subject to changes under the influence of the environment and upbringing. The properties of the nervous system form the physiological basis of temperament, which is a mental manifestation of the general type of the nervous system.

5. The concept of the type of temperament

If we compare different people by temperament, it turns out that there are very numerous groups of people with similar temperamental properties. From here back in the 1st century. BC. it has been suggested that there are several different types of temperament.

At the same time, the type of temperament was understood as a certain set of mental properties that characterize some large group of people.

After psychology learned to measure some properties of temperament by their external manifestations, it was found that this idea of ​​the types of temperament is very simplified. The degree of similarity between properties depends on the unit of measurement. There are hardly two people in the world whose temperamental properties would be exactly the same. Therefore, it is not known what degree of similarity is needed in order to classify a person as a certain type of temperament. Some foreign psychologists believe that the "type of temperament" is not a scientific concept at all.

It is possible to overcome such subjectivity only if the type of temperament is understood not as a simple set of properties common to a certain group of people, but as a natural one, it is necessary to interconnect these properties.

This natural relationship of properties, which characterizes the type of temperament, manifests itself in different ways.

We can measure some properties of temperament by any of its external manifestations. For example, the degree of impulsivity (mobility) of a person can be measured by how much time it takes him to choose one of two possible simple movements compared to movement without choice. If we measure several properties of temperament in this way, it turns out that the more one property is expressed, the more, or vice versa, the less another property is expressed. Or it turns out that numbers expressing different properties may be different for different people of the same type, but their certain mathematical ratio remains constant, just as a fraction remains constant when the numerator and denominator are multiplied by the same number.

The interconnection of properties characteristic of each type is also manifested in the fact that the qualitative characteristic of each individual property depends on all other properties of the type of temperament. As mentioned above, there is no intemperance and restraint in general as a property of temperament; for one type of temperament, intemperance is a strange unrestraint, for another it is hysterical imbalance. For one type, restraint is emotional balance, for another it is equanimity and solidity.

This understanding of types of temperament as a natural relationship between mental properties is close to the original meaning of this concept, first introduced by the Greek physician Hippocrates. He designated this concept with the word krasis, which corresponds to the Latin temperamentum and denotes proportion, ratio.

The types of temperament are physiologically determined by the general types of the nervous system, following I.P. Pavlovs are usually called Hippocratic types and denote them by the corresponding terms introduced by Hippocrates - sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic, melancholic. However, thanks to new psychological concepts, these concepts have acquired new meanings. First of all, there is no reason to assert that there are only four types of temperament conditioned by them. What we now call Hippocratic types are just some of the possible types that are most consistent with the available psychophysiological data. In addition, new facts require a revision of the very psychological characteristics of Hippocratic types. This characteristic differs in many respects from the previous characteristics of the Hippocratic types.

6. Psychological characteristics of types of temperament

The psychological characteristics of types of temperament are determined by the following basic properties:

1. Sensitivity. We judge about it by the least force of external influences necessary in order to cause any mental reaction in a person. This includes the least strength of the stimulus necessary for the emergence of a sensation (low threshold of sensations), or the least degree of dissatisfaction with the need, which nevertheless causes suffering.

2. Reactivity. We judge about it by the power with which people react emotionally to external or internal influences of the same force. The most striking manifestation of reactivity is emotionality, impressionability.

3. Activity. We judge about it by the force with which the degree of activity a person influences the external world and overcomes external and internal obstacles in the implementation of goals.

4. The ratio of reactivity and activity. We judge about him by what a person's activity largely depends on: from random external or internal circumstances (for example, from mood, random events) or from goals, intentions and aspirations.

5. The rate of reactions. We judge about him by the speed of the course of various mental reactions and processes - by the speed of movements, the pace of speech, resourcefulness, quickness of mind.

6. Plasticity and its opposite quality - rigidity. We judge about them by how easily and flexibly a person adapts to changing external influences (plasticity, or, conversely, so inert or after his behavior (rigidity).

7. Extroversion and the opposite quality - introversion. We judge about them by what the reactions and activities of a person depend on to a greater extent - from external impressions at the moment (extroversion, or, conversely, from images, manifestations and thoughts associated with the past and future (introversion).

At present, there are still no sufficient facts to give a complete and detailed description of all types for a specific program. With a sufficient degree of validity, the following characteristic of psychological types of temperament in relation to a schoolchild is possible.

Before proceeding to consider the various types and characteristics of temperament, one should immediately make a reservation that there are no better and worse temperaments. Each of them has its positive aspects and therefore the main efforts should be directed not at its correction, but at the reasonable use of its merits in concrete activities. For a long time, man has made attempts to isolate and realize the typical features of the mental makeup of various people, trying to reduce all their diversity to a small number of generalized portraits. Since ancient times, such generalized portraits have been called types of temperament. These types of typologies were practically useful, since they could be used to predict the behavior of people with a certain type of temperament in specific life situations.

At the same time, it should be remembered that the temperament of each individual person cannot be completely "fit" into the framework of one type. The very concept of "type" suggests that only group similarities of people are united here. Each person's temperament has its own individual characteristics, which cannot be attributed to one or another specific type. They are just individual, that is, inherent only to him.

Most people have a combination of signs of one type with signs of other temperaments, that is, traits characteristic of different temperaments appear: a choleric person may have features of a melancholic and a phlegmatic person, a sanguine person may have features of a choleric person and a phlegmatic person, etc.

Looking at how leisurely a student does his homework and helps his mother, you might think that he is phlegmatic. But when we see him at the stadium, when the team for which he is “rooting” scores a goal, we will decide that he is a choleric.

In modern psychology, the main types of temperament are characterized as follows.

Sanguine. A person with increased reactivity, but at the same time his activity and reactivity are balanced. He vividly, excitedly responds to everything that attracts his attention, has lively facial expressions, expressive movements. For an insignificant reason, he laughs loudly, and an insignificant fact can make him very angry. By his face, it is easy to guess his mood, attitude to an object or person. He has weak sensitivity, so he does not notice very weak sounds and light stimuli. With increased activity and being very energetic and efficient, he actively takes up a new business and can work for a long time without getting tired. He is able to concentrate quickly, is disciplined, if desired, he can restrain the appearance of his feelings and involuntary reactions. He is characterized by fast movements, flexibility of mind, resourcefulness, a fast pace of speech, quick inclusion in a new job. High plasticity manifests itself in the variability of feelings, moods, interests and aspirations. A sanguine person easily converges with new people, quickly gets used to new requirements and surroundings. Effortlessly not only switches from one job to another, but also retrains, mastering new skills. As a rule, he responds to an external impression to a greater extent than subjective images and ideas about the past and the future.

Choleric. Like a sanguine person, it is characterized by low sensitivity, high reactivity and activity. But in a choleric person, reactivity clearly prevails over activity, so he is unbridled, unrestrained, impatient, quick-tempered, prone to harshness. He is less plastic and more inert than a sanguine person. Hence the great stability of aspirations and interests, great perseverance, difficulties in switching attention are possible, Feelings are clearly expressed in facial expressions, gestures, in speech. Differs in fast movements, general mobility, energy and the desire to constantly act. If a choleric person gets down to business, then he brings it to the end. He is also characterized by a state of resentment and anger, which are persistent and prolonged.

The phlegmatic person has high activity, significantly prevailing over low reactivity, low sensitivity and emotionality. It is difficult to make him laugh and sadden - when they laugh loudly around him, he can remain unperturbed. Stays calm in case of big troubles. These people are balanced and methodical in their actions. If they are brought into an active state, then they act quite persistently in the same direction. Usually phlegmatic people have poor facial expressions, movements are inexpressive and slow, as well as speech. He is inconsistent, with difficulty switching attention and adapting to a new environment, slowly rebuilding skills and habits. At the same time, he is energetic and efficient. Differs in patience, endurance, self-control. As a rule, he is uncommunicative, it is difficult to get along with new people, and does not respond well to external impressions. If the phlegmatic is challenged, he usually shies away. He is not touchy and usually not in the mood for fun.

Melancholic. A person with high sensitivity and low reactivity. It is characterized by a slow but strong emotional excitability. Increased sensitivity with great inertia leads to the fact that an insignificant reason can cause tears in him, he is overly touchy, painfully sensitive. His facial expressions and movements are inexpressive, his voice is quiet, his movements are poor. Usually he is timid, unsure of himself, the slightest difficulty makes him give up. The melancholic is not energetic, persistent, easily tired and has little capacity for work. It is characterized by easily distracted and unstable attention and a slowed down rate of all mental processes.

It can be considered already firmly established that the type of temperament in a person is innate, and on what properties of his innate organization it depends has not yet been fully clarified. You should also not confuse, confuse the properties of temperament and character traits. A bold, kind, strong-willed, talented or cowardly, evil, rude, stupid, mediocre person can be of any temperament. True, these traits will manifest themselves in people with different temperaments in different ways.

7. Heredity and living conditions as the cause of temperament differences

In the origin of the type of temperament, the main role, apparently, is played by heredity. This is most convincingly confirmed if we compare the properties of temperament in identical (homozygous) twins, in which the hereditary physiological properties are the same, and in two-egg (heterogeneous) twins, in which these properties are not quite the same, it is found that the degree of similarity in the properties of temperament in homoosite twins so much more than in homozymes that the probability of a hereditary origin of temperament is 85%. The same is confirmed if we compare the temperament of homozygous twins taken into education in different families. Despite the fact that the conditions of upbringing in such twins are different, in terms of the properties of temperament, the difference between them over the years is very insignificant.

Although the type of temperament as a whole, apparently, depends on heredity, individual properties of temperament vary within certain limits in connection with the conditions of life and upbringing. Such changes are often observed in early childhood due to past illnesses, under the influence of everyday conditions, and in adolescence, depending on the psychological conflicts experienced. They are also observed as a result of the long-term influence of certain conditions of upbringing.

Lifetime change in individual properties of temperament as a whole. If individual properties of temperament have changed in such a way that the quantitative ratio between them remains the same (just as the value of the fraction does not change when the numerator and denominator are multiplied by the same number), then the type of temperament as a whole remains the same. Thus, changes in other properties of temperament, depending on living conditions and upbringing, do not contradict the hereditary origin of the type of temperament as a whole.

From changes in individual properties of temperament, depending on conditions and upbringing, one should distinguish the maturation of the type of temperament. The type of temperament does not appear all at once, with all its characteristic properties from the moment of birth or at a certain age. The general patterns of maturation of the nervous system leaves an imprint on the maturation of the type of temperament. For example, a characteristic age-related feature of the nervous system in preschool and preschool age is the weakness of the nervous process and their imbalance. Therefore, those properties of temperament that depend on the strength of the nervous system are not sufficiently manifested due to age characteristics. Such properties of temperament as irritability, a tendency to fear or anger, lethargy, established in those observed in primary school age, are not found and are suppressed by most of them in preschool age.

The main properties of a certain temperament do not appear all at once, but gradually, with age, depending on the maturation of the nervous system. We call this process the maturation of temperament.

8. Taking into account the temperament in work and teaching and educational work

Since each activity imposes certain requirements on the human psyche and its dynamic characteristics, there are no temperaments that are ideally suited for all types of activity. Take, for example, the activities of operators of power systems, chemical plants and the activities of a worker on a conveyor belt. If in the first, people with high anxiety, low resistance cannot work, in the second there are no special high requirements for these psychological characteristics of a person. It is only desirable that he endure monotonous work relatively painlessly.

The role of temperament in work and study lies in the fact that the influence on the activity of various mental states caused by an unpleasant environment, emotiogenic factors, and pedagogical influences depends on it.

The influence of various factors that determine the level of neuropsychic stress depends on temperament.

There are four ways of adapting the temperament to the requirements of the activity.

The first path is professional selection, one of the tasks of which is to prevent Leahs who do not possess the necessary temperamental properties from this activity. This path is implemented only on the selection of a profession that makes increased demands on personality traits.

Activities in these professions are associated with extreme stress, risk, danger, great responsibility.

The second way of adapting the temperament to the personality is to individualize the requirements for a person, the conditions of the ways of working. At the same time, training and education should not change the temperament, but help overcome the shortcomings of a particular temperament, develop its positive aspects. The foregoing also applies to the master of industrial training, to the control of his own temperament. So, for example, a representative of a choleric temperament should use his positive qualities such as activity, energy, enthusiasm and restrain such negative manifestations as irascibility, affectivity, irritability.

A representative of the melancholic type must use the positive traits of his temperament: softness, responsiveness, tact and overcome such as undemandingness, pliability, suggestibility, lethargy and indecision.

In the process of educational work, one should strive to develop a lagging inhibitory process among students of choleric people through training. From these students it is necessary to constantly gently but persistently demand calm, thoughtful answers, restraint in behavior and in relation to other students, and accuracy in work. It must be remembered that the choleric person does not like monotonous, painstaking work. At the same time, his passion in work, reasonable initiative should be encouraged. Since a choleric person can quickly move to a state of passion, when control over behavior from the side of consciousness is lost, it is not recommended to speak in raised tones when communicating with them. This will only increase his arousal.

Students with a melancholic temperament must be influenced by gentleness, tact, sensitivity, since excessive severity and a sharp increase in requirements for these students further inhibit them, reduce their working capacity. It is very important to help them enter the team, get involved in its social work, and feel protected in the team. In class, these students should be asked more often, creating a calm environment during their response. In this case, approval, praise, and encouragement play an important role.

The attention of the master should be attracted by students - phlegmatic ones, who, unfortunately, are usually not given enough attention - they are calm, do not bother anyone. A phlegmatic person should develop the qualities he lacks - great mobility, activity, it is important not to allow him to lose interest in activity, since this generates indifference and lethargy.

Sanguine people need to cultivate perseverance, purposefulness, perseverance.

The third way is to determine the negative influence of temperament through the formation of a positive attitude towards activity and the corresponding motives. For example, in a very interesting lesson that causes increased activity of students, the degree of restraint of choleric people is not less than that of sanguine people, and the working capacity of melancholic people is not lower than that of phlegmatic people.

The fourth, main and most universal way of adapting temperament to the requirements of an activity is the formation of its individual style. An individual style of activity is understood as such an individual system of techniques and methods of action, which is characteristic of a given person and is appropriate for achieving a successful result. A person usually chooses such techniques and methods of performing an action that are most consistent with his temperament, but he always chooses them consciously. The task of the teacher, the foreman is to assess their appropriateness and help the student consciously and creatively develop an individual style of activity.

9. Temperament and individual style of activity

The main and most universal way of adapting temperament to the requirements of an activity is the formation of its individual style.

The same tasks and requirements in any professional educational and work activity can be carried out with the same success in very different techniques and methods. By an individual style of activity, we mean such a system of techniques and methods of action that is characteristic of a given person and is appropriate for achieving a successful result.

One of the conditions for the formation of this style is taking into account the properties of temperament. A person chooses such techniques and methods of performing actions that are most consistent with his temperament. The techniques and methods of action most appropriate to temperament depend on temperament-conditioned, often completely involuntary and unaccountable forms of response and movement characteristics. So, for example, an unbalanced choleric person, in order to restrain a forbidden movement, much more often than a sanguine person, and, moreover, completely involuntarily and unaccountably performs the opposite movement. From the totality of such involuntary and unaccountable forms of response, there are quite deliberately applied systematic and purposeful systems of techniques and actions that characterize the individual style. A student is melancholic when performing written work due to self-doubt and anxiety, he spends a lot of time not drawing up a draft, checking and correcting it, and comparatively less on writing it cleanly. A sanguine student, on the contrary, sometimes writes a draft in very abbreviated form or does not even use it at all and checks and corrects his work a lot. The same individual style, depending on temperament, was established in the work of a weaver, submachine gunner, acrobat, etc.

One of the most important conditions for the emergence of an individual style is a conscious, creative attitude to the work performed. An individual style arises only if a person is looking for the best techniques and ways to help him achieve the most successful results. Therefore, the individual style is most clearly manifested among the best students, advanced workers, and among the athletes - foremen and first-class athletes.

An individual style of activity does not appear in a person by itself, spontaneously. It is formed in the process of training and education. The first conception of the formation of an individual style is observed already in the senior preschool age when solving practical problems of a play nature.

There are a number of special psychological and pedagogical principles on which the education of an individual style of activity is based. One of the main tasks of teaching and upbringing is to adapt a person's temperament to the objective requirements of activity to the greatest extent through the formation of an individual style.

10. Techniques for studying temperament

Exercise 1. "Business card"

Students sit in a circle. The assignment is given: everyone must think what is most important, the most essential in him, in his temperament, and find a short form of expression for this, it can be poetic, in the form of a quote ("Ice and Fire"; cry like a child ";" Quiet, sad, silent ... "etc.) or metaphors. Then all by chance; Some, starting with the one to the right of the leader, are introduced to the group. First, the student says his name, then talks about himself and his behavior.

The group discusses whose performances made the greatest impression, what temperament they correspond to.

Exercise 2. "Your reaction"

Students are asked to imagine the following situation: “You are standing in line, and suddenly, between you and the person ahead, someone“ creeps in ”. The situation is very vital, but often there are no words to express your indignation and indignation. And not every word can easily discourage such an impudent person from the future. Tell us what your typical reaction to this situation is. What kind of temperament does it resemble? And yet, how to be? After all, you can't put up with the fact that such cases are inevitable! " Further, this situation is played up. Participants are distributed. One partner plays the role of "impudent", the other rebuffs him. Then they switch roles. Next, a competition is held for the best answer in this situation. The presenter assesses who is the most resourceful.

Exercise 3. "Mine is the best"

All participants take turns determining their temperament. Then determine the temperament of each other. Everyone praises their temperament, highlighting its advantages. Further, choleric people praise sanguine and phlegmatic people, sanguine people praise choleric and phlegmatic people, etc.

Exercise 4. Let's play

Participants are invited to come up with a game in which a choleric, sanguine and phlegmatic person will act. For example: a trial is in progress. A sanguine person is accused who repeatedly violated the traffic rules, exceeded the speed limit and crashed someone else's car. He refused the defender. The prosecutor is a choleric, the judge is a phlegmatic. Three students act out a fictitious situation. The teacher and other students make sure that they act in harmony with their temperament.

Exercise "Deal with the heroes"

Distribute literary heroes known to you (for example, Pinocchio, Basilio the Cat, Chipollinot Dr. etc.) by types of temperament.

People with a pronounced temperament are not so common. In reality, there is a mixture of types with the predominance of any one.

There is also an equal mixture, this is the 5th type - mixed temperament (the ancients called it "normal").

Evaluation of results: On ten questions you have 10 points in total (this is 100%). By counting the number of Cast in each of the columns: sanguine - C, choleric - X, phlegmatic - F and melancholic - M, you can see what your temperament is (the one for which you scored the most points prevails). And the exact expression of your temperament will reflect the formula:

T = TC + nX + rF + kM,

that is, by how many% are you sanguine, choleric, phlegm-spik and melancholic (t, n, p, k - the sum of points by columns in%).

Activity pace test

Draw as many triangles as possible within a minute.

Count the number of characters spelled correctly in 1 minute. If less than 60, you are phlegmatic; 60-70 - norm (sanguine); more than 70 - choleric.

Exercise "My temperament"

Divide the paper into two columns and write in the left column the strengths of your temperament, and in the right - those that you do not like and sometimes interfere.

So, you got an idea of ​​another side of your I - temperament. Make a portrait of him based on the test results.

Aristotle (384-322 BC) - Greek scientist, encyclopedist, philosopher, teacher of Alexander the Great.

Temperament is a personality trait that determines the activity and emotionality of a person's behavior.

A sanguine person is a mobile, but balanced person who correctly (adequately) reacts to surrounding events.

Choleric is a quickly excited, unbalanced, quick-tempered person with abrupt mood changes.

A phlegmatic person is a slow, but persistent and stubborn person who is difficult to get out of balance.

A melancholic is a person who is very deeply experiencing even small griefs, prone to blues, pessimism.

Test situation "Bring a puppy"

Once a puppy accidentally came to you - a cute cute creature in need of protection. And so you bring it home. What will be your parents' reaction?

Exercise. Imagine this scene and describe the possible reactions of family members. Associate this reaction with the type of temperament of the relative.

Socially acceptable positions: patience, endurance and a sense of tact, respect for the opinions of loved ones, an attitude to avoid conflicts, improving relations with loved ones

Practical work.

Reinforcement of the passed material

Explain, using Eysenck's circle, what qualities are inherent in each of the types of temperament that occupies one of the four quadrants (there are no qualities in the drawing presented to the student).

GOAL. To reveal the features and benefits of each type of temperament. To form the skills of analyzing the characteristics of human behavior, depending on the individual-typical properties.

Progress

Today we will take a closer look at the characteristics of each type of temperament and talk about how this or that type of temperament manifests itself in human behavior.

You answer each statement using a 4-point scale:

I disagree

Partially disagree

I partially agree,

Agree.

(An "N" following a statement means that when calculating the total, the score for this item will be inverse (calculated in reverse), for example 1 = 4, 2 = 3, 3 = 2, 4. = 1.)

I am not ashamed of any of my emotions.

I feel like I have to do what others want me to do. (N)

I believe that in essence people are good and can be trusted.

I can get angry with those I love.

It is always necessary for others to approve of what I do. (N)

I do not accept my weaknesses. (N)

I may like people that I may not approve of.

I'm afraid of failure ...

I try not to analyze or oversimplify difficult areas. (N)

Better to be yourself than popular.

There is not something in my life that I would dedicate myself to: (N)

I can express my feelings even if it leads to undesirable consequences.

I don't have to help others. (N)

I'm tired of fear and inadequacy. (N)

They love me because I love.

The higher the score, the more actualized person you can consider yourself.

Tapping test (E.P. Ilyina)

(Study of the strength of the nervous system in relation to arousal, performance characteristics)

The subjects are given forms (or they themselves draw a diagram on pieces of paper), where 8 identical squares with a side of 4 cm are drawn (Fig. 1).

The subjects are given instructions for completing the task. A pencil is taken in the right hand (for right-handers) and left (for left-handers) in such a way that the thumb rests on the top of the end of the pencil (Fig. 2). In extreme cases, you can work with a handle, but without a button at the top. It is advisable to rewind the top of the pencil with a plaster. The elbow is suspended without support on the table. The task consists in knocking on each square for 5 seconds at the command of the experimenter, trying to put as many points as possible.

The experimenter should cheer up the subjects, loudly saying: "Faster, even faster!", "Come on, let's try!" and so on, since work is associated with great physical stress and fatigue accumulates towards the end.

After the end of the experiment, the subjects are invited to independently make the necessary calculations. The number of points placed in each square is counted, the result is recorded in the corner of each square. (For the convenience of processing, you can use the technique of connecting the already counted points with a line or dividing the square field into several zones using cobwebs.)

Then you need to build a graph. On the abscissa axis (horizontal line) the numbers of the squares (or the accumulated operating time) are marked, on the ordinate axis (vertical lines) in a certain scale the number of points in each square is marked. (For the convenience of working with the graph, plotting the number of points on the ordinate axis should start with an integer close to the minimum number of points put by the subjects in any square.) on the ordinate axis corresponding to the number of points put by the subjects in this square. The intersection points of these perpendiculars are connected by lines that form a graph.

For example, if the result is in 1 square - 35 points; at 2 -29; 3 - 42; 4 - 31; 5 - 38; 6 - 30; 7 - 27; 8 - 25 - the graph will look like this (Fig. 5):

Further, from the point on the ordinate axis, where the number of points in 1 square is marked, the perpendicular (horizontal line) is restored and the position of the resulting individual graph relative to this line is analyzed.

E.P. Ilyin distinguishes five types of graphs corresponding to five types of the nervous system:

Strong (convex graph);

Medium-strong;

Medium (even, intermediate type);

Medium-weak (curved);

Weak (descending chart).

Figure 6 shows a general view of graphs of each type (when interpreting individual graphs, you should pay attention to their position relative to the horizontal line starting at the place of the ordinate axis, which indicates the number of points in the first square).

Tapping test allows to carry out express diagnostics of the type of the nervous system (weak, strong or intermediate type), as well as to reveal the peculiarities of working capacity ("workability" characteristic of the strong type, which is able to withstand heavy loads without reducing productivity, which even slightly increases after mastering activity; fatigue and a decrease in the productivity of activity under heavy loads is characteristic of a weak type of the nervous system). The results of the technique can also give a general idea of ​​the psychodynamic and neurodynamic characteristics, pace and rhythm of activity. For example, in Figure 6, the graph shows the unevenness of the pace of activity, that is, a person works “in jerks”, can mobilize himself for a while, but it is difficult for him to maintain this pace for a long period; a decrease in performance quickly sets in.

When interpreting the results of the methodology, you should also draw the attention of the audience to the fact that both strong and weak types have their own disadvantages and advantages. The advantages of the first include high performance, the ability not to lose endurance in stressful situations, stability. The advantages of the weak type are high sensitivity, the ability to pick up signals of weak intensity. So, people of creative professions - musicians, artists, actors, as a rule, have a weak type of nervous system. You just need to remember about the peculiarities of your body and organize your life so as not to overwork and not expose the nervous system to excessive stress.

Eysenck's teenage questionnaire

(Modification of the Department of Psychology, Leningrad University, 1987)

Instruction. Questions will be read to you and you must answer yes or no. There are no good or bad questions; it is in your best interest to answer truthfully. Do not hesitate for a long time, the first answer that comes to mind is the most correct one. Evaluate how it happens to you in most cases. Pay attention to questions like "does this happen ...?" - you need to answer "yes" if this happens at least occasionally.

Do you love the hustle and bustle around you?

Do you often need friends who could support you?

Do you always find a quick answer when asked about something?

Do you ever get annoyed with something?

Do you often have mood changes?

Is it true that you find it easier and more pleasant with books (or a computer) than with guys?

Do different thoughts often prevent you from falling asleep?

Do you always do what you are told?

Do you like to play a trick on someone (or something)?

Have you ever felt unhappy "even though there was no real reason for it?

Can you say about yourself that you are a cheerful, lively person<

Have you ever violated the school code of conduct?

Is it true that you are often annoyed by something?

Do you like doing everything at a fast pace?

Are you worried about all sorts of terrible events that almost happened, although everything ended well?

Can you trust a secret?

Can you easily revitalize a boring company?

Does it ever happen that your heart beats violently for no reason?

Do you usually take the first step to befriend someone?

Have you ever told a lie?

Do you get upset easily when you and your work are criticized?

Do you often joke and tell funny stories to your friends?

Do you often feel tired?

Do you always do your homework first, and then everything else?

Are you usually cheerful and happy with everything?

Are you touchy?

Do you really like to communicate with other guys?

Do you always fulfill the requests of your relatives for help with the housework?

Do you get dizzy?

Does it ever happen that your actions and deeds put other people in an awkward position?

Do you often feel that you are tired of everything?

Do you like to brag?

Do you most often sit and be silent when you find yourself in the company of unknown people?

Are you sometimes so worried that you cannot sit still?

Do you usually make decisions quickly?

Do you never make noise in class - even when the teacher is not there?

Do you often have bad dreams?

Can you give free rein to your senses and have fun with your friends?

Is it easy to upset you?

Have you ever talked badly about someone?

Is it true that you usually speak and act quickly?

If you find yourself in a stupid position, do you worry for a long time?

Do you like fun games?

Do you always eat what they give you?

Is it difficult for you to say no when asked for something?

Do you like to visit often?

Are there times when you don't feel like living?

Have you ever been rude to your parents?

Do the guys consider you a funny person?

Do you often get distracted when doing homework?

Do you sit and watch more often than take an active part in any business or game?

Do you usually find it difficult because of different thoughts?

Are you quite sure that you can handle the job that you have to do?

Do you ever feel lonely?

Are you embarrassed to be the first to speak to strangers?

Do you often remember when it's too late to fix something?

When one of the guys yells at you, do you also yell back?

Do you sometimes feel cheerful or sad for no reason at all?

Do you find it difficult to get real pleasure from a busy company?

Do you often have to worry that you did something without thinking?

Key. For each match with the key, 1 point is assigned.

The scale of lies is considered as an indicator of insincerity and demonstrative. If the norm is exceeded (3-4 points), the results of the entire method are considered unreliable.

Formula of temperament

(In the labyrinths of personality psychology / Auth.-comp. A. V. Timchenko, V. B. Shapar)

Instruction. Please mark in each of the four blocks with a "+" only those qualities in the passport of temperament that are characteristic of you. Then, for each of the blocks, calculate the sum of the pluses and derive the formula for your temperament.

So, if you:

Processing of results. Positive answers to the questions of the first group correspond to type 1 - choleric (X), second - sanguine (C), third - phlegmatic (F), fourth - melancholic (M). The type of temperament can be considered pronounced if the number of "+" in any of the four groups exceeds 11-15 points.

However, often a person can have more than one type of temperament, but several. In order to determine the formula of temperament, the number "+" calculated separately for each section is converted into percentages:

Conclusion

In the course of my work, I learned a lot. I learned what temperament is, its types, learned that it is not alone, identified the pros and cons of each type of temperament. Now I know how the doctrine of types of temperament was formed, how scientists study and perceive it in different ways. I learned how to work with children of different types of temperament, to take these types into account in educational activities. This knowledge will be useful to me in my future profession in order to correctly build the activities of children in the lesson. And for this it is necessary to work with the pluses of temperaments and eradicate their minuses.

References

1. Belous V.V. Temperament and activity. Study guide, - Pyatigorsk, 1990

2. Gippenreiter Yu.B. Introduction to General Psychology. Lecture course. - M. 1986

3. Merlin V.S. Essay on the hippagral study of individuality, - M., 1986

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