Throughout the world, the location of various industries, transport, and agriculture does not occur by chance, but under the influence of certain conditions. Conditions that have a great influence on the choice of location for production development are called production location factors.
Factors influencing production location
Factors for the location of production forces are a set of external conditions and resources, the correct use of which ensures the best result in the development of economic activity and the location of production.
The most important factors for production location include:
- Raw materials - location of enterprises in close proximity to sources of raw materials. Most factories and factories are built near large water bodies and mineral deposits. Thanks to this, time and financial costs for transporting large volumes of cargo are saved, and the cost of the finished product will be significantly lower. The raw material factor has a decisive influence on the location of enterprises for the production of cement, potash fertilizers, timber, and the enrichment of non-ferrous metal ores.
Many natural resource deposits are almost completely devastated. This led to the fact that mining enterprises began to develop new places, most often difficult to access. For example, currently oil and gas production occurs in bays and seas. Such production requires large capital investments and heavily pollutes the environment.
Rice. 1. Oil production at sea.
- Fuel - this factor has a decisive influence on the location of enterprises that use large amounts of mineral fuel in their work: fuel oil, natural gas, coal. Such industries include the chemical industry, ferrous metallurgy, and thermal power engineering.
- Energy - determines the location of industries that use large volumes of electricity. Such production is called energy-intensive. These include enterprises producing paper, chemical fibers, and light non-ferrous metals. They are located near large hydroelectric power stations.
- Labor - influences the location of production facilities that employ a large number of labor resources, including high-level specialists. Such production is called labor-intensive. These include vegetable growing, rice growing, production of personal computers and electronic equipment, and clothing production. Such enterprises are located in densely populated areas with cheap labor.
Rice. 2. Production of electronic equipment.
- Consumer - affects the location of enterprises producing consumer goods: clothing, shoes, food, household appliances. They are found in almost all major populated areas.
- Transport - this factor is very important for industries whose products need to be supplied to other areas. To reduce additional transport costs, many production facilities are located near large transport hubs.
- Ecological - the role of this factor lies in the negative impact of most chemical production on the environment. That is why they cannot be placed in densely populated areas. Otherwise, more stringent requirements for cleaning technologies are applied to them.
Table “Factors of production location”
|
Production location factors |
Branches of production |
|
Raw materials |
Mining industry, sawmills, production of non-ferrous metal ores |
|
Fuel |
Thermal power engineering, ferrous metallurgy, chemical industry |
|
Energy |
Enterprises for the production of paper and chemical fibers |
|
Labor |
Garment production, vegetable growing, electronic equipment production |
|
Consumer |
Production of consumer products |
|
Transport |
Railway production, automotive industry |
|
Ecological |
Chemical and metallurgical production |
Conditions for production location
The location of production also depends on such external conditions as the natural environment, population, scientific and technical potential base, and socio-historical conditions for the development of a particular production.
One of the most important conditions for the location of many industries, in particular agricultural activities, are agroclimatic indicators. Natural soil fertility, the water regime of the territory, and the specific climate largely determine the productivity of such sectors of the economy.
Rice. 3. Agriculture.
The connection between the conditions and factors of production location is very strong. Only with a competent approach, taking into account all indicators, can you create the most efficient and productive production.
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Influence of natural factor on the level of wealth of society, demographic growth, the speed of historical development throughout history has been exceptionally strong. That is why the image of nature has always been the most important in the spiritual life of society, people deified it, sang it, feared it and were grateful to it for its generosity. Global climate changes (glaciation, warming, drying out of the steppe, etc.) played an important role in the formation of humanity and its history. The natural environment was capable of greatly accelerating or inhibiting various processes. This is reflected in various theories, which are discussed below. In the early periods of history, the life of an individual and human groups depended on the characteristics of nature to an incomparably greater extent than today. However, even modern society, having solved many important problems, not only failed to escape the influence of nature, but unexpectedly faced global and very complex environmental problems. The life of modern man, despite the enormous successes of science and civilization, is still connected with nature (through food, water, air, microorganisms, etc.) by countless threads and depends on it. Ultimately, everything that modern man possesses, except knowledge and information, is made from natural material, albeit transformed. The study of the mutual influence of nature and society in the past and present is one of the most important tasks of both historical and many other sciences.
1. SYSTEM “SOCIETY – NATURE”
Natural (geographical) environment. Society cannot exist outside the natural (geographic) environment. This environment is a complex set of different conditions (climate, topography, soils, minerals and much more). The influence it has on the life of society is called the natural (geographical) factor . It is quite clear that in relation to each specific society the natural environment will be part of the planet, in relation to humanity in general - the entire globe and the surrounding space (including outer space). Society and nature form a single system, since between them occurs: a) metabolism; b) mutual influence; c) mutual transformation; d) the formation of elements common to both. To analyze social development itself, certain researchers have repeatedly tried to place the natural environment outside the “brackets” of society as something external, but more often than not such attempts have not turned out to be particularly productive for social science.
The structure of the natural environment in terms of its relationship with society, it can be represented as consisting of three parts: 1) cultivated nature, that is, included in economic circulation; 2) "reserve", that is, not yet used, but suitable for economic needs at a given level of development; 3) uncultivated, that is, unsuitable for economic needs given the available capabilities. Cultivated nature, with the further influence of people, begins to turn into artificial geographic environment or even technosphere.
In general, the role of natural factors in production is decreasing, and the role of artificial ones is growing, although new spheres of nature are constantly being mastered: space, the depths of the sea, etc. Thus, in a certain sense, history appears as a transition from the natural environment (biosphere) to the social and to what is often called the technosphere. But, unfortunately, until now, man’s attitude towards nature often resembles the actions of a barbarian who, in order to find stone for construction, breaks a temple. Unfortunately, the grim humor of one researcher that the process of civilization is “the transition from a wild place to a garbage pit” remains true.
Changing the natural environment occurs in two senses: a) absolutely (physically), including under human influence (plowing the land, clearing forests, etc.); b) relatively, due to the growth of the technical capabilities of society (for example, previously oil was extracted only on land, now - from the bottom of the seas). When a new level of human development is reached, new sources of natural wealth are opened to it. Thus, the same nature as a geographical environment will change along with the development of society, both absolutely and relatively. And with an increase in population density, the level of science, technology, the size of states, etc., the previous boundaries set by the geographical environment are overcome, and its structure changes.
Two types of influence of nature on society: direct and indirect. Direct influence is not mediated by society, it is expressed: a) in genetic changes in people under the influence of various natural factors or through the selection of certain qualities, for example, when consuming this or that food; b) in destabilizing phenomena, both negative (disasters, climate change, epidemics, etc.) and positive (for example, climate improvement). Indirect influence is realized through social relations, labor, distribution of wealth obtained from the use of nature, social consciousness, etc. Consequently, the influence of the same natural factor on different societies (and the same society in different eras) can cause different reactions depending on the level of development of society, its structure, historical moment, and a number of other circumstances.
The more complex the interaction between nature and society, the less the direct influence of nature on society and the more indirect. In this case, the direct influence is either constant if the surrounding nature does not change (then society, having once adapted to it, already functions according to certain rules), or this influence is associated with very sharp changes (during disasters, etc.), which causes strong , but not systemic changes in society. The indirect influence turns out to be much more systemic and, as a result, more important, since any technological or major social changes, as well as changes in demographic proportions in society, inevitably change to some extent: a) relations between people regarding the possession of certain natural resources ; b) relations between people and nature, including psychological and technological. The latter may be associated, for example, with a more or less careful attitude towards nature, more or less intensive use of its resources.
The aspect of the more important (but not so obvious at first glance) indirect influence of nature on society was underestimated by thinkers of the past, who mainly tried to find direct forms of influence of nature on society (for example, arguing that climate shapes the character of a people). This is why it is so important to study the mechanisms and channels through which the natural environment indirectly influences the structure of society.
The growing complexity of interaction between nature and society, including the growth of indirect influence, can be represented as a complication of the productive forces (see Diagram 1), where with each level the role of nature in directly providing people with the products of labor becomes less, but the degree of complexity of the interaction between nature and society increases.
Natural level characteristic of a hunting-gathering society; social-natural– for agricultural and craft industries; socio-technical level– for industrial; scientific and information– for the modern.
The role of the natural environment is greater, the greater the place it occupies in the social system, especially in the composition of the productive forces. In other words, the role of the geographical environment is greater, the older the period.
However, although in some aspects the dependence of society on nature is decreasing, it is necessary to take into account another type of dependence between nature and society: the more complex and larger the society, the more dangerous changes in natural conditions become. As the complexity and integration of society grows, changes in the natural environment can cause increasingly global consequences, since due to the complexity of society, any fluctuations can lead to tension and destruction of the system. This is why climate change in the 21st century. could turn out to be very dangerous for humanity. And although, of course, society has many opportunities to eliminate the consequences, but, firstly, not all the consequences can be eliminated, and secondly, such elimination will require monstrous costs and great sacrifices.
Forms of relationship between nature and society. We can distinguish five main forms of relationship between man and nature: a) adaptation; b) unconscious negative or positive influence (characteristic of all periods, especially pre-industrial); c) cultivation for economic and other purposes (arose with the advent of agriculture); d) influence on natural processes with the help of science (emerged in industrial production); e) conscious regulation of the functioning of the natural environment in order to preserve it (some elements of such influence are currently being formed).
These forms often appear as different aspects of the same actions. After all, no matter where people lived, they one way or another not only adapted to the environment, but also adapted it themselves to some extent. First - only their immediate habitats, then over the centuries - millions and millions of hectares of arable land, and today the question is about planning the impact on nature on a planetary scale. Before the invention of agriculture, people used mainly the first two forms of relationship with nature. The invention of agriculture led to the beginning of the cultivation of the natural environment (plowing, cutting down, irrigation, etc.). In the era of industrial production, people began to use science and the laws of nature they discovered to consciously influence natural processes, and in the modern period, ecological methods of regulating nature are being formed (but they are still in their infancy).
Gradually, the role of transformation is growing, and adaptation is decreasing, but does not disappear. As humanity advances to new levels in its relationship with nature, new opportunities and sources of wealth open up.
ROLE OF NATURAL FACTOR IN HISTORY
In the era of appropriating economy, adaptation (adaptation) man to nature was main driving force development, thanks to which people settled almost throughout the planet. The entire way of life - the size of groups, tools of labor, methods of management, basic social relations - depended on the surrounding natural conditions, with the change of which it was necessary to either adapt again or move. There was glaciation on Earth for many millennia. Adapting to the cold climate, man invented warm clothing, food preparation, and learned to hunt the largest animals. As a result, people already had a sufficient level of development of productive forces and sociality so that part of the collectives could not only survive in more severe conditions, but even prosper on the basis of obtaining some surplus of production. Warming has also brought huge changes. Then, about 14–10 thousand years ago, the climate changed dramatically. Warming began, glaciers retreated, as a result of which there were fewer large mammals. People in a number of areas switched to individual hunting (Markov 1979: 51; Child 1949: 40), invented bows, traps, nets, harpoons, axes, etc., which ensured the autonomous existence of small groups and even individual families. Primitive people generally achieved relative well-being and, according to the theory of M. Sahlins (1999), were even able to achieve relative abundance. Gradually, people settled almost all over the planet. The nature of the relationship between people and the environment varied significantly, but in general it was adaptive to the natural environment (see, for example: Leonova, Nesmeyanov 1993; see also: Grinin 2006: 82–83).
Agricultural and craft society. Agriculture first appeared in the Middle East. The transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture (as well as the transition to irrigation agriculture) required special conditions. Thus, the domestication of wild cereals, according to V.I. Gulyaev (1972), could only occur in mountainous arid regions with a warm subtropical climate with an abundance of natural microdistricts in a relatively narrow territory that had the richest and most diverse flora. Here we see an important pattern regarding the interaction between nature and society: For the initial transition to a new level of development, until the last centuries of history, society required special natural conditions.
In the agrarian era, the nature of the relationship between nature and society changes due to the transition to a fairly meaningful and active transformation of the environment on a large scale (artificial irrigation, cutting and burning forests, plowing virgin soil, applying fertilizers, etc., not to mention the creation of cities , roads, etc.). The use of natural forces is also expanding significantly, including the power of animals, wind and water (previously only fire was actively used). Natural raw materials are transformed into completely new things and materials (metals, fabrics, pottery, glass). The transition to a productive economy and its development led to enormous demographic growth. The world's population has increased tenfold.
During the industrial period society overcomes many of the limitations imposed by nature and strengthens its own influence on it. People are mastering the forces of nature that were previously completely or mostly inaccessible to them (the energy of steam and electricity), creating new materials (using chemistry), developing new mechanisms based on the laws of physics, and defeating previously incurable diseases. Huge areas are used for cities, roads, and mining. During this period, the idea was established that man conquered nature and became its master. As a result of predatory exploitation, many species of animals were exterminated, many forests were cut down, many millions of hectares of soil were damaged, etc.
The contradictions between management and nature as a result of its predatory exploitation are beginning to worsen.
In the modern period of the scientific and information society Human influence on nature has become global. People have mastered new types of energy (including nuclear), created a huge amount of new materials and genetically modified organisms. The volume of mining and environmental pollution has become colossal. At the moment, humanity is faced with gradual climate change, which can lead to very large problems. The growth of negative impacts on nature has increased so much that attitudes towards nature are gradually changing. Environmental consciousness is being formed, measures are being taken to preserve nature (systems of nature reserves have emerged, emission standards are being introduced, etc.).
2. DEVELOPMENT OF IDEAS ABOUT THE ROLE OF NATURAL FACTOR
Early ideas
Antiquity. The image of nature has always been the most important in the spiritual life of society. However, understanding these relationships at a philosophical and theoretical level arose relatively late. Nevertheless, some ancient Eastern thinkers and especially ancient philosophers and historians can find interesting observations about the role of the geographical environment. Since historiography played an important role in ancient societies (see: Grinin 2010: Lecture 2), and the beginnings of political science, political economy and social philosophy appeared, it becomes clear why ancient authors addressed the problems of the conditioning of social phenomena by the geographical environment. Among the ancient writers, it is especially worth highlighting Aristotle (384–322 BC), Polybius (200–120 BC), Posidonius (c. 135 – c. 51 BC. BC), as well as the geographer Strabo (64/63 BC - 23/24 AD), the physician Hippocrates (460–370 BC) and the architect Vitruvius (I century BC) . Ancient authors noted the influence of the environment and especially climate on the physical type of peoples, their customs and mores, the level of development of society and its political forms, types of occupations, and population size. At the same time, the nature of Greece and the Mediterranean was considered the most favorable for human life. A number of ideas of ancient authors, especially concerning the influence of climate on the character of the population and its customs, were developed in modern times by J. Bodin and C. Montesquieu.
In the Middle Ages the problem of the role of the geographical environment was given very little influence due to the dominance of the theology of history. The only exception was, perhaps, Ibn Khaldun(1332–1406), eminent Arab historian and sociologist, and some Chinese authors. Ibn Khaldun explained the differences in life, way of life, mental makeup, character and customs of certain tribes and peoples by differences in the natural, mainly climatic, conditions of their existence.
Return to the problems of the role of the geographical environment. Only work Jean Bodin(1530–1596) “Six Books on the State” introduced the question of the role of the geographical factor into the arsenal of the theory of history, although this question became truly important for the theory of history only during the 18th–20th centuries. In the views of Bodin, like his ancient predecessors, there is much that is naive and incorrect. But it is important that for the first time he examined in sufficient detail and systematically the question of the influence of nature on society, expressing the following ideas, which were later developed by Montesquieu:
1. The conditioning of the mental makeup of a people by the totality of natural-geographical conditions in which this people develops. Boden, in particular, noted the dependence of the people’s temperament on latitude and longitude. Boden divides peoples into northern, southern and those living in the middle zone; he gives preference to the mental makeup of the latter.
He also notes (which ancient authors did not) the influence of longitude, emphasizing such climate features as greater or less humidity, proximity to the sea.
2. Dependence of laws and institutions on climate. Bodin believed that the temperament of a people influenced legislation and customs. Thus, legislation depends to a great extent on geographical conditions, since different natures require different socio-political institutions.
3. The peculiarities of the influence of natural conditions on a particular people, according to Boden, can be weakened or eliminated by social factors, as well as human will and upbringing. Thus, Bodin does not act as an absolute determinist.
Development of views in the 18th century.
Ideas of enlighteners. J. J. Rousseau, A. Turgot, C. Montesquieu. Thinkers of the 17th century, being busy searching for general social laws, similar to the laws of physics and geometry, did not leave detailed theories about the influence of the geographical environment. But Enlightenment philosophers in France and other countries, exploring human nature, began to pay more attention to the role of climate and nature in the life of society. This was also facilitated by the fact that during the time of the great geographical discoveries, a huge number of different facts related to such influence had accumulated. In particular, J. J. Rousseau (1712–1778) developed the theory of the natural man (savage), who lives in harmony with nature, believing that civilization subsequently has a detrimental effect on human society. Considerable attention was paid to the role of climate, soil, natural communications, etc., by those educators who studied the historical stages of development of the economy and material arts (crafts), progress and other problems. It is also worth remembering that in the 18th century. theories of the stages of economic development of mankind also appear: from hunting and gathering to shepherding, from this to agriculture, and from the latter to trade and industry (see: Grinin 2010: Lecture 8). The authors of these theories, naturally, could not ignore the role of the natural factor in the transition from stage to stage. In particular, A. R. Turgot (1727–1781) in his work “Reflections on the Creation and Distribution of Wealth” comes to the important conclusion that the historical forms and scale of social organization are determined by the prevailing methods of obtaining means of subsistence. Hunters and gatherers live in small groups because they require a large area. Pastoral peoples, having received a more generous source of food, have a larger population than hunters and a higher level of social development. Agriculture makes it possible to feed an even larger population, as a result of which cities and crafts appear, etc. But although Turgot noted a certain influence of natural geographical conditions on the development of society, he did not share the views on their decisive influence.
The most famous study of the connection between geographical and socio-political factors is, in fact, theory of geographical determinism, gave Charles Montesquieu(1689–1755) in the essay “On the Spirit of Laws.”
Montesquieu's most important idea is natural factors determine the form of government and laws. The list of important factors that shape the character of the people and the state now includes soil, landscape, size of territory, etc. The hot climate and high soil fertility, according to Montesquieu, contribute to the development of laziness, which in turn leads to the formation of despotism as a form of government . Infertile soil and a temperate climate shape the desire for freedom. The philosopher is right in pointing out some obvious relationships and relationships (correlations), for example, between the size of society and the form of government. In fact, a republic is more likely to develop on a small territory, and despotism on a large one, than vice versa. But forms of government change faster than natural conditions (in the 19th century, republics also developed in large states), which means that the theory requires change.
The main disadvantage of Montesquieu's theory. Montesquieu's brilliant form of presentation and his wide erudition ensured great interest in his ideas. However, the lack of historical facts, as well as the nihilistic attitude towards them characteristic of the Enlightenment, clearly showed the limitations of the use of Montesquieu's method. His main drawback (like that of his predecessors and some later adherents of the idea of the geographical factor) was his attempts to find direct (and invariant) forms of influence of nature (climate, territory) on society and people.
To overcome this shortcoming, it was necessary to see the mechanisms through which nature influenced social institutions, as well as how, when a higher level of material life and production was achieved, previous restrictions and factors were removed, new aspects of the geographical factor began to influence, how new systemic relationships between the geographic environment and society.
To a certain extent, A. Barnave advanced in this direction, however, unfortunately, his ideas remained unknown to his contemporaries.
A. Barnav(1761–1793). Montesquieu's ideas were actively discussed and reasonably criticized, and the problem he raised was developed in the works of some philosophers. Among them was, in particular, Barnave, one of the most interesting and profound French philosophers of the Age of Enlightenment. He developed, in today's language, the theory of factors of historical development. He was looking for causes, the combined action of which constitutes the “nature of things”, which are in a certain relationship with each other, but act and interact differently. The first among such factors, in his opinion, is the geographic environment, which has both direct and indirect influence on all other factors. However, in comparison with Montesquieu, Barnave took a step forward, since, unlike him, he believed that the influence of the geographical environment on people’s lives is manifested mainly not through the psyche, but through their economic activity, determining the specific material conditions of this activity and the directions of social development. Anticipating the ideas of T. Buckle, he pointed out that soils are one of the main reasons for changes in the nature of society, including due to the characteristics of the distribution of wealth. Barnave's important conclusion was that the influence of the geographical environment on the economic and political system is passive (and to a certain extent indirect), while the dominant type of economic activity actively and directly shapes the type of distribution of the main social wealth. He notes that the geographic environment can accelerate or slow down the transition to a new level of development, in particular from the agricultural to the industrial stage of development. According to Ilyushechkin’s definition (1996), the views of A. Barnave can be called geographical-economic materialism.
Development of views in the first half of the 19th century.
The geographical factor is among other factors of the historical process. In the 19th century From the search for the unchangeable foundations of human nature, philosophers and philosophizing historians moved on to the search for the historical roots of contemporary phenomena, the reasons that contribute to the organic (and systemic) development of society (see for more details: Grinin 2010: Lecture 9). Among various factors (such as the “spirit of the people,” the development of law, class and racial struggle, forms of ownership, economic and demographic development, great personalities), a prominent place was occupied by geographical factor. One of the main tasks of researchers was to explain why, under the same natural conditions, different peoples (as well as the same people in different eras) demonstrate different successes and forms of socio-political life.
Geographical determinism. Historical and geographical school in Germany made a great contribution to the analysis of the role of the geographical environment, but it was dominated by geographical determinism, that is, the desire to explain all the features of society by its geography. The French eclectic philosopher Victor Cousin (1792–1867), himself not belonging to the geographical school, presented the views of geographical determinism as follows: “Give me a map of the country, its outlines, climate, waters, winds - all its physical geography; give me its natural fruits, flora, zoology, and I will undertake to say in advance what kind of person this country is, what role this country will play in history, and not by chance, but by necessity, and not in one era, but in all eras.” .
Carl Ritter(1779–1859), one of the founders of modern geography, was the largest representative of the historical-geographical school. In his most important work, “Geography in relation to nature and the history of people, or universal comparative geography,” he examines the problem of the influence of geographical conditions on the history of mankind. Ritter's strength was that he was a professional geographer, brilliantly aware of the characteristics of each region of the Earth, his weakness was that he was not sufficiently familiar with history.
The main ideas of K. Ritter:
1. Pre-established harmony between nature and the people inhabiting the area. According to Ritter, the geographical features of a certain area exactly coincide in their influence on a person with the characteristics of the people who should inhabit the given area. In other words, every nation develops according to divine destiny. Here Ritter grasped the fact that when living for a long time in a certain territory, people adapt very closely to nature, in particular, they educate and cultivate those character traits that are best suited to the environment. But, of course, we should not be talking about pre-established harmony, but about adaptation, which always - both in the animal and in the human world - amazes with its correspondence.
2. The uniqueness of each people depends on the characteristics of the geographical environment where it lives. Due to the diversity of the geographical environment, each people has certain specific conditions and institutions inherent to it alone.
3. The need for slow change. Since the geographical environment changes extremely slowly, the history of peoples is determined by the same basic factors. The slowness and graduality of changes in the geographical environment, according to Ritter, should serve as the basis for the slowness and gradualness of historical development.
4. The idea of close interaction between nature and culture, the interconnectedness of all the elements that form a historically specific geographical area.
Advantages. If predecessors in this area (Bodin, Montesquieu, etc.) very primitively considered the direct influence of climate and relief (heat or cold, mountainous or flat terrain) on the character of a particular people, then Ritter analyzes the entire set of geographical conditions and more often talks about hidden or indirect than about direct influence. This approach was undoubtedly an important step forward. He was characterized by reliance on numerous facts and a systematic approach to the study of certain individual aspects.
Flaws. Ritter sought to discover constant, unchangeable factors, on the basis of which the need to avoid any major changes in society could be proven (this approach was generally characteristic of the historical school in Germany). Ritter, like other representatives of the geographical school, underestimated the results of cultural diffusion and mutual influence of different societies and peoples. Often the impact of the natural environment was presented in such a way that this or that people lived in isolation as a culturally independent unit (see for more details: Kosminsky 1963). If Ritter viewed the Earth as a single organism, then instead of a single humanity he saw separate peoples, the uniqueness of which was predetermined by the peculiarities of the geography of their habitat. Significant shortcomings include the desire to rely on mystical ideas in explanations.
Ritter's ideas influenced the formation of a new direction in social thought - geopolitics.
Development of views in the second half of the 19th century.
Geographical determinism, especially in Ritter’s version, naturally could not satisfy social science for a long time, since the unscientific nature and falsity of such a view became more and more obvious. As Ritter's student E. Reclus (1995: 221) wrote, “the naive belief in a benevolent nature that protects us in our lives” was destroyed and replaced by more productive views. By the middle of the 19th century. it was confirmed or rediscovered that nature strongly (and even fatally) influences the political and military structure of societies; geographical location may hinder or encourage war, trade, and other contacts; the natural environment influences production, forms of ownership, religion, etc. One of the main achievements was the position that the natural factor can significantly slow down or accelerate development. It was further important to see the specific forms of influence of the geographical environment on different societies, to understand the mechanisms of such influence, since nature does not directly affect relationships. One of the most important tasks was to clarify the optimal limits of influence of the geographic environment, to combine geographical and production (as well as demographic) factors into a single concept. The last task is still relevant today.
Henry Buckle(1821–1862) spent his whole life preparing to write the history of world civilization, but managed to write only two volumes of “The History of Civilization in England.” The first and second chapters of this work are of particular interest. In them, he outlines the problems of the influence of such factors as climate, food, soil, etc. on the organization of society and the characters of people. Like the enlighteners of the 18th century. and representatives of the geographical school, Buckle sought, in one way or another, to directly connect the geographical environment with morals, religion, legislation, and forms of government.
But he also has new ideas, which ensured a long life for his work and were developed, in particular, by L. I. Mechnikov and F. Ratzel:
1. Wealth as a result of the interaction between nature and society. Buckle took a step forward to find the mechanisms of indirect influence of the geographical environment on the social life of society. According to Buckle, “soil fertility” determines the ability to accumulate wealth in a society (by wealth he actually means the volume of product produced). The accumulation of wealth is in many ways the most important consequence of natural influence, since it determines the possibilities of population growth, exchange, patterns of ownership and distribution in society, division of labor, growth of knowledge, which ultimately leads to the development of civilization.
2. Buckle begins to see that the degree of influence of the geographical environment is not constant, but depends on the level of development of society. In particular, he notes that among less civilized peoples, the increase in “wealth” comes mainly from external natural forces (“soil fertility”), and among more civilized peoples, from rational activity leading to the accumulation of knowledge. The first increment has a limit, the second does not have such a limit, which removes restrictions on further accelerated development. Buckle concludes: If previously the richest countries were those whose nature was most abundant, now the richest countries are those in which man is most active.
3. Uneven development of societies. By differences in wealth, population and culture, resulting from soil fertility and geographical features, Buckle quite logically explains some of the reasons for the uneven development of civilizations.
Lev Ilyich Mechnikov(1838–1888), in his work “Civilization and the Great Historical Rivers,” like his like-minded E. Reclus (1830–1905), tried: a) to get away from what they called geographical fatalism; b) identify such forms of interaction between nature and society that would explain the progressive course of human development.
Philosophical and historical concept of L. I. Mechnikov. Humanity goes through the following stages in its development related to its relationship to the most important aspect of the geographical environment - water: first, people move on to the development of great rivers and irrigation; then the river period gives way to the sea, but people develop only the inland (Mediterranean) seas. The third period - oceanic - begins with the period of great geographical discoveries. Although such a picture does not reflect the diversity of existence of human societies, it reflects one of the most important lines of the historical process.
New approaches of Mechnikov:
1. Drawing attention to the study of an insufficiently studied aspect of the geographical environment– large rivers, on the banks of which the first civilizations arose. Pointing out the role of the great rivers - the Nile, Tigris and Euphrates, the Yellow River and the Yangtze, the Indus and the Ganges - in the transition from barbarism to civilization, Mechnikov showed an important milestone in the development of humanity and its individual societies, in fact, a kind of natural repetition in the history of individual peoples.
2. The theory of the historical process is built on the basis not of a constant, but of a changing role of the geographical environment. The historical value of natural conditions changes over the centuries and at different stages of civilization. Man is gradually freed from the absolute power of the environment, and as he develops, many natural conditions that were previously useless or even harmful begin to be used. This was an important step forward in the development of the theory of the role of the geographical environment.
3. Geographical environment as a catalyst or inhibitor of development. Mechnikov developed the important idea that natural factors can enormously slow down or accelerate development.
4. The way of interaction between environment and society can be different. According to L.I. Mechnikov, the nature of civilization depends on the form of adaptation to environmental conditions that a given people practices.
5. The geographic environment primarily exerts an indirect influence “through labor and the nature of adaptation to nature.”
Disadvantages of the approach Mechnikov, however, were quite excusable: a) exaggeration of the role of cooperation in the process of mastering the natural environment and underestimation of the importance of conquests and conflicts; b) misunderstanding that the transition to civilization required special natural conditions, without which neither labor nor cooperation could produce an effect; c) failure to take into account the fact that in pre-industrial societies the environment often presented absolute barriers to development for many peoples.
Marxist school did not make too much of a contribution to the development of the theory of the geographical environment. In addition to Marx (see below), it would be especially worth highlighting only G.V. Plekhanov (1856–1918), who, in particular, in his work « On the question of the development of a monistic view of history" (1895) pointed out the special role of the geographical environment (albeit in a rather general form) in the development of hunter-gatherer societies, in their transition to agriculture and cattle breeding, as well as in influencing the fate of states. Plekhanov also explains the differences in the level of development of different societies by the natural factor. “The difference in results (stages of cultural development) achieved by different human societies is explained precisely by the fact that environmental conditions did not allow different human tribes to equally use their ability to “invent”” (Plekhanov 1956: 614). (Note that this explanation, although partly fair, is still one-sided.)
Marxists recognized the importance of the natural environment, but believed that its role was only that it could slow down or accelerate the development of society. This position stemmed from the fact that the main factors of development according to Marxism are internal, in particular class struggle and revolution. And since the natural environment is an external factor, its role, although it can be significant, is, as a rule, not decisive for society. In fact, this downplayed the role of the geographical environment for pre-industrial societies, for which the natural environment acted as a shaping force. An important advantage of Marxism: it accepted the idea that the role of the geographical environment changes with the development of society. So, for example, G.V. Plekhanov wrote: “The relationship between social man and the geographical environment is extremely changeable. It changes with every new step achieved by the development of human productive forces. As a result, the influence of the geographical environment on a social person leads to different results in different phases of the development of these forces” (quoted in: Anuchin 1982: 38).
It should be noted, however, that Marx made a significant contribution to the development of the question of the influence of nature on the form of society and social relations. He indicated the most important channel of their interaction through the inclusion of part of the natural environment ( subject of labor) as part of the productive forces (which also include means/tools of labor). Subject of labor- these are those natural objects to which labor is directed (cultivated soil, deposits, exploited forests, etc.). Unfortunately, this idea was not developed in this aspect until recently, and in the 1960–1970s. many Marxist scientists even proposed not to consider the subject of labor as part of the productive forces, since this supposedly leads to concessions to geographical determinism (see: Socialism... 1975: 40–41).
The influence of geographical theories on the development of historical science in the 19th century. The general ideas that took place in the development of historiography throughout the 19th century were associated with the aspirations: a) to introduce into circulation the largest number of facts and find ways to verify them; b) focus primarily on national stories; c) find key aspects of the theory that would help explain the features of national history (national spirit), the current state of society and its institutions (see for more details: Grinin 2010: Lecture 9). Therefore, many historians devoted a large place to the analysis of the role of the natural environment, since they saw in the peculiarities of the geography of their country one of the keys to understanding the “spirit” of its people and the main intrigue of its history. In particular, Russian historians (A.P. Shchapov, S.M. Solovyov, V.O. Klyuchevsky and others) analyzed the problems of changing the mentality of the Russian people in connection with the resettlement from the steppe zone to the forest zone in the 12th–14th centuries, developed the concept of the struggle between the “forest” (that is, Russian lands) and the “steppe” (nomads) and the influence of this on the entire Russian history.
Changes in the direction of research in the last third of the 19th – early 20th centuries.
During this period, significant changes occurred in the methods and approaches of philosophy, ethnography, history and other social disciplines in connection with the great successes of the natural sciences. Among the most important points, we note the growing success of biology and the spread of the method of analogy of society (social organism) with a biological organism. One of the first to use this method was the outstanding English philosopher Henry Spencer(1820–1903). It became clear that society as an organism, firstly, constantly adapts to the environment and its changes, and this external influence forces society to evolve and change. Together with the works of G. Spencer (but especially with “The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection” by Charles Darwin), the idea of “natural” social selection as a factor in social evolution also appeared. It was that in the process of adaptation to natural conditions and as a result of the struggle for resources, etc., the most adapted societies survive, and the unadapted are destroyed or die. As a result, there is not just a selection of forms capable of development, but overall social progress. In many ways - especially for the early periods of history - this is true and helps explain both the causes and directions of social development (see for more details: Grinin 2007; Grinin, Korotaev 2009: ch. 1). However, the ideas of the survival of the fittest societies and social groups began to be wrongfully transferred to the modern struggle of classes and states (the so-called social Darwinism arose, which was used to justify the inequality of peoples and races, as well as social exploitation). The ideas of natural selection among states and the analogy of society (state) with an organism influenced the emergence of a new science - geopolitics, which also combined interesting and fruitful approaches with reactionary conclusions.
Ratzel and the beginning of geopolitics. German scientist and traveler Friedrich Ratzel(1844–1904) was one of the founders of political geography. He continued to develop the ideas of the geographical school about the influence of the environment on the forms and characteristics of socio-political organization. In his not unreasonable opinion, for example, natural borders (mountains, sea) contribute to the emergence of isolated social groups with underdeveloped political power, and plains - centralization and strong power for protection from the attacks of nomads, later turning into a large socially and culturally integrated state organization.
The main ideas of F. Ratzel:
1. Consideration of states as social organisms, which operate under selective conditions. The survival of states (nations or cultures) is related to their ability to expand and improve their geographical location. The growth of states contributes to the differentiation of the world into strong (viable) and weak countries.
2. The analysis of the problem of the spatial arrangement of states and the influence of geographical location on the political status of the state was innovative.
3. Consideration of borders as peripheral organs of the state. Ratzel explored the geographic transition zones where land and sea meet and identified their influence on the formation and structure of states.
Flaws. Infatuation with the method of analogy inevitably led to stretches and biologizing speculations, especially when explaining the spatial expansion or contraction of states. Ratzel's works laid the foundations of a new science - geopolitics (among the classics of which we can mention R. Kjellen, K. Wittfogel, K. Haushofer, H. Mackinder, etc.).
3. MODERN RESEARCH (XX - early XXI centuries)
Nature's challenge and society's response. Arnold Toynbee(1889–1975), one of the most famous philosophers of history of the twentieth century, became famous for his theory of civilizations, set out in the 12-volume work “Comprehension of History.” Toynbee did not specifically deal with the problems of analyzing the geographical factor, but he has methodological approaches that can be useful for this problem. In particular, this applies to his idea, formulated briefly: “challenge - response.” From time to time, society faces complex problems (“challenges”) that need to be solved one way or another (“answers”). The entire future fate of a society (people, civilization) often depends on the nature of the answer. But the nature of the answer is not predetermined; it largely depends on the characteristics of society and sometimes on the characteristics of a particular moment.
Karl Wittfogel(1896–1988) became famous for his book Oriental Despotism (1957). In this work, Wittfogel comes to the conclusion that the economic and geographical conditions of ancient irrigation societies (Egypt, Babylon, China, India, Mexico, Peru) determined the development of despotism and the absence of private property in them. Despotism stemmed from the need to organize large masses of people for irrigation (construction of dams, dikes, canals, etc.) and agricultural work in order to obtain high yields. Wittfogel identifies three main types of despotism. The first consists of the political regimes of the ancient “hydraulic societies” of Egypt, Babylon, China, India, Mexico, Peru, etc., which have the most pronounced signs of despotism. Despotisms of the second type are formed in states where agriculture is not dependent on artificial irrigation. The state builds roads, collects taxes and maintains public order. The classic example is Byzantium. Despotism of the third kind - societies like Tsarist Russia and Sultan Turkey. The functions of the state are limited to tax collection and organizational activities. K. Wittfogel considers this the minimum necessary to maintain despotism.
Study of the “society-nature” system and channels of interaction between them. In domestic science in the 1970–1980s. ideas appeared about including part of the geographical environment in the productive forces. Later they were developed into a more complete theory based on the concept natural production basis of society(see for more details: Grinin 1997: 42–78; 2006: 21–26). The fact is that in the structure of production of pre-industrial societies, natural elements played a large role, for example, energy sources (fire, solar heat, wind energy) and natural communications (rivers, seas), which constitute, as it were, the “lower floor” of the productive forces, or their natural level (see Diagram 2).
This approach allows us to better take into account the capabilities of pre-industrial societies (which are often disparaged) and make comparisons between societies of the past and present. On the other hand, the scarcer nature is, the more the technical and technological part of the productive forces must be developed in order to compensate for this scarcity. The idea of the natural-productive basis of society, therefore, allows us to take into account both the close relationship of productive forces and the natural environment, and the fluidity of the role of each of them in the life of society, depending on the era, the characteristics of nature and cultural interaction.
Other areas of research in the twentieth century.(only a few are listed):
1. Global forecasts related to the analysis of natural resource shortages and global problems. The most famous are the reports to the Club of Rome in the 1960–1980s. (D.H. Meadows, D.L. Meadows, E. Pestel, M. Mesarovic and others), dedicated to the limits of extensive human growth due to limited resources (see: Meadows et al. 1991; 1999; Tinbergen 1980; Pestel 1988; Mesarović, Pestel 1974; see also: Peccei 1984; 1985). In general, the general idea can be expressed in the words of A. Peccei: “Man... imagined himself as the undivided master of the Earth and immediately began to exploit it, neglecting the fact that its size and physical resources are completely finite” (Peccei 1985: 295).
2. Attempts to find new aspects of the direct impact of nature on society were not successful. The most famous in this regard are the theories of the physicist A. L. Chizhevsky (1897–1964), who connected the rise of social activity and cataclysms (wars, revolutions, epidemics) with 11-year peaks of solar activity, and the historian L. N. Gumilyov (1912 –1992), who suggested that the birth and activity of ethnic groups (peoples) in a certain place and at a certain time are associated with the action of an unclear nature of a cosmic factor influencing the emergence of special socio-psychological energy ( passionarity) . This hypothesis does not contain the necessary heuristic principle. The idea that the lifespan of any ethnic group is 1500 years, that each ethnic group goes through the same phases of life, also seems quite far-fetched. However, Gumilyov’s general idea that the nature of ethnic groups (especially in the pre-industrial period) is very closely related to the characteristics of the climate and landscape of the territory where he appeared and lived is not without foundation.
3. Research on transformations of societies in connection with changes in natural conditions, including various reactions of societies (for example, nomadic) to drying and wetting of the steppes, agricultural civilizations - to cooling and warming, primitive societies - to changes in flora and fauna as a result of glaciations and warmings.
4. Study of the dynamics of climate change and other natural aspects(soils, seas, coasts, etc.) over long time periods; as well as the impact on societies of disasters and other negative factors (for example, epidemics). Two very famous works of this direction are “History of Climate since the Year 1000” by E. Le Roy Ladurie and “Epidemics and Peoples” by W. McNeil.
5. Study of the role of natural factors in the process of epochal evolutionary changes, for example, the agrarian revolution (G. Child, J. Mellart, V. A. Shnirelman), the origin of states (R. Carneiro), etc.
6. The influence of natural factors on the features of the formation and development of various civilizations, as well as the eastern and western paths of development of world history.
7. Relationship between natural conditions and demographic processes.
There are a number of other areas of research into the history of interaction between society and the natural environment. However, despite this, this problem has not yet been sufficiently studied.
Anuchin, V. A. 1982. Geographical factor in the development of society. M.: Thought.
Grinin, L. E.
1997. Formations and Civilizations. Philosophy and society 3: 42–78.
2006. Productive forces and the historical process. M.: KomKniga.
2011. From Confucius to Comte. Formation of the theory of methodology and philosophy of history. M.: URSS. In the press.
Ilyushechkin, V. P. 1996.The theory of stage development of society: History and problems. Ch. 1. M.: Vost. Liter.
Isaev, B. A. 2006. Geopolitics: textbook allowance SPb.: Peter.
Mukitanov, N. K. 1985. From Strabo to the present day. The evolution of geographical concepts and ideas. M.: Thought.
Society and nature: historical stages and forms of interaction / resp. ed. M. P. Kim. M.: Nauka, 1981.
Rozanov, I. A. 1986. Great disasters in Earth's history. M.: Science.
Smolensky, N. I. 2007. Theory and methodology of history. Ch. 8.3. M.: Academy.
McNeill, W. H. 1993. Plagues and Peoples. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Monticello.
Wittfogel, K. A. 1957. Oriental Despotism. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Further reading and sources
Aron, R. 1993. Stages of development of sociological thought/ lane from fr. M.: Progress-Univers.
Barnav, A. 1923. Introduction to the French Revolution. Reader on French materialism. T. 2. (p. 187–212). Pg.
Barulin, V. S. 199. Social philosophy. Part 2. Ch. XI. M.: Moscow State University Publishing House.
Boden, J. 2000. A method for learning history easily. M.: Science.
Buckle, G. 2007. History of civilizations. History of civilization in England. M.: Direct-Media.
Geopoliticians and geostrategists: Reader: in 5 parts / ed. B. A. Isaeva. SPb.: Balt. state tech. University, 2003–2004.
Hippocrates. 1994. About air, waters and places. In: Hippocrates, Selected books. M.: Svarog.
Grinin, L. E., Markov, A. A., Korotaev, A. V. 2008. Macroevolution in wildlife and society. M.: LKI/URSS.
Gumilev, L. N. 1993. Ethnogenesis and biosphere of the Earth. M.: Michelle.
Zubov, A. A. 1963. Man populates his planet. M.: Geography.
Kosminsky, E. A. 1963. Historiography of the Middle Ages: V century. - mid-19th century M.: Moscow State University.
Le Roy Ladurie, E. 1971. Climate history since 1000. M.: Hydrometeorological Publishing House.
Meadows, D.H., Meadows, D.A., Randers, J., Behrens, S.W. 1991. Limits to growth. M.: Moscow State University.
Meadows, D.H., Meadows, D.L., Randers, J. 1999. Beyond the Tolerable: Global Catastrophe or Stable Future? New post-industrial wave in the West/ ed. V. L. Inozemtseva (p. 572–595). M.: Academia.
Mellart, J. 1982. The most ancient civilizations of the Middle East. M.: Science.
Mechnikov, L. I. 1995. Civilizations and great historical rivers. M.: Progress.
Montesquieu, S. L. 1999. About the spirit of laws. M.: Thought.
Pestel, E. 1988. Beyond growth. M.: Progress.
Peccei, A.
1984. One Hundred Pages for the Future. Future in the present: Sat. / lane from English M.
1985. Human qualities. M.: Progress.
Plekhanov, G. V.
1956. On the development of a monistic view of history. In: Plekhanov, G. V., Selected philosophical works: in 5 vols. T. 1 (p. 507–730). M.: Gospolitizdat.
Nature and the development of primitive society / ed. I. P. Gerasimova. M.: Nauka, 1969.
Roman club. History of creation, selected reports and speeches, official materials / ed. D. M. Gvishiani. M.: URSS, 1997.
Strabo. 1994. Geography/ lane from ancient Greek G. A. Stratanovsky, ed. O. O. Kruger, total. ed. S. L. Utchenko. M.: Ladomir.
Tinbergen, Ya. 1980. Redefining the international order/ lane from English M.: Progress.
Turaev, V. A. 2001. Global problems of our time. M.: Logos.
Turgot, A. R. J. 1961. Reflections on the creation and distribution of wealth. In: Turgot, A. R. J., Selected economic works. M.: Sotsekgiz.
Bell, D. 1979. The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism. New York: Basic Books, Inc., Publishers.
Klimenko, V. V., Tereshin, A. G. 2010. World Energy and Climate in the Twenty-first Century in the Context of Historical Trends: Clear Constraints to the Future Growth. Journal of Globalization Studies, Vol. 1.No. 2, November: 30–43.
Mesarović, M. D., Pestel, E. 1974. Mankind at the Turning Point: The Second Report to the Club of Rome. Laxenburg: IIASA.
Other literature used
Velichko, A. A. 1989. The relationship between climate changes in the high and low latitudes of the Earth in the Late Pleistocene and Holocene. Paleoclimates and glaciations in the Pleistocene/ ed. A. A. Velichko, E. E. Gurtova, M. A. Faustova, p. 5–19. M.: Science.
Gulyaev, V. I. 1972. The most ancient civilizations of Mesoamerica. M.: Science.
Grinin, L. E.
2007. The problem of analyzing the driving forces of historical development, social progress and social evolution. In: Semenov, Yu. I., Gobozov, I. A., Grinin, L. E., Philosophy of history: problems and prospects(pp. 183–203). M.: KomKniga; URSS.
2010. Theory, methodology and philosophy of history: essays on the development of historical thought from antiquity to the mid-19th century. Lectures 1–9. Philosophy and society 1: 167–203; 2: 151–192; 3: 162–199; 4: 145–197.
Grinin, L. E., Korotaev, A. V. 2009. Social macroevolution. Genesis and transformation of the World System. M.: LIBROKOM.
Evteev, S. A., Perelet, R. A. (ed.) 1989. Our common future. Report of the International Commission on Environment and Development. M.: Progress.
Leonova, N. B., Nesmeyanov, S. A. (ed.) 1993. Problems of paleoecology of ancient societies. M.: Russian Open University.
Markov, G. E. 1979. History of economy and primitive culture in primitive communal and early class society. M.: Moscow University Publishing House.
Podolny, R. 1977. Children of the earth. M.: Thought.
Reclus, E. 1995. Preface to the book: Mechnikov, L. I. Civilization and great historical rivers. M.: Progress, 1995.
Sahlins, M.D. 1999. Stone Age Economics. M.: OGI.
Socialism: dialectics of productive forces and production relations / ed. V. G. Marakhova. M.: Mysl, 1975.
Child, G. 1949. Progress and archeology. M.: State. publishing house in. liters.
In many respects (the richness of the subsoil and soil, the convenience of conditions for laying communications), the economy’s dependence on nature continues to be very strong today. By the way, the countries with the largest populations (China, India, Bangladesh, etc.) are precisely those states where intensive farming on fertile soils has long arisen.
In historical science, the concept of nature surrounding society is traditionally used geographical environment, and to indicate the influence of nature on society – geographical factor. Therefore, in this lecture we will use the concepts of “natural environment” and “geographical environment”, “natural factor” and “geographical factor” as synonyms (although in principle the concept of natural environment/factor is broader than the geographical environment/factor).
The concept of “geographical environment reserve” facilitates the analysis of society’s capabilities, incentives and barriers to its development, and a number of other problems. Thus, the huge reserve of land in the United States allowed the formation of the American path of agricultural development, which created an unprecedented base for the powerful rise of modern industry. If the method of production has already become a brake on progress, then the presence of a reserve allows the ruling groups of a lagging country, who do not want to change anything, to delay its development. The same vastness of land in North America fueled slavery in the southern states until it was abolished by force. The expansion of the land fund in Russia played the same role in preserving noble serf land ownership (see for more details: Grinin 1997: 63–64).
Just as the biological needs of people are satisfied in an increasingly social way (for example, initially clothing was needed only for protection from the cold, then prestigious, fashionable clothing appeared for every occasion), and the natural environment is increasingly being replaced by an artificial one. But just as biological needs cannot be reduced to zero (and sometimes they express themselves very powerfully and rudely), so the role of the natural environment cannot be reduced to zero. There is no need to say that the process of interaction between society and nature is continuous.
The artificial environment can either favor the development of the economy and connections, society as a whole, or slow it down, since often in place of the natural obstacles of society others are created: social borders, customs, bans on resettlement, etc. As a very striking example, we can recall the closure of external contacts in the 18th–19th centuries. China, Korea and Japan.
For example, with a sparse population, there may be a factor of excess land, and with a dense population, a factor of land shortage arises in the same territory, which leads to numerous social and technological changes (changes in land relations, including forms of personal dependence, for example, for rent debts; in methods of cultivating the land, the growth of market relations, the growth of social inequality, etc.).
Such channels can be cultivated land (soil) and deposits, some communications (river and sea, for example), which shape the entire life of society. The location of water sources in irrigation societies also has a very strong influence. In industrial societies, the created communications network largely determines the geography of cities, etc. Much depends on the level of wealth and the so-called relatively surplus product, which arises, for example, in fertile soil conditions (accordingly, in poor soil conditions, much less of such surplus product is produced ). The level of wealth in society, in turn, affects the distribution system and the structure of social stratification (in particular, a layer of landed aristocracy and peasants may appear, one way or another dependent on it, or a powerful state with a bureaucracy to which land is distributed for service). In conditions of poorer soils, a military stratum often arises, which receives land for military service. Different soil fertility has a tremendous impact on population density and size, which, in turn, affects the level of organization of the state. Much also depends on the convenience of contacts and the disposition of society in relation to its more or less close neighbors.
In this respect, the influence of humans is not very different from the influence of animal societies.
Thus, irrigation (cultivation) can lead to soil salinization, deforestation can lead to changes in water balance, abandonment of arable land can lead to the appearance of forests and climate change.
The maximum of glaciation and cooling occurred approximately 20–17 thousand years ago, the temperature on average dropped by more than 5 degrees (see: Velichko 1989: 13–15).
Nevertheless, the dependence of a number of societies on nature was so great that there are cases when societies of farmers and pastoralists, under the influence of changed natural conditions, returned to hunting and gathering. But in general, the “vector” of evolutionary selection turned out to be aimed not so much at the ability of societies to adapt to the natural environment, but at their ability to survive and thrive in a social environment, which implies the ability to withstand competition with neighbors in military, trade, cultural or other spheres.
For example, the followers of A. Saint-Simon expressed the idea that the exploitation of man by man would be replaced by a single form of exploitation: man of nature.
When presenting this section of the lecture, naturally, one should take into account the course of development of social ideas in the corresponding eras, the main points of which until the middle of the 19th century. set out by me in the relevant lectures (see: Grinin 2010: Lectures 1–9). In some places in this lecture I make the necessary references to them, in others they are implied.
One can also mention Herodotus, Democritus, Plato, Lucretius Cara, Tacitus and others.
For example, he argues that cities that are built on flat ground are less prone to civil strife than cities that are built on hilly terrain. That is why the history of Rome, which was built on seven hills, is so rich in internecine clashes (see: Kosminsky 1963: 116–117).
But, of course, during this time a number of researchers, especially in France and England, contributed to the development of the ideas of J. Bodin, including in the aspect of interaction between the characteristics of natural conditions and economic development. It would be especially worth mentioning F. Bacon (1561–1626), W. Temple (1628–1699), B. de Fontenelle (1657–1757), J. B. Dubos (1670–1742).
As I. I. Smolensky rightly points out (2007: 114), it is not the very idea of the influence of climate on people’s lives that turns out to be untenable, which is undeniable, but direct parallels between climate and people’s lives, like this: “the barren soil of Attica gave birth to popular government there, and on the fertile soil of Lacedaemon aristocratic rule arose, as closer to the rule of one - a rule that Greece did not expect at all in those days.” There is a grain of truth in this idea of Montesquieu, but were there many places with barren soil that did not repeat the achievements of Attica? You never know there were places with fertile soil, but only a few places had a system corresponding to the Spartan heloty.
In particular, from such educators as F. M. Voltaire, C. A. Helvetius, J. Millar. The latter, for example, posed an important problem: why, under the same conditions, do different peoples (or the same people) develop differently in different eras?
In addition to the mentioned enlighteners, a certain contribution to the development of ideas about the role of the natural factor was also made by D. Hume (1711–1776), I. G. Herder (1744–1803), and J. Meser (1720–1794).
History of bourgeois sociology of the 19th – early 20th centuries. – M.: Nauka, 1979. – P. 59.
One of Ritter's students and followers was the famous Russian traveler P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, who popularized Ritter's ideas in speeches at the Russian Geographical Society and in his publications.
Let us note that the importance of the differences between “maritime” and “continental” civilizations was subsequently pointed out by a number of researchers, in particular J. Pirenne, author of the seven-volume work “Great Currents of World History” (1945–1957).
Regarding the role of the geographic environment, he wrote this: “...we are by no means defenders of the theory of “geographical fatalism,” which proclaims, in defiance of the facts, that a given set of physical-geographical conditions plays and should play the same unchanging role everywhere. No, the point is only to establish the historical value of these conditions and the variability of this value over the centuries and at different stages of civilization” (Mechnikov 1995: 323).
It was not for nothing that Lenin believed that everything written by Plekhanov on philosophy was the best in all the international literature of Marxism. On the other hand, we should not forget that Soviet Marxists even reproached Plekhanov for exaggerating the role of the geographical environment.
The following approach can be considered quite indicative: “Historical materialism recognizes the great importance of the geographical environment for historical development... However, historical materialism considers the geographical environment to be one of the conditions for historical development, but not its cause, and shows that the geographical environment does not directly influence the character of society , but indirectly, through the method of production of material goods, which determines the nature of this or that social system" (Soviet Historical Encyclopedia: in 16 volumes - M., 1963. - Vol. 4. - P. 220). Behind these seemingly correct formulations, however, was hidden, firstly, the fact that the methods of production in Marxism were determined by the type of property, which actually made it impossible to study pre-capitalist societies on this basis; secondly, it was not taken into account that for pre-capitalist societies a number of natural objects (in particular, fauna, flora, earth) were the most important part of the productive forces (see below for more on this). Consequently, the volume of surplus product and the form of social institutions depended on the abundance or scarcity of the corresponding natural objects. Buckle understood this, but Marxism had difficulty accepting this idea in theory. It follows that the geographical environment could very strongly (and even to a decisive extent) influence the forms of society and the directions of its development. Unfortunately, among Marxist scientists only occasionally ideas were expressed (which were almost never developed) that “the further we delve into the depths of centuries, the more important it is to take into account the geographical factor” (B. A. Rybakov. Quoted from: Podolny 1977: 122).
See: Kim, M. P. Natural and social in the historical process / M. P. Kim // Society and nature: historical stages and forms of interaction. – M., 1981. – P. 13; Danilova, L. V. Natural and social factors of productive forces at the pre-capitalist stages of social development / M. P. Kim // Society and nature: historical stages and forms of interaction. – M., 1981. – P. 119; Anuchin, V. A. Geographical factor in the development of society. – M., 1982. – P. 325.
Today we can probably talk about natural basis of global society.
One can even assume that in a number of societies of the past, the volume of gross product per capita was very large and, perhaps, even higher than in a number of modern developing countries, if we also take into account the “work” of nature. For example, how many millions of tons of fertilizers did the silt of the great Nile replace for the Egyptians? After all, to collect such harvests in Europe today requires enormous costs. And who counted the “horsepower” of Indian elephants or the millions of tons of fuel that the wind saved in sails and mills? Today, millions of tons of fish are caught in the ocean. How much energy and expense will future humanity need to grow this amount of fish artificially? In the American steppes back in the 19th century. There were tens of millions of bison. How many states can boast of such a number of beef cattle? Among some tribes of Alaska Indians, each family stored up to a thousand salmon fish for the winter (translate to modern prices!). Thus, the huge difference in the structure and development of productive forces should not obscure the productivity of the economy, since the larger the population and the more depleted nature is, the more one has to “work” for it. And in this regard, the ratio of production volumes between current and former societies will look different. If you realize this, then the basis of ancient societies will appear much more powerful (for more details on this, see: Grinin 1997: 59–61).
In the figurative expression of D. Bell, we have grown to a new vocabulary, the key concept in which will be limit. Limits to growth, environmental plunder, interference with wildlife, limits to armament, etc. (Bell 1979: xxix). As is known, the International Commission on Environment and Development formulated the concept of sustainable development, which includes two basic concepts: necessary needs and constraints (see, for example: Evteev, Perelet 1989: 50).
From lat. passio- passion. Passionarity, according to Gumilev, is characterized by special energy, readiness for heroism, less fear of danger and death, sacrifice, etc. Gumilev also studied the process of formation of peoples (ethnic groups), which he called ethnogenesis, and phases of life of the ethnic group.
However, these problems: the reasons for the formation of new peoples, the rise and decline of their activity, the reasons why some (few) peoples were able to leave a very bright mark in history, while many others were not, etc., are very interesting and important questions. There is no doubt that Gumilyov's works intensified interest in them.
In order to understand which factors have the greatest influence on the formation and development of character, it is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of “factors” and “conditions”. Factors are understood as certain levers of influence (these are special driving forces or “engines”) on the process of character formation, and conditions are those circumstances in which the development process itself occurs.
There has always been a kind of “war” among scientists over the priority factors of character development, because at various times representatives of different psychological trends tried to defend their point of view on this problem. For example, V.S. Soloviev he saw the main condition for the formation of a “moral” character in unity, as well as in the constant interaction of natural conditions and the environment, and I.A. Ilyin Among the main factors he singled out family and school. Founder of educational anthropology K.D. Ushinsky argued that the main factors in the development of character and its formation are the social environment, features of the educational process and the active activity of the person himself.
P.F. Kapterev identified three categories of factors that shape character:
Natural (temperament, structural features of the body, gender, etc., that is, all those that are given to man by nature and practically do not change);
Cultural (the influence of society, family, school, profession, government system and level of social development);
Personal factor (self-education, self-development, personal self-improvement, that is, when a person is the author of himself).
It is also worth paying attention to ideas I.A. Sikorsky, who identified the following factors in the development of a child’s character:
Educational environment (family);
Positive atmosphere (cheerful mood and good spirits);
Location (praise, approval, support, trust);
Congenital features of neuropsychic organization.
Analyzing all the factors that influence the development of a person’s character, it is necessary to recall that they are of greatest importance in childhood, adolescence and youth. And it is precisely in childhood, according to P.F. Lesgafta, the development of personality’s character is influenced by:
All the sensations that a child experiences;
The emotional turmoil he is experiencing;
The people who surround him;
The type of activity that he performs (labor occupies a special place as the most serious and consistent work).
The goal of conflict prevention is to create such conditions for the activity and interaction of people that would minimize the likelihood of the emergence or destructive development of contradictions between them. To prevent the negative consequences of conflicts, it is necessary to recognize a conflict situation in time and prevent the development of conflict in the team.
Firstly, to prevent conflicts, it is important to create a favorable socio-psychological climate in the team, it is important:
1) Correct personnel policy, i.e. selection and placement of personnel taking into account not only professional, but also psychological qualities
2) It is necessary to ensure a salary level that meets the expectations of employees
3) It is necessary to inform personnel about the activities and final results of the organization’s work
4) An important factor in preventing conflicts is the maturity of the team, which is manifested in the ability to see the positive sides of each other, in tolerance for difficult character traits, in the ability to consciously smooth out inevitably arising tense situations.
5) To avoid role conflicts, it is necessary that personnel correspond to the profession and their role in the organization.
6) An important role in preventing conflicts in a team is played by the leadership style and individual qualities of the leader.
Secondly, conflict-free communication helps prevent conflicts.
A pre-conflict situation usually does not arise suddenly, but gradually. It is important to determine in time that the emotional intensity of the dispute is beginning to exceed the permissible level, and to competently stop it. Signs of an aggravated dispute may include facial expressions, redness of the face, gestures, content, pace and timbre of speech. You can competently stop or smooth out a dispute using the following techniques:
To say that you are right in some ways, and your opponent is right in others.
Change your posture during the conversation to a more open and inviting one, the result will be copying your posture and openness on the part of your partner.
Reduce the problem to a joke.
Change the conversation to another topic.
Give in if the issue in dispute is not particularly important to you.
Say that you did not have time to comprehensively understand the problem and invite your opponent to return to discussing it, for example, tomorrow (when emotions have subsided).
Considering the factors that can influence the positive development of enterprise management, we can name the following:
- motivation;
- management;
- employees;
- communications;
- consultations.
When introducing a new method, first of all, in addition to a clear goal, the motive must be clearly formulated. At the same time, it is necessary that the management of the enterprise sees in the new method a real further, expected effect.
Motivation is primarily necessary to implement a new method, which should improve enterprise management, financial condition and the ability to compete with enterprises producing similar products.
The introduction of a new method should first of all be supervised by a manager who has more experience in a given enterprise, while having authority and the ability to bear full responsibility for the further result of the implementation.
The success of introducing new methods primarily depends on the understanding of management and all personnel how this method will affect the future fate of the enterprise, thereby understanding how to achieve the goals of the enterprise.
The ability and ability of an enterprise to go through various disasters, to be competitive, and to maintain financial stability largely depends on the work of internal factors - on the state of the internal environment.
Internal factors include goals, objectives, structure, technology, and personnel of the enterprise. If we look at the statistics of enterprises in developed countries, we can note that the bankruptcy of enterprises in general occurs due to internal factors. In a constant economy, the main obstacles that stand in the way of the development of an enterprise, as a rule, are located within it, and include internal disagreements aimed at achieving set goals, resources, as well as the necessary reorganization that is aimed at achieving the goal.
One of the key factors in the internal environment of an enterprise that influences its development is personnel. At industrial enterprises, the history of which dates back to the mid-19th century, the age group in the enterprise's management structure ranges from 22 to 70 years. There are three types of managers:
- Young professionals who have recently graduated from higher education institutions.
- Employees who have worked at the enterprise for more than 15 years have a low level of motivation to improve their own qualifications and improve the quality of planning.
- Employees, otherwise called “sharks,” are proactive and propose new methods for the development of enterprise management.
In recent years, the influence of external factors at the international level has been increasing, destabilizing the activities of enterprises. The influence of these factors is largely exerted by the stable balance and stability of economic entities, which are aimed at boosting the national economy.
Previously, the enterprise was studied as a closed production system, and the influence of the external environment on its improvement was not taken into account. Scientific research in general was focused on analyzing and improving the internal environment of an enterprise. Today, in a market economy, industrial enterprises cannot ignore the impact of the external environment. The external environment can influence an enterprise with the help of objective and subjective factors. The work of each of these factors can be differently expressed in the quality of the enterprise.
Objective external factors are factors of direct influence. Next, we will consider factors that can be attributed to this group.
The working capital reserve is a chain consisting of material, labor, and financial resources that are needed for the full operation of the enterprise. Also, enterprises must have control and accounting for all resources used and those that are available in the warehouse.
People's resources are the labor force on which all production is based, bearing in themselves the nature of the labor resources of the enterprise. People's labor potential is assessed as a set of various properties that express their performance. These properties can be linked:
- with a person’s physical capabilities, his nervous system, his skills and work abilities;
- with the degree of his education, his knowledge, which will allow him to perform this or that work according to a certain qualification.
Financial resources are one of the most important types. Today, most enterprises feel a lack of funds and, out of desperation, raise borrowed funds through loans. Based on this, it can be noted that banks have a huge impact on the development and current existence of enterprises.
Consumers play an important role in the development of an enterprise, since they are the ones who contribute to the well-being of the enterprise by determining its strategy.
Competitive enterprises also put pressure on the enterprise and an incentive for their own development, since they produce products that are analogous and, in terms of their quality characteristics, can be better and cheaper, and at the same time can provide staff with more profitable and favorable working conditions.
Legislation plays a huge role in influencing an enterprise. There are three branches of government in the Russian Federation (legislative, executive and judicial). Local government bodies include control over the implementation of socio-economic relations in society. The main functions that can be attributed to power are the adoption of laws and control over their implementation, the development and implementation of policies in the field of social and labor relations.
The enterprise reacts to changes in factors of direct influence by changing the internal environment and pursuing a modification policy of either active or passive counteraction.
Subjective external factors that can indirectly affect the development of the enterprise. Indirect factors are background factors that can affect economic sustainability (increase or decrease). Subjective external factors - the state of the economy, natural or socio-economic factors.
Internal factors can also include everything that influences the improvement of the enterprise, for example, production, strategic management system, finance, personnel and R&D.
Production is a process aimed at creating wealth, which is characterized by the use of equipment, technology, and special skills among employees. The quality of products directly depends on the equipment and the methods of technology used. Production is the key internal factor that determines the economic sustainability of an enterprise. Economic sustainability is ensured by a strategic management system.
Political factors:
- termination of contracts with foreign institutions that have undertaken obligations to fulfill this contract for the supply of components for the construction of ships. Termination of foreign contracts affects the failure to produce specific products according to schedule or contract;
- Russia's position in the international market.
Economic forces:
- the cost of manufactured products increases due to rising prices for electricity and gas, which affects the decrease in profits;
- unprofitable import substitution;
- domestically produced services are more expensive than imported services;
- reduction in the rate of economic growth of the country and manufacturing industries;
- economic instability;
- crisis of credit and financial markets.
Social factors:
- staff turnover among highly qualified specialists. Talented workers find more attractive jobs at other enterprises for good pay and favorable working conditions;
- There is no middle level in the age segment of workers.
Technological factors:
- negative impact on the environment during production, which affects the need to improve equipment in order to minimize environmental pollution;
- Much of the equipment is outdated, which affects the speed and quality of the product produced, as well as the delivery time of the product.
- Strategic management gives an enterprise the opportunity to improve the quality of management, anticipate all possible negative influences of the external environment and prepare a plan to eliminate them.
Financial planning for an enterprise affects the attraction of various investments, as well as the replenishment of funds that are aimed at carrying out its ongoing activities and developing the enterprise.
Scientific research and the organization of design development have a huge impact on the improvement of the enterprise, making it possible for the enterprise to meet today's technologies, while improving its technology and increasing its competitiveness.
Bibliography:
- Emelyanova E.A. “Strategic Management” [Economic Faculty] – Ed. 2 – e, Tomsk, 2015.- 112 p.
- Alekseev A.N. development of industrial potential in conditions of import substitution: management and marketing technologies: materials of the international scientific and practical conference: monograph / Moscow University named after S.Yu. Witte, Moscow 2017. - 48 p.
- Rumyantseva E.E. Economic analysis: Textbook and workshop / E.E. Rumyantseva. – M.: Yurayt, 2017. – 381 p.
Geopolitical factors. In the history of Russia, natural and geographical conditions have always influenced the formation and development of society. The vast territories of Russia had both their pros and cons. An undoubted advantage was the vast expanses of the North and Siberia, the development of which brought considerable benefits. However, unlike Western Europe, where, figuratively speaking, there were more people than land, in Russia, on the contrary, there was more land than people. The settlement of new lands could only occur due to the outflow of population from the historical center of Russia, where few people already lived (in the 16th-17th centuries, the population density in Russia was 1-5 people per 1 sq. km, in Europe - 10-30 people) . Continuous territorial expansion was also predetermined by the fact that over the centuries economic development expanded in breadth and was ensured by quantitative factors (extensive type). The Russian population did not have an urgent need to move from traditional management to a more efficient one, since there was always the opportunity to move to new places and develop new territories. In addition, the excess of space gave rise to a dangerous temptation for people to solve all their problems by escaping to uninhabited outskirts. This situation also determined the specifics of the emerging economic, social and political relations. To ensure order on Russian territory, it was necessary to maintain an entire army of officials, soldiers and police. Another disadvantage was the harsh nature, which made conditions extremely unfavorable for the development of agriculture (on average, agricultural work was possible for only 130 days per year). As a result, the Russian peasant was on the brink of survival, and the state forcibly confiscated the surplus product for the needs of the army and the state apparatus. The flat nature of the area, its openness, and the absence of natural geographical boundaries also affected the history of the state. The Russian lands were not protected by natural barriers: they were not protected by either seas or mountain ranges. The constant threat of military invasions (for a long time Russia was under the threat of ruin, sometimes the conquest of the country by nomads) required enormous efforts, material costs, and human resources from the state to ensure its security. In addition, in order to get to the seas, Russia had to wage intense, bloody wars for centuries. A direct consequence of this was the increasing role of the state and army in society. Geopolitically, Russia occupies an intermediate position between Europe and Asia; centuries-old parallel interaction with the Christian West and the Muslim-pagan East determined the history of Russia and formed the bifurcated national consciousness of Russians. Russia was not only a bridge connecting East and West (while experiencing the various trends of their culture), but also a barrier separating them and protecting them from a disastrous collision with each other.
Continuous expansion of the country's territory (colonization)– forced (Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, Crimea, Finland..) or voluntary (Georgia, Ukraine) annexation of territories, development of new desert territories by the peasant population (Siberia).
Social factor. Russian society has always remained extremely unstable socially. Due to difficult living conditions, the low-income nature of the economy, serfdom (which turned out to be an inevitable phenomenon in Russia, because it was the only possible system of forcibly and compulsorily confiscating surplus product from the population to solve national problems), the poor sections of the population, who were the majority, were always ready rebel both against their masters and local authorities, and against the state.
Political factor. The vast territory of the country, the weakness of economic relations between individual regions, social and national contradictions, and the presence of constant external danger required strong central government, which has a developed apparatus of control and coercion. The Moscow princes managed to create it by the beginning of the 16th century. In the 16th century, a political ideology was also developed, in the creation of which the first Russian Tsar Ivan the Terrible took part. The system of power built by the Moscow sovereigns received in history the name “autocracy,” that is, an unlimited monarchy. The autocracy existed without any special changes until 1917. One of the features of the Russian historical process was exaggerated role of the supreme power in relation to society. Even estates were formed under the direct influence of the authorities. Society was divided into layers with a clear definition of the status and functions of each. The Council Code of 1649 established the position of various categories of the population and the range of their duties. It should be emphasized that due to the specifics of Russian history reforms were always initiated by the state. Hence, the position of the supreme power: kings, emperors, general secretaries, and now presidents, was decisive for the fate of the transformations. The impetus for the start of Russian reforms, which made it possible to overcome the powerful resistance of traditions and interests, was, as a rule, external factors, namely the lag behind the West, which most often took the form of military defeats. Since the reforms in Russia were carried out entirely by the supreme power, all of them were not brought to their logical conclusion and did not fully resolve the social contradictions that brought them to life. Moreover, many reforms, due to their inconsistency and incompleteness, only aggravated the situation in the future. The special role of the state in the process of Russian reforms “from above” turned the bureaucracy into their only developer and leader. Therefore, its significance in the fate of Russian reforms was enormous. The size of the bureaucracy in Russia grew rapidly. The final fate of reforms in Russia depended on the position of the ruling elite and on the results of the struggle of various groups and clans of the bureaucracy. Besides , a constant series of reforms and counter-reforms, innovations and backward movement are a characteristic feature of the Russian reform process.
National (ethnopolitical) factor. In the process of formation of the Russian people, a large number of different, including non-Slavic, ethnic groups took part, however the Slavic component has always remained dominant(the Slavs, purely outwardly adopting foreign customs, internally retained their originality and over time processed everything foreign in their own way). In other words, the future Russian people were initially born on a multi-ethnic basis. Ethnic diversity of Russia and inevitably accompanying her separatist sentiments served as one of the prerequisites for strengthening the monarchy and developing its military-police apparatus. However, the Russian monarchy gradually developed a fairly flexible and effective national policy. She sought to win over the local nobility, preserving their previous privileges and granting them new privileges, including them in the all-Russian ruling class. Moscow, whenever possible, avoided interfering in the internal life of national communities. Important circumstances were the traditional tolerance and accommodating nature of the Russian people, to whom the psychology of the “nation of masters” was alien.
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