Introduction
Main part
2 Merchants of the 17th century
3 Industrialists of the 17th century
Conclusion
List of sources used
The work contains 1 file
FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
Vladivostok State University
economy and service
Department of THEORY AND HISTORY OF RUSSIAN AND FOREIGN LAW
TEST
in the discipline "History of Entrepreneurship in Russia"
Russian merchants and industrialists of the 17th century
DYUP–06(05)–290. ETC
gr. DYUP–06(05)–290 ______________________ V.A. Oatmeal
Teacher ______________________
Vladivostok 2010
Introduction
The history of Russian entrepreneurship is an integral part of national historical science.
In recent years, a lot has been written and spoken about in our country about entrepreneurship, the need to assimilate its historical experience, and the importance of reviving valuable pre-revolutionary traditions.
It is impossible to understand the current state of the economy without knowing how it came to be. Economics, including entrepreneurship, is a process; If you do not know its direction, it is impossible to determine the consequences of certain economic activities.
As an economic phenomenon, entrepreneurship has been known since ancient times. But as the concept of “economic category” it appeared only in the 18th century, with the entry of the world economy into the industrial era.
The history of entrepreneurship in Russia is as deep as the history of Russia itself. Back at the end of the 1st millennium AD, when the process of formation of the Old Russian state was underway, the conditions and prerequisites for the activities of the first entrepreneurs were formed. This was facilitated by the decomposition of the primitive communal system, the property and social stratification of society, the development of various forms of property, including private, the mobilization of surplus product, its accumulation in the hands of the ruling elite, the deepening of the social division of labor, which is associated with the isolation of agricultural and pastoral types of economy in the territory Eastern Europe, highlighting crafts and then trade as special forms of activity.
Russian entrepreneurship has gone through a long and difficult historical path. In an effort to increase their wealth, entrepreneurs of different classes used the funds they had in some activity to make a profit, i.e. spent them as capital. The movement of capital, which forms the basis of any entrepreneurship, occurred in various spheres of the economy; in accordance with this, several types of entrepreneurial activity are distinguished, which boil down to the main three: production, trade, credit. In real life, different types of entrepreneurship were usually combined, complementing each other. Over time, their connection becomes closer and more organic. However, it is not at all easy to determine the stages of Russian entrepreneurship.
The authors of some publications interpret the concept of “entrepreneurship” extremely broadly, outlining the history of trade in Rus', economic history, etc. But if we understand entrepreneurship as any successful economic activity,
then its history can be extended into the depths of centuries to infinity.
Different stages of entrepreneurship have their own historical specifics. This depends on a number of factors - geographical, socio-economic, political, foreign economic, etc.
The purpose of this work is to consider issues related to the development of entrepreneurship in Russia in the 17th century.
Historically, the first type of entrepreneurship is trade, which, as can be seen from its name, originates in the depths of trade relations. It was trade entrepreneurship that served as the foundation on which all its other types arose (industrial, banking, agricultural, etc.), i.e. a market economy with corresponding types of socio-economic systems was formed.
The key figure of this century is considered to be the merchant class, because It was this class that made a significant contribution to the progressive development of the country's economy. Representatives of the merchants, or as they were also called “trading people,” carried out trading activities, carried out orders from the authorities for certain government purchases (bread, furs, etc.), established trade and economic relations with representatives of the sphere of trade and production in various regions of the country and They were engaged in industrial production themselves.
The relevance of the chosen topic is obvious, since, having considered issues related to entrepreneurship in Russia in the 17th century, namely the activities of merchants and industrialists, it will become clear how the Russian economy, its trade and industrial sectors took shape and developed.
In accordance with the purpose of the work, the following tasks are set:
Consider the prerequisites for the emergence of entrepreneurship in Russia in the 17th century;
Consider the position of the merchants in the specified period;
Study the social composition of the merchant class;
List the main representatives of the merchant class who contributed to trade and industrial production in Russia in this century.
The basis for writing the test was the literature of such authors as V.O. Klyuchevsky, A.A. Timofeeva, S.N. Smetanin. and etc.
Main part
1 General political and economic characteristics of the 17th century
The seventeenth century began very unfavorably for Russian entrepreneurship. The civil war, the famine years, the adventures of impostors, and foreign intervention raised the question of the very existence of statehood in Rus'. The patriotic forces of the people were able to expel the invaders and ensure the pacification of the country. It took many years to restore economic life. Russian cities were slowly revived, where the trade and craft population was concentrated - the source and carrier of entrepreneurship.
People of various social statuses were gradually drawn into entrepreneurial activity, from boyars to peasants and minor servants. But the largest entrepreneurs of the 17th century in Russia were the merchants, who came mainly from the townspeople (the class of townspeople, the third estate after the clergy and nobility), who became rich through trading and trades. It was it that launched the most impressive activities in commercial and industrial life. Of great importance in this case was the expansion of the territory of Russia, the beginning of the development of the vast expanses of Siberia, the reunification of Ukraine with our state, the expansion of foreign trade, although constrained by the lack of convenient access to the sea coasts in the north and south.
The seventeenth century was characterized by the presence of social contradictions of various kinds. The class of secular feudal lords sought to enslave the peasantry. For their part, the peasants resisted this in every possible way, which ultimately led to the uprising of S.T. Razin.
Within the ruling class, contradictions were also constantly revealed between the upper and lower strata. The church tried to retain its land wealth and the free labor of the peasants, and the feudal lords coveted church property, meeting the sympathy of the supreme power. The rank and file of the townspeople did not want to put up with the dominance of the “best people” and fought for independent economic development, taking into account the commodity-money relations that were being introduced into the country’s economy.
Among the merchants there were differences between the privileged corporations and the majority. The peasantry, divided into various categories, was exposed to property and social stratification.
And this is not a complete list of social conflicts of the era. If we also take into account the exceptional diversity of local (historical, economic, ethnogeographical)
cical, etc.) conditions, you get a very colorful picture into which entrepreneurial activity had to fit.
2 Merchants of the 17th century
It is advisable to consider the position of the merchants in this period. The class was in its infancy. Along with ordinary entrepreneurs, the number of trading people included townspeople. It was they who provided the breeding ground for the formation of the merchant class. The so-called “industrial people” were also involved in trade. Most typical in this case is the presence of industrial people in Siberia, mainly in the fur trade. They sold the furs they caught to buyers; they themselves rarely appeared on the markets of European Russia unless they became traders with some capital.
According to early customs books, it is difficult to separate merchants from industrialists, although they were recorded separately. In business correspondence, there are also no visible differences between the two - they are usually mentioned at the same time. Sources often put industrial people, trading peasants and simply trading people on the same level.
It is estimated in the literature that during the second half of the 17th century. In the territory of the center of Russia there were at least 400 rural settlements, the inhabitants of which were mainly engaged in trade and craft. Among the richest people of the era were the peasants Ontropevs and Pushkins, owners of large ships.
Peasants were drawn into the commercial and industrial sphere in different ways. As long as there was a tax-paying system for maintaining customs houses, taverns and other profitable establishments, peasants were not uncommon participants in such operations. It is enough to use the data for the 1630s on the sale of taverns according to the Order of the Novgorod Quarter. Among the tax farmers are peasants. Thus, the patriarchal peasant of Savinskaya Sloboda Lev Kostrikin owned the taverns of one of the largest cities in the country - Novgorod the Great. He maintained six taverns in Pskov, and at one time also collected tamga in this large center.
Peasants are listed among tax farmers in other cities and localities: Arzamas and its district, Vologda, Kevrol and Mezen districts, Staraya Russa, Shuya.
Similar material is included in the list of salaries of customs and tavern money in the cities of the Discharge Order of 1617-1632. The ransom sums were contributed to the treasury by the peasants of Prince I.B. Cherkassky, boyar I.N. Romanova - K. Ofonosov, the already mentioned peasant of the patriarch L. Kostrikin, peasant of Prince I.B. Cherkassky Yurshin et al.
The role of peasants is noticeable in the supply of grain, hops, firewood, etc.
Thus, among entrepreneurs of the 17th century. the peasant is far from the last figure.
It should be said about one more category of the population of Russia in the 17th century, which had a certain significance in the formation of the “merchant rank”. These are service people according to the instrument. Crafts and trade were common among archers, Cossacks, and others, but they were not found among large businessmen.
The highest categories of Russian merchants were considered to be guests, the living hundred and the cloth hundred, the so-called privileged merchants. Privileges were enshrined in special royal charters. An indispensable condition for the issuance of such a charter was certain services rendered to the state or personally to the king. Among the earliest letters of this kind is a letter of 1620 granting the title of guest to a merchant from Novgorod, Ivan Kharlamov. He conducted trading in the Baltic states.
Guests were required to perform government services. They held positions of customs and tavern heads in big cities. The duties of the guests also included serving as managers of the king’s fisheries and other trades, sorting, evaluating and selling “soft junk” received as yasak, and much more.
The state not only attracted large merchants to serve without compensation as a kind of officials, but also provided them with the opportunity to operate some objects that belonged to the treasury. Very often customs houses and taverns were farmed out. At the same time, the treasury received a certain amount from the tax farmer, which slightly exceeded the usual income from a given object (farm farms, as a rule, were put up for auction - they were received by the one who paid the most). Farmers collected customs duties or “drinking profits” for their own benefit, expecting to receive more than they paid to the treasury. Large merchants received contracts from the treasury to supply provisions to the troops, various goods and “supplies” to the court. At the same time, the contractors received large sums from the state for these purchases, which they could also use as working capital in their commercial operations. Foreigners sometimes called the merchant elite “commercial advisers” to the tsar, which was not far from the truth.
Russian merchants have always been special. Merchants and industrialists were recognized as the most wealthy class of the Russian Empire. These were brave, talented, generous and inventive people, patrons of art and connoisseurs of art.
Bakhrushins
They come from the merchants of the city of Zaraysk, Ryazan province, where their family can be traced through scribe books until 1722. By profession, the Bakhrushins were “prasols”: they drove cattle in droves from the Volga region to big cities. The cattle sometimes died on the road, the skins were torn off, taken to the city and sold to tanneries - this is how the history of their own business began.
Alexey Fedorovich Bakhrushin moved to Moscow from Zaraysk in the thirties of the last century. The family moved on carts, with all their belongings, and the youngest son Alexander, the future honorary citizen of the city of Moscow, was transported in a laundry basket. Alexey Fedorovich - became the first Moscow merchant Bakhrushin (he has been included in the Moscow merchant class since 1835).
Alexander Alekseevich Bakhrushin, the same honorary citizen of Moscow, was the father of the famous city figure Vladimir Alexandrovich, collectors Sergei and Alexei Alexandrovich, and the grandfather of Professor Sergei Vladimirovich.
Speaking of collectors, this well-known passion for “gathering” was a distinctive feature of the Bakhrushin family. The collections of Alexey Petrovich and Alexey Alexandrovich are especially worth noting. The first collected Russian antiquities and, mainly, books. According to his spiritual will, he left the library to the Rumyantsev Museum, and porcelain and antiques to the Historical Museum, where there were two halls named after him. They said about him that he was terribly stingy, since “every Sunday he goes to Sukharevka and bargains like a Jew.” But he can hardly be judged for this, because every collector knows: the most pleasant thing is to find for yourself a truly valuable thing, the merits of which others were not aware of.
The second, Alexey Alexandrovich, was a great theater lover, chaired the Theater Society for a long time and was very popular in theater circles. Therefore, the Theater Museum became the world's only richest collection of everything that had anything to do with the theater.
Both in Moscow and in Zaraysk they were honorary citizens of the city - a very rare honor. During my stay in the City Duma there were only two honorary citizens of the city of Moscow: D. A. Bakhrushin and Prince V. M. Golitsyn, the former mayor.
Quote: “One of the largest and richest companies in Moscow is considered to be the Trading House of the Bakhrushin brothers. They have a leather and cloth business. The owners are still young people, with higher education, well-known philanthropists who donate hundreds of thousands. They conduct their business, albeit on new principles - that is, using the latest words of science, but according to ancient Moscow customs. Their offices and reception rooms, for example, make them want a lot." "New time".
Mamontovs
The Mamontov family originates from the Zvenigorod merchant Ivan Mamontov, about whom practically nothing is known, except that the year of birth was 1730, and that he had a son, Fyodor Ivanovich (1760). Most likely, Ivan Mamontov was engaged in farming and made a good fortune for himself, so his sons were already rich people. One can guess about his charitable activities: the monument on his grave in Zvenigorod was erected by grateful residents for the services provided to them in 1812.
Fyodor Ivanovich had three sons - Ivan, Mikhail and Nikolai. Mikhail, apparently, was not married, in any case, he did not leave any offspring. The other two brothers were the ancestors of two branches of the venerable and numerous Mammoth family.
Quote: “Brothers Ivan and Nikolai Fedorovich Mamontov came to Moscow rich people. Nikolai Fedorovich bought a large and beautiful house with an extensive garden on Razgulay. By this time he had a large family.” ("P. M. Tretyakov". A. Botkin).
The Mamontov youth, the children of Ivan Fedorovich and Nikolai Fedorovich, were well educated and diversely gifted. Savva Mamontov’s natural musicality especially stood out, which played a big role in his adult life.
Savva Ivanovich will nominate Chaliapin; will make Mussorgsky, rejected by many experts, popular; will create a huge success in his theater with Rimsky-Korsakov’s opera “Sadko”. He would be not only a patron of the arts, but also an adviser: the artists received valuable instructions from him on issues of makeup, gesture, costume and even singing.
One of the remarkable undertakings in the field of Russian folk art is closely connected with the name of Savva Ivanovich: the famous Abramtsevo. In new hands it was revived and soon became one of the most cultural corners of Russia.
Quote: “The Mamontovs became famous in a wide variety of fields: both in the field of industry, and, perhaps, especially in the field of art. The Mamontov family was very large, and representatives of the second generation were no longer as rich as their parents, and in the third, the fragmentation of funds "It went even further. The origin of their wealth was tax farming, which brought them closer to the well-known Kokorev. Therefore, when they appeared in Moscow, they immediately entered the rich merchant environment." (“The Dark Kingdom”, N. Ostrovsky).
The founder of this one of the oldest trading companies in Moscow was Vasily Petrovich Shchukin, a native of the city of Borovsk, Kaluga province. At the end of the seventies of the 18th century, Vasily Petrovich established trade in manufactured goods in Moscow and continued it for fifty years. His son, Ivan Vasilyevich, founded the Trading House “I. V. Shchukin with his sons” The sons are Nikolai, Peter, Sergei and Dmitry Ivanovich.
The trading house conducted extensive trade: goods were sent to all corners of Central Russia, as well as to Siberia, the Caucasus, the Urals, Central Asia and Persia. In recent years, the Trading House began to sell not only calicoes, scarves, linen, clothing and paper fabrics, but also wool, silk and linen products.
The Shchukin brothers are known as great connoisseurs of art. Nikolai Ivanovich was a lover of antiquities: his collection contained many ancient manuscripts, lace, and various fabrics. He built a beautiful building in the Russian style for the collected items on Malaya Gruzinskaya. According to his will, his entire collection, along with the house, became the property of the Historical Museum.
Sergei Ivanovich Shchukin occupies a special place among Russian nugget collectors. We can say that all French painting of the beginning of the current century: Gauguin, Van Gogh, Matisse, some of their predecessors, Renoir, Cezanne, Monet, Degas - was in Shchukin’s collection.
Ridicule, rejection, misunderstanding by society of the work of this or that master did not have the slightest meaning for him. Often Shchukin bought paintings for a penny, not out of his stinginess and not out of a desire to oppress the artist - simply because they were not for sale and there was not even a price for them.
Ryabushinsky
From the Rebushinskaya settlement of the Pafnutyevo-Borovsky monastery in the Kaluga province in 1802, Mikhail Yakovlev “arrived” to the Moscow merchants. He traded in Kholshchovoy Row in Gostiny Dvor. But he went bankrupt during the Patriotic War of 1812, like many merchants. His revival as an entrepreneur was facilitated by his transition to the “schism.” In 1820, the founder of the business joined the community of the Rogozhskoe cemetery - the Moscow stronghold of the Old Believers of the “priestly sense”, to which the richest merchant families of the mother throne belonged.
Mikhail Yakovlevich takes the surname Rebushinsky (that’s how it was spelled then) in honor of his native settlement and joins the merchant class. He now sells “paper goods”, runs several weaving factories in Moscow and Kaluga province, and leaves his children a capital of more than 2 million rubles. Thus, the stern and devout Old Believer, who wore a common people's caftan and worked as a “master” in his manufactories, laid the foundation for the future prosperity of the family.
Quote: “I have always been struck by one feature - perhaps the characteristic feature of the whole family - this is internal family discipline. Not only in banking matters, but also in public affairs, everyone was assigned his own place according to the established rank, and in first place was the elder brother, with whom others were considered and, in a certain sense, subordinate to him." ("Memoirs", P. Buryshkin).
The Ryabushinskys were famous collectors: icons, paintings, art objects, porcelain, furniture... It is not surprising that Nikolai Ryabushinsky, “the dissolute Nikolasha” (1877-1951), chose the world of art as his career. An extravagant lover of living in grand style, he entered the history of Russian art as the editor-publisher of the luxurious literary and artistic almanac “The Golden Fleece,” published in 1906-1909. The almanac, under the banner of “pure art,” managed to gather the best forces of the Russian “Silver Age”: A. Blok, A. Bely, V. Bryusov, among the “seekers of the golden fleece” were the artists M. Dobuzhinsky, P. Kuznetsov, E. Lanceray and many other. A. Benois, who collaborated with the magazine, assessed its publisher as “a most curious figure, not mediocre, in any case special.”
Demidovs
The founder of the Demidov merchant dynasty, Nikita Demidovich Antufiev, better known under the name Demidov (1656-1725), was a Tula blacksmith and advanced under Peter I, receiving vast lands in the Urals for the construction of metallurgical plants. Nikita Demidovich had three sons: Akinfiy, Gregory and Nikita, among whom he distributed all his wealth.
In the famous Altai mines, which owe their discovery to Akinfiy Demidov, ores rich in gold and silver content, native silver and horny silver ore were found in 1736.
His eldest son Prokopiy Akinfievich paid little attention to the management of his factories, which, despite his intervention, generated huge income. He lived in Moscow, and surprised the townspeople with his eccentricities and expensive undertakings. Prokopiy Demidov also spent a lot on charity: 20,000 rubles to establish a hospital for poor mothers at the St. Petersburg Orphanage, 20,000 rubles to Moscow University for scholarships for the poorest students, 5,000 rubles to the main public school in Moscow.
Tretyakovs
They came from an old but poor merchant family. Elisey Martynovich Tretyakov, the great-grandfather of Sergei and Pavel Mikhailovich, arrived in Moscow in 1774 from Maloyarovslavets as a seventy-year-old man with his wife and two sons, Zakhar and Osip. In Maloyaroslavets, the Tretyakov merchant family existed since 1646.
The history of the Tretyakov family essentially boils down to the biography of two brothers, Pavel and Sergei Mikhailovich. During their lifetime, they were united by genuine family love and friendship. After their death, they were forever remembered as the creators of the gallery named after the brothers Pavel and Sergei Tretyakov.
Both brothers continued their father's business, first trading, then industrial. They were linen workers, and flax in Russia has always been revered as an indigenous Russian product. Slavophile economists (like Kokorev) always praised flax and contrasted it with foreign American cotton.
This family was never considered one of the richest, although their commercial and industrial affairs were always successful. Pavel Mikhailovich spent huge amounts of money on creating his famous gallery and collecting his collection, sometimes to the detriment of the well-being of his own family.
Quote: “With a guide and a map in his hands, zealously and carefully, he reviewed almost all European museums, moving from one big capital to another, from one small Italian, Dutch and German town to another. And he became a real, deep and subtle connoisseur painting". ("Russian Antiquity").
Soltadenkovs
They come from the peasants of the village of Prokunino, Kolomensky district, Moscow province. The founder of the Soldatenkov family, Yegor Vasilievich, has been listed in the Moscow merchant class since 1797. But this family became famous only in the half of the 19th century, thanks to Kuzma Terentievich.
He rented a shop in the old Gostiny Dvor, sold paper yarn, and was involved in discounting. Subsequently he became a major shareholder in a number of manufactories, banks and insurance companies.
Kuzma Soldatenkov had a large library and a valuable collection of paintings, which he bequeathed to the Moscow Rumyantsev Museum. This collection is one of the earliest in terms of its composition and the most remarkable in terms of its excellent and long existence.
But Soldatenkov’s main contribution to Russian culture is considered to be publishing. His closest collaborator in this area was the well-known Moscow city figure Mitrofan Shchepkin. Under the leadership of Shchepkin, many issues were published dedicated to the classics of economic science, for which special translations were made. This series of publications, called the Shchepkin Library, was a most valuable tool for students, but already in my time - the beginning of this century - many books became bibliographic rarities.
Head of the house
In the second half of the 17th century. The Koshkin merchant family operated in Novgorod. These merchants owned six shops and two barns in the city market. In their gardens they grew vegetables for sale. In addition, they had their own mill, where a hired miller worked. The example of their trading house shows that by the end of the 17th century. in the activities of which large merchants began to specialize in the trade of certain goods. From the middle of the 17th century. The Koshkins exported hemp from Russia to Sweden, and iron from Sweden to Russia. A tenth of all the iron that Russian merchants exported from Sweden passed through the hands of the Koshkins. This was the main occupation on which their economic well-being was based. At the same time, they did not abandon trade in other goods - flax, lard, etc. In Russia, the Koshkins bought large quantities of goods for export. Almost every year they went by ship to Stockholm, returned with goods, took them to Moscow and sold them there. Goods exported to Sweden were sold at prices that could be one and a half, two, or even three times higher than the prices that were paid for the same goods inside Russia. Thus, trading profits were high. The cost of a consignment of goods sold as a result of one trip was estimated at 4-5 thousand rubles. Cats invariably sold for more than they bought. They sold their goods in large quantities to the capital's blacksmiths, Moscow merchants, shop owners in the city market, visiting merchants from southern cities, and they sold the goods at retail.
A large merchant often showed greed and stinginess. Usually his wealth was obtained through long and hard work, so he demanded that others take care of his property - it, as he said, “was not found on the street.” He was cruel and showed little compassion in business dealings. He was merciless when it came to profit, he destroyed and ruined his ill-wishers and debtors. He was difficult to deal with his subordinates and dependent people, although at the same time he could appreciate the work of his loyal clerk.
Sometimes a large merchant showed independence in relation to power and self-confidence. When at the end of the 17th century. reforms of the young Tsar Peter began, Gavrila Nikitin negatively assessed his activities in the Black Sea region during the campaigns against Azov. “The devil is carrying him to Constantinople,” he said about Peter. “It’s a pity that the power is lost, but at least he would have disappeared, it wouldn’t be much grief.”
The Koshkin merchants, thanks to their trade in Sweden, to some extent adopted some features of Western European culture. They studied Swedish. Their trade books contained a Swedish-Russian dictionary compiled by someone in their family. Even before Peter’s reforms, Western European chronology was common for them.
Other trading participants. In the 16th and especially in the 17th centuries. the composition of traders became more and more complex. Not only merchants traded, but also boyars, monasteries, service people, townspeople and peasants. Foreigners visiting Russia considered trade to be the national passion of the Muscovites.
In the 17th century the largest merchant was tsar. It was at this time that state trade appeared. Most of all vodka (at that time it was called wine) came to the market from the royal economy, as well as such goods as bread, flax, hemp oil, salt, and sable furs.
The government tried to send trading people abroad. Usually these were ambassadors who not only carried out diplomatic missions, but also had to sell government goods. Under Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich, such attempts were unsuccessful. During the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich, they become more persistent. The sent merchants had to purchase weapons and metals, and enter into agreements with foreigners on the supply of goods necessary for the government. These attempts did not bring much results. Russian merchants had little knowledge of the conditions of Western markets. Therefore, the Russian government used “Moscow trade foreigners” who lived in Moscow and conducted trade there. The embassy order gave them trade orders from the government. They also purchased weapons and military equipment abroad. For military purposes, books on military and engineering art and telescopes were purchased. For the purpose of barter trade with Persia, government agents purchased small, cheap mirrors and materials from foreign merchants. Rare things were bought for the needs of the palace - very expensive materials, silver and crystal dishes, boxes and boxes, carpets, birds and horses.
Some were engaged in trade large landowners- boyars. They were drawn into the bargaining service people, who made up the city garrisons - archers, gunners, etc. A lot of people traded in the city markets townspeople. Usually the artisan was the manufacturer and seller of the goods he made. Played a significant role in trade peasants. They brought agricultural products and products of peasant crafts to the cities. The main place for selling peasant goods was the rural bazaar or fair. Some of these peasants conducted very large trade and actually ceased to be peasants in the strict sense of the word, turning into merchants.
Domestic trade. Although home craftsmen worked on the estates of feudal lords and service people, their products could not always satisfy the needs of a military man, for example, in weapons. These needs increasingly called service people to the market, especially because in the 16th century. In the armed forces of the Russian state, firearms were distributed, which the patrimonial artisan could not make. These weapons had to be purchased. Monasteries turned to the market for various items, and by the beginning of the 16th century. Huge farms have developed. The large number of monks forced the monastic authorities to buy clothes, shoes, dishes, work tools for them, and to erect various premises, purchasing building materials for this. A significant amount of goods (household items) were sold in urban and rural markets, which were bought up by a wide segment of the population.
Moscow artisan shop
Population growth and the ever-widening demand for various goods on the market, especially in large cities, gave rise to a very narrow specialization among artisans: the master usually made only a special type of product. Therefore, among the artisans who produced clothing, in the 16th-17th centuries. Along with tailors, sundress makers, fur coat makers, caftan makers, hat makers, hat makers, cap makers, etc. worked.
In the first place in the city craft was the manufacture of fabrics. This product occupied a prominent place in the market. This craft included the production of clothing and hats. A more modest place was occupied by craftsmen who worked in leather production. However, in almost every city there was a shoe aisle on the market. A large branch of craft was the production of metal products - “iron goods”. At the markets in Pskov and Novgorod, copper products were sold in boiler rows, silver products in silver rows. Woodworking craft occupied a very important place. Wood was the most common and cheapest material from which various household items were made - barrels, sponges, sleds, clamps, etc. All this was presented at urban and rural auctions. Along with the production of wooden utensils, pottery production was widespread. In addition to finished products, semi-finished products were sold in the markets - flax in tattered form, hemp.
Already in the 16th century. In Russia, a territorial division of labor began to take shape in the form of specialization of different regions of the country in the production of a particular product. On the basis of the territorial division of labor, more or less permanent trade relations emerged and developed between different, sometimes remote, regions of the country.
So, in the 16th century. The Tula-Serpukhov region stands out, where iron ore was mined, processed and from where it was transported for sale to other areas. The processed ore was transported from Serpukhov to Moscow, and there it was bought by residents of northern cities. At the very beginning of the 17th century. residents of Ustyug brought Serpukhov iron for sale to Siberia. The connections between the regions of the country were so strong and regular that in some places (Tver) artisans worked mainly with imported iron.
In the 16th century Yaroslavl acts as a center from where leather goods were transported for sale to the northern regions of the country.
The production of cloth of a higher quality than in peasant home production, and monastic clothing from it, was established in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. These products were widely sold in Moscow.
The Tver region supplied the country with spoons and utensils. Merchants from the northern districts purchased these products in large quantities in Tver, and then sold them in northern cities and villages. Kaluga dishes were also on sale everywhere. In the north, the largest supplier of utensils - spoons, wooden dishes, ladles, bowls - was the Vologda-Belozersky region. The main center of woodworking craft in the Belozersky region was the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery. There was a turning workshop at the monastery that made spoons (thousands of pieces), staves, and “turned vessels.” Kirillov spoons were famous throughout the country.
Along with trade ties that connected remote areas and urban centers of the country, there were trade ties that connected the city and its immediate surroundings with its villages, hamlets, and monasteries. The townspeople bought raw materials from the peasants (wild animal skins, iron ore and other products of crafts and agriculture), processed them and sold them at the city market. Peasants bought metal products, jewelry, and imported goods in the city.
The goods sold were often not intended for the general population, especially those that were valued for their very high quality. The average resident of Russia did not buy iron products, which were quite expensive, every year. Many basic necessities, similar to those sold but of lesser quality, were produced within the subsistence household peasant economy. Therefore, for the 16th century. The regularity and importance of trade relations cannot be overestimated. They often did not affect the lives of the broad masses of the population.
In the second half of the 17th century. the development of Russian trade has reached a new level. Since the end of the 16th century, the rapid and ever deeper penetration of the Russian population into Siberia and Northern Asia began. First of all, people were attracted here by the rapid enrichment thanks to the hunt for sables, the fur of which was especially highly valued both in Russia and in other countries. In Western Europe it became fashionable. Meanwhile, sable could only be obtained in Siberia. Thus. Russia had a natural monopoly on this product. Trade with Siberia was in the hands of the largest Russian trading houses, the Fedotovs, Revyakins, Nikitins, and Bosykhs. Small merchants and clerks of large traders came to Siberian cities, helped local hunters equip themselves for the hunting season and waited for their return. After a period of hunting, the trader received from the hunter two-thirds of his catch. With a consignment of goods - the “sable treasury” - the merchant set off from Siberia to Arkhangelsk, where foreign ships arrived and where he could sell his goods. With the money he received, he bought foreign goods and with them, as well as various local craft products - household items, he went to Siberia. In Siberian cities at that time there was no artisan population. These cities were fortresses erected in a newly developed country and inhabited by military people. Therefore, Siberian townspeople needed the simplest things - clothes, shoes, dishes, etc. For a long time, Siberia also needed bread, since the local population knew almost no farming. While in Siberia, the merchant sold these goods and again entered into an agreement with commercial hunters regarding the extraction of sable furs.
So in the 17th century. This trade route was regularly used by Russian traders: Siberia - Arkhangelsk and again Siberia. Trade traffic flowed along these routes, connecting internal and external trade. It is noteworthy that this trade promoted not only high-value goods, which is typical of trade in ancient times, but also goods of everyday use.
In the developing internal trade, they were of great importance trade fairs. All of them were at the crossroads of significant trade routes. Some fairs that operated in the 15th-16th centuries ceased to play their former role, since they probably did not survive the intervention and devastation of various regions of Russia at the beginning of the 17th century. In the 17th century Several major fairs grew in size and influence. At this time, there were five main fairs of all-Russian significance: Moscow, where goods were brought from different parts of the country, Arkhangelskaya during the stay of foreign merchants in Arkhangelsk, Irbitskaya(in the city of Irbit), which was on the way to Siberia, Nizhegorodskaya (Makaryevskaya) on the ancient trade route at the confluence of the Volga and Oka, Svenskaya at the Svensky Monastery near Bryansk, where merchants came along the Desna - a tributary of the Dnieper, from the Polish-Lithuanian state and from Turkey.
The Makaryevskaya fair took place annually in July at the monastery of Makariy Zheltovodsky. In the first half of the 16th century. she was transferred here from Kazan. Its significance was determined by the fact that it served as an intermediary point, firstly, in the trade of northern and central cities with southern ones, and secondly, between the European part of Russia and Siberia. The Irbit fair was legalized by the government only in the first half of the 17th century. In the second half of the century, trading shops and other trading places were set up here, and a guest courtyard was built. The fair took place in January, when trade people from the European part of Russia came here. At the end of the century, a connection was established between the Irbit fair and the Makaryevskaya fair.
In the XVI-XVII centuries. in every district of Russia there were many different in size, often small and tiny, rural markets and markets. During the 17th century. their number decreased as they were absorbed by regional markets.
Trade in cities. Moscow as a center of trade inXVIV. The unification of the country and the transformation of Moscow into the capital of the entire Russian state affected its trade importance. Land and river trade routes led to Moscow. Tverskaya Street, leaving the city, turned into a road that led to Tver, and then to Novgorod the Great. Sretenskaya Street continued with the Yaroslavl road and led to Yaroslavl, then to Vologda and Ustyug, from where the route along the Northern Dvina to the White Sea opened. To the east, to Nizhny Novgorod and Kazan, the land road lay through Vladimir. The waterway connected Moscow through the Moscow River and Oka with the Volga, that is, with Nizhny Novgorod, Kazan, and Astrakhan. From Moscow through Mozhaisk to Smolensk there was a road to the borders of the Polish-Lithuanian state.
In the second half of the XV - early XVI centuries. From the lands annexed to Moscow, Ivan III and his son Vasily III transferred the richest nonresident merchants en masse to their capital to live, which increased the commercial importance of Moscow. Later, in the XVI-XVII centuries. Only individual merchants, and not large groups of traders, continued to be transferred from the provinces to the capital.
Under Ivan III, guest courtyards were first established in Moscow, where visiting merchants were supposed to live and trade. In the 17th century in the capital there were two guest courtyards - old and new. They contained large scales for weighing large volume and weight of goods. Along the perimeter of the courtyard, two rows of small vaulted benches stretched in two tiers - one above the other. The shops in the guest courtyards and markets were quite cramped; the merchant could barely turn around in a shop crammed with goods. In the second half of the 17th century. There were several institutions in Moscow that dealt with customs duties. Moscow customs collected duties on jewelry, fabrics, furs, metals and other goods. Mytnaya izba - with meat, poultry, eggs, cheese... Pomernaya izba - with grain, berries, mushrooms. Embassy New Customs – with various goods brought by foreign merchants.
Any product could be purchased on the Moscow market. The main market of the capital was located on Red Square. There were numerous trading places here - booths, benches, huts. In addition to permanent (stationary) trade, there was also peddling trade. Along with the main market, there were numerous smaller markets scattered throughout the city. Some of them were specialized in trading certain goods. So, at one of them it was possible to buy a ready-made wooden house and a gate. They were made outside the city, then dismantled, transported on sleighs to Moscow in the winter and sold there.
As a major consuming urban center of the country, Moscow was supplied with food products and handicraft raw materials from its immediate surroundings. Some of the products were brought from afar: fish was brought from the Volga region centers, oil came from Vologda, salt came from the northern regions, honey and wax, wooden utensils were brought from the forest regions of the Upper and Middle Volga region, and vegetable oil was brought from Smolensk. Moscow received a lot of grain from Ryazan. Iron products were brought from Ustyuzhna-Zhelezopolskaya, copper, tin, lead from Novgorod, leather from Yaroslavl, furs from Ustyug and Perm. From the end of the 16th century. Moscow merchants began to travel to Siberia for fur. They brought with them Moscow goods, which were urgently needed by the Russian population of the Siberian region being developed.
A huge amount of Russian and foreign goods were brought to Moscow. Some of them - fabrics, handicrafts, spices, wine, salt, furs, clothing, weapons and other goods of the “Moscow purchase” - were exported for sale to other cities and fairs.
In the 17th century, merchants from all more or less significant cities and shopping centers of the Russian state were represented at the capital's market.
Iron weights (XVIIV.)
Trade in other cities. The development of trade stimulated the life of provincial Russian cities. The merchants who came to them needed food, overnight accommodation, premises for storing goods, and sufficient trading space in the city market. This need forced the construction of specialized buildings in the city - gostiny dvors. Craftsmen from different regions of Russia especially willingly moved to the big city, finding orders for work here. The city market - trading - was located in the central square of the city, near the administrative center and fortress. It consisted of a larger or smaller number of shopping arcades. The row consisted of commercial premises - usually wooden benches. They were placed with their facades facing each other so that the buyer walked along the row and looked at the goods in the shops. The more shops there were, the longer the row was. Only local residents traded in the shops. For the convenience of trading, the rows had specialization - cake, bread, meat. In the middle of the 16th century. In such a large shopping center as Novgorod, stone shops were built. In addition to shops, barns and cellars, cages, huts, closets, sheds, barrel and jug places were used in trade. There were several markets in large cities. Trading shops also stood outside the markets, on the streets, near the merchant’s house. In smaller cities, retail premises were not lined up in rows.
IN Novgorod there were about 4 dozen rows. At the beginning of the 17th century, new rows were built at the Novgorod market that had not existed before - iron, saddle, candle, mitten, book, etc. The rich merchants who traded in foreign goods formed the Great Row. Novgorod merchants exported foreign goods to other cities. With the money of these merchants, the church of Paraskeva Pyatnitsa, the patroness of trade, was maintained at the auction. Rich merchants also traded in the cloth row. The remaining rows were intended for the sale of less valuable goods - the products of local artisans. In the 17th century there were several large living courtyards. There were several foreign guest houses and offices. Still at the market stood the Church of Ivan-on-Opoka. In it, a fee was collected from trading people for weighing goods, but no longer in favor of the temple, as in the days of Novgorod independence, but for the “great sovereign” - the Moscow prince, the tsar.
In the first half of the 17th century. emerged as a large shopping center Yaroslavl. It was located at the intersection of important trade routes between Moscow and northern cities; the Volga trade route passed by it. Merchants traveling from Siberia reached Yaroslavl, and from there they moved to the center of the country. Yaroslavl filled the markets of Pomerania and Siberia with its leather goods, cloth, canvas, and clothing. Yaroslavl merchants conducted large trade with foreigners. In the city there were guest houses of English, Dutch and German traders.
The country had a large number of medium and small cities in terms of trade. An example of an average shopping center was Tikhvinsky Posad in the north-west of the country. In the 17th century there were 6 trading rows at the market. The bulk of the traders were townspeople, surrounding peasants, buyers and visiting traders from more than 40 cities. Tikhvin goods were distributed throughout the rural district with a radius of 200-400 versts.
International trade. Import of goods to Arkhangelsk. In the 17th century, especially in the second half of the century, mainly luxury goods, things for home furnishings, and for the needs of the army were imported into Russia from abroad. The main place for the import of foreign goods was Arkhangelsk, located on the Northern Dvina. Due to the long winter, it was only open to foreign ships for six months of the year. In winter, this city, remote from the center of the country, was as if in hibernation with boarded up shops, empty taverns and workshops, and deserted streets. As soon as the river opened up, along the right bank of which the houses and streets of Arkhangelsk stretched, the city awakened. The governor and his office moved here from the neighboring city of Kholmogor. A guest came from Moscow with his assistants to collect customs duties. Trade people gathered at the beginning of the fair. They brought “Russian goods” - lard, leather, butter, honey, wax, hemp, potash, tar. Timber was floated to the mouth of the river for sale to foreigners. In the summer, foreign ships came to Arkhangelsk through the White Sea and the Dvina. The duration of the fair was set for three months - from June 1 to September 1; in October the Dvina was already frozen. Therefore, in September the Arkhangelsk fair ended its activities.
Over the first half of the century, the number of foreign ships coming to Arkhangelsk more than tripled - from 29 to 80. Then their number decreased due to the policies of the government, which began to patronize Russian merchants, putting foreign traders in a disadvantageous position for them. By the end of the century, the number of foreign ships had increased again to 70. Most of the ships belonged to the Dutch. Usually the ship carried the goods of several merchants.
With the help of a Russian pilot, the foreign ship sailed from the mouth of the Dvina to Arkhangelsk. Here the goods were either transferred to the shore or remained on the ship, where Russian buyers arrived. Goods transported ashore arrived only at the Gostiny Dvor. At the gates of two guest courtyards - Russian and “German” - there were guards who made sure that no one left these courtyards without paying taxes.
The main buyer in Arkhangelsk was the treasury. Usually the guest who was appointed to Arkhangelsk to collect duties was given a list of those goods that needed to be purchased for the treasury. The guest paid for the purchased goods in kind - potash, hemp and tar, the warehouses of which were located in Arkhangelsk. For the royal court, they bought large quantities of silk fabric, non-ferrous metals (gold, silver, tin, copper), writing paper, wine and vinegar, spices and fruits from foreigners. Most of the materials went to the salaries of service people. The paper was received as orders. Spices and wines were also spent on grants.
In accordance with the New Trade Charter, foreigners had to sell their goods in large quantities to Russian traders. However, this order was often violated, and foreign merchants also sold goods at retail in their barns. Trade was largely of an exchange nature. Russian raw materials were exchanged for foreign goods.
In addition to the government, large wholesale buyers from the upper layer of the Moscow merchant class operated at the Arkhangelsk market. Almost all trade with foreigners in this city was in their hands. Such merchants had their own ships on the Dvina, onto which imported goods were loaded. The ships departed upstream the river and went to the city of Ustyug. It was the largest center on the road from Arkhangelsk to Moscow. There was a large market in the city. Foreign goods and fish were brought from Arkhangelsk to Ustyug. From Siberia and Kazan - Asian silk, Persian and Chinese fabrics and specially processed leathers, from the northern Russian cities - lard, oil, leather, hops, which were bought by Russian merchants and exported to the Arkhangelsk fair. Large merchants sold foreign goods in Ustyug. Smaller merchants also did the same. Their area of activity was small. There were also those who, having bought foreign goods, walked with the body around the nearest settlements, through peasant volosts.
Local residents brought surplus subsistence products to Arkhangelsk to exchange for foreign goods. They were hired on ships that sailed along the Northern Dvina, worked as cab drivers transporting goods, pilots on foreign ships, and loaders. To transport goods from ships ashore to the city, barrels were needed. This stimulated the cooperage industry in Arkhangelsk. The Dvina-Belomorsky route was perhaps the busiest trade route in Russia in the 17th century.
Trade on the western border. In western Russia, overland trade was carried out through Novgorod and Pskov. From the 16th century Due to the opening of the trade route through the White Sea, long wars and the oprichnina pogrom that Ivan the Terrible organized in Novgorod and Novgorod land, the importance of these ancient trading centers decreased. In the second half of the 17th century. both of these cities played the role of shopping centers for the local area. As before, trade with the German city of Lübeck developed in Novgorod and Pskov. However, from the middle of the 15th century. The Hansa entered a period of decline. This decline became especially clear in the 16th century, when world trade routes shifted to the Atlantic Ocean due to the discovery of America. Sweden, England, and the Netherlands began to play a significant role in Novgorod trade.
Many Swedes lived in Novgorod. Their goods were mainly glass and metals (iron, copper, lead and tin). Unlike trade in Arkhangelsk, Novgorod merchants often traveled to Sweden, to Stockholm. The Russian ships that sailed the Baltic Sea were small. They usually accommodated about ten people or more. Trips to the “Svei Germans” for trade were so common that residents of the city of Olonets from
Novgorod land, only thanks to their trade with the Swedes had money to pay taxes. Fish and meat went from Olonets to Sweden. Often, without significant money, many Russian merchants borrowed money from the Swedes, bought goods in Russia with it, and then sold them in Sweden at a low price, making a very small profit. This greatly interfered with Russian trade, as it brought down prices for Russian goods on the Swedish market.
In general, foreign trade that went through Novgorod and Pskov was not particularly significant. The Swedish government would like Russia's foreign trade to be reoriented from the White Sea to the Baltic Sea. It even specifically lowered duties on Russian goods in order to stimulate their import into its country. However, the Russian government did not agree to such a change in the foreign trade system, since it did not have Baltic territories and access to the Baltic Sea
On the western border of Russia, an important trading point through which foreign trade went was Smolensk Through this city there were connections with Poland and Lithuania. Since with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in Russia in the 17th century. There were most often hostile relations, trade in this direction did not receive much development.
Southern and southeastern directions of trade. Through the southern city Putivl Greek merchants came to Russia. They also traded in Putivl, but most often moved with their goods to Moscow. In the eyes of the Russian government, the Greeks were fellow believers, persecuted in their land by the conquering Turks. They played the role of ambassadors from the Patriarch of Constantinople and were informants about foreign events. Thanks to these circumstances, the Greeks enjoyed special advantages
compared to other foreign merchants. Their goods were transported from the border on special carts with escorts. They received free maintenance from the government for the entire duration of their stay in Russia. Every year between 50 and 199 Greek traders came to the country. They carried things that were used for the needs of the palace: precious materials and stones, pearls, jewelry, expensive weapons, horse harnesses.
Astrakhan was like a gateway to Russia for Asian goods. Goods were brought here across the Caspian Sea and along the Volga from Persia, the Central Asian states of Bukhara and Khiva, as well as from India, trade with which was just beginning in the 17th century. There was a vast caravanserai in the city, surrounded by a stone wall with several gates. A two-story building was built here for Armenian merchants. There was also a wooden living quarters for Indian merchants here. Nearby there was a stone building that served as a warehouse and trading post. The main product was raw silk of various varieties, in particular, expensive “white silk” and cheaper “yellow silk”. It was mainly intended for export to Western European countries. Foreign merchants also brought oriental fabrics to Astrakhan, as well as finished products - tablecloths, towels, scarves, sheets, carpets, hats, jewelry, earthenware, dried fruits, spices. All these were items of high value. Foreign merchants exported from Russia to Asian countries sables and cheaper furs, walrus ivory, Western European silk fabrics, and a huge number of small mirrors brought to Russia from abroad.
In the second half of the 17th century. Quite a lot of merchants went to Persia for trading purposes. Therefore, ships for trade trips across the Caspian Sea were manufactured in a special yard in Astrakhan. They were called beads and were equipped with cannons for protection from robbers . Twice a year, in spring and autumn, a bus with traders set out on a trip. Upon arrival in Persia, the goods were sold off. Going back, the ship took on board merchants - immigrants from Central Asia, who wanted to get to Russia with their goods.
In the 17th century Russia began to trade with China through Siberia. In the middle of the century, an embassy was sent to this country to find out what goods could be bought there and establish trade relations. Since the 70s official trade with China began. Furs purchased from Siberian traders were sent in caravans to China, where these goods were exchanged for Chinese ones. Private trade also began to develop. In the 90s there was already a Russian colony in Beijing. Mostly materials were brought from China.
Moscow – the center of foreign trade. Arriving in Moscow, foreign merchants had to present their goods to the Big Customs, where these goods were inspected and duties were collected from the merchants. Before the adoption of the trade charter, customs taxation was varied and had a heavy impact on trade. In addition to the main duty, there were many small fees in favor of the treasury and customs personnel - clerks who kept documentation, porters, janitors, Cossacks - hired people who performed various services, and others. When registering goods at customs, the merchant was charged a “record duty,” when transporting goods to the scales for weighing, a “business duty,” when unloading goods, a “dump duty,” and a special fee was charged for weighing.
After paying duties, foreign goods were transported to Gostiny Dvor, where wholesale trade was carried out. There were several such trading yards in Moscow: in the very center - Old, New, Persian, at a distance from the center - Swedish, Lithuanian, Armenian, Greek.
Moscow had quite lively trade relations with Lithuania after Vasily III included Smolensk into the Russian state. Lithuanian merchants brought materials to Moscow, especially jewelry and jewelry, and bought wax here. Russian merchants brought sables to Lithuania.
Of all the Western European merchants, the British played a special role in Moscow trade. From the 16th century In England, an association of local merchants was organized - the Moscow Company - which traded with Russia. The English Gostiny Dvor was established in Moscow. English merchants brought to Moscow mainly fabrics, as well as metals, especially tin, lace, pearls, and jewelry.
At the end of the 16th and especially in the 17th century. Along with the British, Dutch merchants were active in Moscow.
In Moscow trade, the southern direction remained important - contacts with Persia, the countries of Central Asia, Crimea, and Turkey. As before, fine fabrics, ceremonial weapons, and luxury goods were brought from different countries. Cheaper goods were items of Tatar craft exported from Crimea - shoes, saddles, items of clothing. The main item imported from the steppes were horses. They were driven to Moscow for sale in huge herds of thousands of heads.
In the 16th century The commercial importance of Moscow grew, it overtook Novgorod in its importance. At the beginning of the 17th century. Due to the internal war in the country, Moscow as a center of foreign trade experienced a decline. Later, her position strengthened and grew significantly. In the second half of the 17th century. Trade connections from different regions of Russia reached Moscow.
In the XVI-XVII centuries. Along with foreign trade, which retained its importance, the role of domestic trade gradually grew. This indicated that the country’s commercial development was rising to a new level: the ratio of the importance of foreign and domestic trade was changing. Internal trade gradually began to prevail. In the total mass of goods that traders brought to the market, along with precious items, household items of everyday use play an increasingly important role.
How the kings of a new dynasty tried to turn a medieval city into a European capital
In the 17th century, elegant churches of Russian pattern, the first water supply system and a stone bridge appeared in Moscow. And the 17th century became a rebellious century, when small and large uprisings in the city were followed by devastating fires. Let's see what the Romanovs' Moscow looked like during this difficult time for them.Masons at work.
Book miniature of the 16th century
Where Moscow began and ended
By the time Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov began to reign, Moscow had already become a large metropolis. Travelers compare the capital with Paris, London and Constantinople. Moscow seems larger to them than it is, due to the impressive distances and chaotically constructed buildings. There is no single development plan, and most of the urban space is occupied by gardens, vegetable gardens and vacant lots. Moscow looks like a village.
“... next to most houses there are vast vacant lots and courtyards, many houses are also adjacent to vegetable gardens, fertile gardens, and, in addition, they are separated from each other by quite extensive meadows, interspersed with them, countless, one might say, churches and chapels; therefore, there is not such a large number of people in it, as some believed, deceived by its vastness in appearance.”
A. Meyerberg, Austrian envoy.
"Journey to Muscovy of Baron Augustin Mayerberg"
The population of Moscow consisted mainly of townspeople - artisans and traders. Their courtyards divided the city into settlements, of which there were about 140 by the 17th century. Each settlement had its own specialization: blacksmiths lived in one, tanners in another, potters in the third, and masons in the fourth.
Like other medieval cities in Europe at that time, Moscow was built on a radial-ring principle. In the center was the Kremlin - a princely palace with churches, surrounded by a moat and a wall. Trade and craft settlements crowded around the Kremlin and were connected by a grid of streets. The streets were interrupted by fortifications that ringed the city from the center to the outskirts - the further from the Kremlin, the wider. Circular streets were built along the protective walls.
One of the Moscow settlements in a 17th-century engraving
Masons at work. Book miniature of the 16th century
“Sigismund's Plan” - a map of Moscow compiled by the Poles in 1610
Moscow consisted of four rings: the Kremlin, Kitay-gorod, White and Zemlyanoy cities. This layout had its advantages in the Middle Ages: if the enemy took the Earthen City or a fire destroyed all the wooden houses, they would be stopped by the next line of stone walls. But the further we move from the Middle Ages, the less sense it makes to build a city in a ring. Fortress walls are losing their importance and are expensive to maintain.
In the 17th century, the Kremlin lost its defensive significance and turned into a ceremonial royal residence.
What Moscow looked like: houses, chambers and churches
The foundation of the city in the 17th century was wooden, and this feature would remain in Moscow until the 19th century. But gradually more and more stone churches and chambers are being built. They are crowded into the territory of Kitay-Gorod and White City - wealthy shopping areas of Moscow.
A typical residential building in the 17th century was wooden, with one or two floors. When building houses in craft settlements, the same technology was used. The carpenters connected the crown logs into a log house, covered it with a plank roof and cut out small light windows. Glass production had not yet been established in the 17th century, so window openings were covered with mica or oiled canvas.
The finished log house with windows and roof was called a cage. The cage was placed on the ground or another frame - basement. The basement was used for storing food and belongings. The living quarters - the upper room - were located upstairs. If the house became cramped, a new cage was added to it. Not only residential buildings, but also wooden princely palaces were built according to this principle.
Streets of Moscow of the 17th century in an engraving by Adam Olearius
The princely palace in Kolomenskoye consisted of log cages - the largest wooden building in Moscow in the 17th century
Chambers of the Romanov boyars in Zaryadye
The stone chambers of boyars and merchants can be counted on one hand. Thanks to durable material, some have survived to this day: the chambers of the Romanov boyars and the old English court in Zaryadye, the chambers of Averky Kirillov on Bersenevskaya embankment and Simeon Ushakov in Ipatievsky Lane.
The chambers of merchants, boyars and princes were distinguished from the houses of artisans not only by the building material, but also by their size and furnishings. The chambers were built on two or three floors. The first tier, almost without windows, was still used as a warehouse. On the second floor there was a refectory, a library and living quarters for the men's half of the house. The third floor was reserved for women. There was a room with large windows for doing handicrafts - a light room - and, of course, bedrooms.
Holy Trinity Church
in Nikitniki - an exemplary temple
in patterned style
Churches were the first and tallest stone buildings in Moscow. Their number was amazing even upon entering the city. Domes glittering in the sun lined the horizon and towered above the rest of the buildings.
“There are a lot of churches, chapels and monasteries in the Kremlin and in the city; there are more than 2,000 of them inside and outside the city walls, since now each of the nobles who has some property orders himself to build a special chapel; most of them are made of stone. The stone churches all have round vaults inside.”
Adam Olearius, German traveler.
“Description of a journey to Muscovy and through Muscovy to Persia and back”
In the middle of the century, instead of massive churches with thick walls, architects began to build elegant churches in the patterned style. The facades are decorated with multi-colored tiles, traditional kokoshniks and so far unusual elements of Western European architecture that masons spotted in engravings. Architects follow strict church canons less and experiment more.
Patterning was the first step towards the secularization of architecture. In the 80s of the 17th century, the appearance of churches changed again, and the patterned style was replaced by a new style - the Naryshkin style. It is used in construction at the royal court and in the houses of nobles close to the court. The name of the style is due to the fact that the customers of its most striking monuments were the Naryshkin boyars.
Procession on a donkey. Engraving from the book of Adam Olearius
Church of the Holy Trinity in Nikitniki - an exemplary temple in the pattern style
Church of the Intercession of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Fili
The composition of the building becomes symmetrical, all tiers tend to the central axis. The skill of masons is growing - now they think not only about decoration, but also about the holistic impression of the building.
Capital buildings in the Naryshkin style will be replaced by Peter the Great's baroque, but this will only happen at the beginning of the next century.
How Moscow lived: urban disasters, life and entertainment
The 17th century was a time of uprisings, fires and epidemics. Slobodas burned at least 10 times in a century, there were constant contaminations with dirty water from the channels of the Moscow River, and the infrastructure was not developed enough to prevent disasters. Tsars Mikhail Fedorovich and Alexei Mikhailovich begin to develop the city according to the European model.
The water pipeline was installed in the Vodovzvodnaya (Sviblova) tower, into which water flowed
from the Moscow River
Infrastructure
The first water supply system in the Kremlin was designed by the Englishman Christopher Galovey in 1631–1633. Until this point, the Kremlin was supplied by water tankers and a primitive gravity-fed water supply system. Now water is supplied to the lower tier of the Vodovzvodnaya tower by gravity, and a water-lifting machine pumps it into the reservoir of the upper tier of the tower. From there, water flows through pipes to the gardens and palaces of the Kremlin.
The water pipeline was installed in the Vodovzvodnaya (Sviblova) tower, the water into which came from the Moscow River
A. M. Vasnetsov. “The rise of the Kremlin. All Saints Bridge and the Kremlin at the end of the 17th century." In 1680, the brick walls of the Kremlin were painted white with lime.
The first stone bridge in Moscow took 40 years to build and was inaugurated in the 1680s. It was called All Saints, later - Bolshoi Kamenny. Its wooden predecessors were temporary: they were dismantled along with winter frosts and spring floods, and then reassembled again. “Living” bridges surprised visitors.
“The bridge near the Kremlin, opposite the gate of the second city wall, arouses great surprise; it is level, made of large wooden beams, fitted one to the other and tied with thick ropes of linden bark, the ends of which are attached to the towers and to the opposite bank of the river. When the water rises, the bridge rises, because it is not supported by pillars, but consists of boards lying on the water, and when it decreases, the bridge also lowers.”
Paul of Aleppo, Archdeacon of the Antiochian Orthodox Church.
“The Journey of Patriarch Macarius of Antioch to Russia in the half of the 17th century”
Temporary bridges are easy to assemble and dismantle during an enemy attack. But the need to defend the Kremlin from the water is gradually disappearing. But the royal residence is decorated more and more magnificently - like the elegant Spasskaya Clock Tower, the stone bridge has become the main attraction of the city.
PIK comment
Education and urban entertainment
The life of Muscovites was not limited to hard work and escape from fires. The brisk book trade, higher education and city festivities were also innovations of the 17th century.
The Moscow printing house was restored after being destroyed by the Poles in 1620. If earlier it served only the sovereign's court, then in the 17th century private booksellers and a book row appeared. By the end of the century, reading is becoming an accessible entertainment. Booksellers sell books on military affairs, primers and collections of poetry.
A library was opened at the Printing Yard, and in 1687 the first institution of higher education was opened. The Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy was founded by the Likhud brothers, Greek Orthodox monks. Here, residents of different classes were taught Greek, rhetoric, logic and grammar for 12 years.
Moscow Printing Yard on Nikolskaya Street
City festivities. Engraving from the book of Adam Olearius
During patronal holidays and official spectacles, Muscovites of the 17th century walked along the new stone bridge, watched performances of buffoon and puppet theaters, bought sweets at fairs and watched with curiosity the ceremonial entries of foreign ambassadors.
Already in the next century, Moscow will be unrecognizable: the first oil lanterns and city estates will appear on the streets, and balls and salons will become the favorite entertainment of the citizens.
Go to the 18th century
Nobles, merchants and townspeople: how people of different classes lived in Moscow in the 18th century
View of Red Square in 1783
Moscow has not been a capital for half a century. Vast noble estates are adjacent to shacks and black huts. On the one hand - idleness and social receptions, on the other - potato soup and monotonous daily work.
Upper class city dwellers. They might not have worked anywhere, but they rarely took advantage of it. Men served in the army, state or court. Women also participated in court life, but in Moscow, far from the capital, they did not have such an opportunity.
The standard of living of city merchants varied. Unlike artisans, who traded only the items they produced, merchants enjoyed an advantage and could sell a wide variety of goods, from the scrupulous (underwear and perfumes) to the colonial (tea, coffee and spices).
A new type of urban dwellers. Former residents of craft settlements are gradually becoming hired workers. Instead of engaging in small-scale production, they go to manufactories or to the houses of the nobility for a salary.
Unknown artist.
View of Moscow in the 18th century
At home
The development of Moscow proceeded unevenly. Wide stone-paved streets turned into wooden pavements. Pitiful shacks stood in clusters around the palaces and houses of the nobility. Some areas resembled wastelands, others were crowded with poor houses, and others impressed with the metropolitan splendor.
“Irregular”, “extraordinary”, “contrasting” - this is how foreigners who managed to visit here during the times of Elizabeth and Catherine II described Moscow.
“I was surprised by the strange appearance of Smolensk, but I was much more struck by the immensity and diversity of Moscow. This is something so irregular, peculiar, extraordinary, everything here is so full of contrasts that I have never seen anything like it.”
William Cox, British traveler.
“Travel to Poland, Russia, Switzerland and Denmark”
Nobles
Adolf Bayo. Pashkov's house on Vagankovsky Hill
Adolf Bayo. Pashkov House
on Vagankovsky Hill
Middle-class nobles settled in Moscow, so mansions were often built in wood. They suffered from fires and again lined up along the “red line” - it marked the boundaries of construction on each street. The houses of the richest families were built from stone by famous architects. These buildings have survived to this day. The most impressive example of 18th-century noble housing is the Pashkov House, which is believed to have been built according to the design of the architect Vasily Bazhenov.
Merchants
Unknown artist. View
Ilyinka streets in Moscow in the 18th century
A typical merchant's house was two-story. The first floor could be stone, the second - wooden. The European practice of merchants settling above their own shops had not yet become popular, because the shopping arcades were moved to separate areas of the city. Towards the end of the century, under Catherine II, a new type of housing appeared in Moscow - apartment buildings. On the upper floors of apartment buildings there were merchants' living rooms and apartments for rent, and below there were shops and shops. One of the first apartment buildings of this type in Moscow was Khryashchev’s house on Ilyinka.
Bourgeois
Unknown artist. View of Ilyinka Street in Moscow in the 18th century
Unknown artist. Street view
Ilyinki in Moscow of the 18th century
Like the residents of craft settlements in the 17th century, the townspeople settled in simple wooden houses. Their life changed more slowly than that of the richer classes. The houses of nobles and merchants were built according to the latest fashion, the houses of the burghers - out of habit. The only change has occurred in the internal structure of the house: instead of a common room for the whole family, separate rooms now appear in the houses.
PIK comment
Nobles
Schedule
Nobles
P. Picard. Moscow Kremlin at the beginning of the 18th century
P. Picard. Moscow
The Kremlin at the beginning of the 18th century
Officers arrived at the barracks at 6, officials - at 7–8 in the morning. By noon, the parades and parades ended, and the presence was interrupted for lunch.
The socialite woke up around noon. After breakfast there was a walk in the park or a ride accompanied by a walker - a servant who accompanied the crew on foot. Then - lunch, theater and a ball, which lasted until the morning.
“A nobleman who wants to be a man of the world must have a Danish dog, a walker, a lot of servants (badly dressed) and a French teacher.”
Tesby de Bellecourt, captain of the French service.
“Notes of a Frenchman about Moscow, 1774”
Merchants
B. Kustodiev. Gostiny Dvor
B. Kustodiev. Gostiny Dvor
Trade in Moscow began early, so by 6 am the merchant opened his shop in Gostiny Dvor or on the first floor of a residential building. On the spot, he drank tea, had a hearty lunch, and talked with the merchants in the neighborhood. In the evening he visited a tavern or a fair, and already at nine o’clock he fell asleep.
Bourgeois
Detail of the factory mark of the Bolshoi Yaroslavl Manufactory. Mid-18th century
Factory brand detail Bolshoy
Yaroslavl manufactory. Mid-18th century
Craftsmen worked at home, in living quarters or courtyards. Everyone in the household, even the children, took part in the work. Due to the emergence of factories and organized production, it became unprofitable for some artisans to work for themselves, and they became hired workers: they weaved, built ships, forged metal products and prepared glass. The largest manufactory in Moscow was the Cloth Yard. The working day there began at half past five in the morning, and lasted 13.5 hours in the spring and summer months and 11.5 hours during the rest of the year.
Food
For nobles, eating was an art, for merchants it was a way to pass the time, for the townspeople it was a matter of survival.
Nobles
Unknown artist. Lunch in a noble family
Unknown artist.
Lunch in a noble family
In rich houses they preferred European cuisine. Tea and coffee in the 18th century ceased to be exotic, but were expensive. Since the beginning of the century, there has been a fashion for foreign chefs - the French, less often the British. Some products were ordered from Europe, which Gogol ironized in “The Inspector General,” where “soup in a saucepan arrived from Paris right on the boat” to Khlestakov’s table.
Merchants
B. Kustodiev. Merchant's wife drinking tea
The merchant's table was simpler. Tea from a samovar, which they drank “until the seventh scarf” (until they broke out in sweat), porridge half and half with lard, soups, pies, radishes and vegetable dishes - the main thing in nutrition is not variety, but abundance and satiety.
“The pot-bellied merchants, as before, after drinking tea, practiced their trade, at noon they ate radishes, slurped cabbage soup with wooden or tin spoons, on which tops of lard floated, and drank buckwheat porridge in half with butter.”
Bourgeois
F. Solntsev. Peasant family before dinner. Bourgeois and peasants lived in similar living conditions. The main thing that distinguished them was their daily activities and profession
F. Solntsev. Peasant family in front
lunch. Bourgeois and peasants lived in similar
living conditions. The main thing that distinguished them was
- daily activities and profession
The daily menu included potato soup, cabbage soup, rye pies and steamed turnips. In addition, the townspeople could afford dishes made from peas, vegetables from the garden and cereals. Kvass replaced tea and coffee for them.
City entertainment
The way a resident of Moscow had fun primarily spoke about his social status. Festive life in the city was for every taste: from theaters, balls and music salons to street fairs and fist fights.
Nobles
Reception at a noble house
Reception at a noble house
The life of the Moscow nobility was so idle and leisurely that it irritated Catherine II:
“Moscow is the capital of idleness, and its excessive size will always be the main reason for this. I have made it a rule for myself, when I am there, never to send for anyone; for one visit they spend a whole day in the carriage, and therefore the day is lost.”
Entry from the diary of Catherine II
During the day, nobles walked through parks or streets in smart attire. Then the route was to visit relatives for tea. Family gatherings were not so much entertainment as a necessity: it was social etiquette to maintain family ties.
After dinner, reading and a change of dress, the nobleman went to the theater. In 1757, the Locatelli Opera opened, and later the Petrovsky Theater, in which free and serf actors played. At about 10 o'clock in the evening the balls began, where you could not only dance, but also play cards, charades or burime.
Merchants
V. Surikov. Great masquerade in 1772 on the streets of Moscow with the participation of Peter I and Prince I. F. Romodanovsky
V. Surikov. Great masquerade
in 1772 on the streets of Moscow with the participation
Peter I and Prince I. F. Romodanovsky
Noisy street fairs, puppet theaters, comedies and performances by buffoons - these were the main merchant entertainments.
“The comedy was usually performed by a home-grown troubadour with a bandura, singing and dancing. He did wonderful things with his feet, and every bone in him spoke. And when he jumps up under the very nose of a pretty merchant’s wife, moves his shoulder and splashes her like boiling water with a valiant demand: “Don’t you love her?” - there was no end to the delight.”
Ivan Ivanovich Lazhechnikov, writer.
"White, black and gray"
Merchants spent their evenings in taverns or at home, and on city holidays they went out to watch fireworks. But this is only in the 18th century: from the next century, wealthy merchants will strive to imitate the nobility in everything.
Bourgeois
B. Kustodiev. Fist fight on the Moscow River
B. Kustodiev.
Fist fight on the Moscow River
They couldn’t afford to go to taverns and restaurants, but everyone took part in the street festivities. Among the winter entertainments they loved fist fights, one on one or wall to wall. The teams dispersed along the banks of the frozen Moscow River and fought in the middle. The main battles took place on holidays: St. Nicholas the Winter, Christmastide, Epiphany and Maslenitsa.
In the 19th century, the differences between the urban and rural populations were sharper than between the tradesman and the merchant. Merchants, townspeople and artisans began to be called “city dwellers.” But the gap between the everyday life of the nobility and the “average state of people” remained in next century.
Go to the 19th century
Home and life of a Muscovite in the 19th century
J. Delabart. Red Square at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century
What rules did rich and poor families live by, what did they eat and how did they talk?
Moscow in the 19th century was the capital of the retired and elderly. It was more conservative than St. Petersburg, where people went for a career and fashion. In Moscow houses, family hierarchy, kinship, and many other everyday conventions reigned.Noble life
Moscow nobles became smaller after the war and the fire of 1812. Few could maintain the “open table” and hospitality of the last century. The increasingly impoverished noble families led a nomadic lifestyle and ate in rich houses. There are more officials. They were classified as nobility, but did not have much wealth.
Where did they settle?
Real nobles built houses and city estates on Maroseyka, Pokrovka and the territory between Ostozhenka and Arbat. Officials settled closer to the merchants: in Zamoskvorechye, on Taganka, Sretenka and Devichye Pole. Outside the Garden Ring, dachas and country estates with a garden or park were built.
Home and furnishings
V. Polenov. Grandmother's garden. Typical wooden Moscow mansion
V. Polenov. Grandmother's garden.
Typical wooden Moscow mansion
The middle-income nobility built houses from wood. But they are large, with 7–9 windows, with mezzanines and columns. A park or garden with a linden alley, elderberry and lilac trees was an obligatory attribute of lordly life. The further from the center, the more extensive the garden was.
In the interior decoration of the house, the pursuit of fashion has given way to consistency. Empire style furniture purchased at the beginning of the century stood in the front part of the house along with porcelain trinkets and cabinet bronze sculpture. The cramped living quarters in the mezzanine and on the back side of the house were furnished anyhow.
Table
A. Voloskov. At the tea table
A. Voloskov. At the tea table
Unlike the sophisticated dinners in St. Petersburg, those in Moscow were hearty and plentiful. Cream was added to morning tea and washed down with buttered rolls. The second breakfast was hearty, with scrambled eggs, cheesecakes or meatballs. At about three o'clock the family and frequent guests gathered for a multi-course dinner in the French or Russian style. For afternoon tea we refreshed ourselves with tea and pies, and in the evening we ate the leftovers from lunch or prepared several more courses of dishes, depending on the wealth of the house.
Family life
There were many inhabitants in the noble house. In addition to close relatives, there was a place for aunts, cousins, second cousins, sisters and nephews, as well as the poor and governesses.
The house, as before, was divided into male and female halves. The study, library and smoking room were men's rooms, and the boudoir, sofa and maid's room were women's. Households and servants moved freely between the halves, but received personal guests strictly on their own territory.
Children's rooms were allocated a place away from the adults' bedrooms. The kids lived in shared rooms for several people, teenage children's rooms were divided into male and female halves. Home lessons were conducted in a classroom where a guest teacher came. He gave lessons in social etiquette, music and foreign languages.
Nobleman's Dictionary
Jolle journee - "crazy day", an afternoon ball that began at two o'clock in the afternoon and lasted until night.
Zhurfixes are the days of the week in a noble house, which were allocated for the regular reception of guests.
Voxal is a pleasure garden where performances were staged, balls and fireworks were held.
Merchant life
The merchant class in Moscow in the 19th century was thriving. New families are appearing that are not inferior in wealth to those of the nobility. The Morozovs, Ryabushinskys, and Prokhorovs head the list of the richest entrepreneurs in the Russian Empire. Ambitious merchants strive to reach the level of nobles in terms of living and education and invest their capital in the development of the arts and sciences. The other part carefully protects its customs and avoids everything unusual.
Where did they settle?
The merchant districts were Taganka, Presnya, Lefortovo and Zamoskvorechye. The latter is due to its proximity to the Kitaygorod market. Merchant-manufacturers preferred to build houses closer to production, so they chose the outskirts of the city.
Home and furnishings
V. Perov. Arrival of the governess to the merchant's house
V. Perov.
Arrival of the governess to the merchant's house
While the nobles grew poor, the merchants made fortunes. They built simple but high-quality stone houses or bought former noble estates and furnished them to their taste. Houses usually opened onto a garden with a vegetable garden. The goods that the merchant supplied to the shops were stored in the courtyard.
The merchant's house differed from the noble's in the number of icons and varied decoration: crimson walls in the living rooms, an abundance of pictures and trinkets mixed with expensive pieces of furniture. The unity of style in the furnishings of the house was observed by the rarest, most educated families.
Table
N. Bogdanov-Belsky. Tea party
The merchant's house prepared supplies themselves - the cellars were filled to the ceiling with pickles. The table was set no less richly than the nobles, but the dishes were Russian: pies, porridge. The services did not take root on the merchant's table; all the dishes were of different colors.
The merchant did not always return home for dinner, so the whole family gathered at the table in the evening, around eight o’clock. After a hearty dinner with fatty dishes, everyone at home drank tea for a long time with sugar or jam.
Family life
V. Pukirev. Reception of dowry in a merchant family according to painting
V. Pukirev.
Reception of dowry in a merchant family according to painting
The family life of merchants in the 19th century began with the participation of a matchmaker. The bride's dowry was carefully counted. The marriage took place after a bridesmaid ceremony: the groom looked closely at the merchant’s daughter in a public place, and then came on a personal visit and asked for her hand in marriage. The merchants' wives lived idlely and did almost no housework - they only received guests or organized trips. Children were given to nannies to raise, and the church was relied upon for education. Even at the end of the century, only a few merchant children studied in gymnasiums and universities.
Merchant's Dictionary
Feryaz is a traditional merchant outerwear.
Beardless is a merchant who follows Western fashion. He wears modern clothes instead of a caftan, is clean-shaven, is educated and knows languages.
Forty-bucket barrel- a measure of not only volume, but also beauty. Portly women, the size of a forty-bucket barrel, were the merchant ideal in the 19th century.
Philistine life
In the 19th century, burghers made up the main population of Moscow. There were especially many of them after the reform of 1861, when peasants began to move to the cities in search of work. The bourgeois class included teachers, day laborers, and all other hired workers.
Where did they settle?
Factory workers and artisans settled outside the Garden Ring in rented apartments and small houses. Khamovniki, Lefortovo and Gruziny were assigned to them back in the 17th century. Shoemakers, tailors and other small artisans settled in the Moscow “ghetto” - Zaryadye and the dark corners of Kitai-Gorod.
Description of the presentation by individual slides:
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The life of peasants and merchants in Siberia in the 17th - 18th centuries. Kotova Natalia Arkadyevna. History and social studies teacher, MBOU Kholmogory Secondary School
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The penetration of Russian fishermen into Eastern Siberia began in the 17th century. Traditionally, the colonization of Siberia is classified in two directions: government and free people. The goal of the government's resettlement policy was to provide the serving population with grain allowances through the use of natural resources of the annexed territories. In the 18th century, it was planned to create an agricultural region in Siberia, which would not only meet the needs of the region, but also cover the growing needs of the center for bread. Those wishing to move to Siberia “to the sovereign’s arable land” were given benefits for two, three years or more, assistance and loans of various sizes. The farmers of Siberia in the 17th century were arable and quit-rent peasants. At first, peasants sent to Siberia received assistance in their old place. The government made sure that peasants moved to Siberia with a full farm.
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The newcomer population borrowed a lot from the natives' hunting and fishing tools, and the natives, in turn, began to widely use agricultural tools. Borrowings from both sides manifested themselves to varying degrees in the housing being built, in outbuildings, in household items and clothing. For example, in the lower reaches of the Irtysh and Ob, Russian residents borrowed malitsas, parkas, shoes made of reindeer fur, and much more from the Nenets and Khanty. The Yakuts willingly lent their kayaks to the Cossacks.
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The buildings in Western and Eastern Siberia, in the northern and southern regions had their own specifics. On the outskirts of Siberia, in the Far East and especially in the lower reaches of the Kolyma, the temporary dwellings of Russians on zaimkas were not much different from the huts of the aborigines. In the early years, in the forest-steppe and steppe zones, where there was a shortage of building materials, new peasants built only huts. Over time, the share of buildings of the two-part type reached 48%. Houses with a three-part layout in the steppe and forest-steppe regions accounted for 19 - 65%.
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The assigned peasants preferred the “hut - canopy - cage” option. The local administration contributed to its preservation. There were very few multi-chamber buildings, including several living quarters and a canopy, in all regions of Western Siberia - up to 3%. They were owned by families with a complex generational structure, trading peasants, rural priests and townspeople.
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The main food products were grains: rye, wheat and oats. Oats were ground into oatmeal, which was used to make jelly, kvass and beer. Everyday bread was baked from rye flour; on holidays, bread and pies were baked from white wheat flour. Vegetables from the garden, which were looked after and looked after by women, were a great help for the table. The peasants learned to preserve cabbage, carrots, turnips, radishes and cucumbers until the next harvest. Cabbage and cucumbers were salted in large quantities. For the holidays they prepared meat soup from sauerkraut. Fish appeared on the peasant's table more often than meat. The kids went into the forest in droves to collect mushrooms, berries and nuts, which were essential additions to the table.
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Russian service people who lived in fortified towns of Western Siberia, enterprising merchants and industrialists, on their own initiative, penetrated into new lands. They were often followed by military detachments. On the banks of the rivers, new small fortifications appeared - forts, from which the cities of Eastern Siberia later grew - Yeniseisk, Krasnoyarsk, Irkutsk, Yakutsk, Nerchinsk and others. Service people and merchant-industrialists collected tribute (yasak) here for the Russian Tsar, seized rich booty for themselves, took local elders and princes hostage, and annexed new lands to the Russian state.
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In Siberia, the merchant class began to form at the turn of the 17th–18th centuries, but the term “merchant” came into use much later. At first, merchants from among the townspeople were called townspeople, only in the 1730s. The word “merchant” began to be used, becoming widespread in the 1740s–1760s.
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Women's clothing among merchants was very diverse. The most common female costume for merchants was a long-sleeved dress made of wool, silk, or muslin, over which a short jacket without a collar, brocade or silk, was worn. Pearls were a widespread decoration. Merchants wore pearl threads around their necks and pearl earrings. In winter they wore coats, fur coats and coats with hare, fox, and marten furs. Women's fur coats were very diverse; they differed in cut and could be covered with cloth, damask, napkin, corduroy, or velvet.
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Russian merchants were engaged in trade. They hired caravans and transported their goods from one city to another. Sometimes hostile merchants ran into the caravans of their enemies and robbed them. But they lived better than the peasants, they dressed in the best shops in the city. Merchants wore richly decorated camisoles, which were made of taffeta, brocade, and satin. They were decorated with gilding and sphincters (large gold buttons.
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Merchants' home. The building had a narrow facade facing the street, the house itself extended deep into the plot, in the courtyard there were outbuildings (stables, barn, brewery) and servants' quarters. The first room in the merchant's house is a spacious foyer with a small kitchen, behind which there are living quarters. Goods were stored in the basement and on the upper floors.
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