Those who lived millennia ago had their own beliefs, deities and religion. With the development of human civilization, religion also developed, new beliefs and trends appeared, and it is impossible to unequivocally conclude whether religion depended on the level of development of civilization or vice versa, it was people's beliefs that were one of the guarantees of progress. In the modern world there are thousands of beliefs and religions, some of which have millions of adherents, while others have only a few thousand or even hundreds of believers.
Religion is one of the forms of understanding the world, which is based on faith in higher powers. As a rule, each religion includes a number of moral and ethical norms and rules of conduct, religious rituals and rituals, and also unites a group of believers into an organization. All religions rely on a person's belief in supernatural forces, as well as on the relationship of believers with their deity (deities). Despite the apparent difference in religions, many postulates and dogmas of various beliefs are very similar, and this is especially noticeable when comparing the main world religions.
Major world religions
Modern researchers of religions distinguish three main religions of the world, the adherents of which are the vast majority of all believers on the planet. These religions are Buddhism, Christianity and Islam, as well as numerous currents, offshoots and based on these beliefs. Each of the world's religions has more than a thousand years of history, scriptures and a number of cults and traditions that believers should observe. As for the geography of distribution of these beliefs, if even less than 100 years ago it was possible to draw more or less clear boundaries and recognize Europe, America, South Africa and Australia as "Christian" parts of the world, North Africa and the Middle East as Muslim, and the states located in the southeastern part of Eurasia - Buddhist, now every year this division is becoming more and more conditional, since on the streets of European cities you can increasingly meet Buddhists and Muslims, and in the secular states of Central Asia, on the same street there can be a Christian temple and mosque.
The founders of world religions are known to every person: the founder of Christianity is Jesus Christ, Islam - the prophet Mohammed, Buddhism - Siddhartha Gautama, who later received the name Buddha (enlightened). However, it should be noted that Christianity and Islam have common roots in Judaism, since the beliefs of Islam also include the prophet Isa ibn Maryam (Jesus) and other apostles and prophets whose teachings are recorded in the Bible, but Islamists are sure that the fundamental teachings are still the teachings of the prophet Mohammed, who was sent to earth later than Jesus.
Buddhism
Buddhism is the oldest of the world's major religions, with a history of more than two and a half thousand years. This religion originated in the southeast of India, its founder is considered to be Prince Siddhartha Gautama, who achieved enlightenment through contemplation and meditation and began to share the truth that had been revealed to him with other people. Based on the teachings of the Buddha, his followers wrote the Pali Canon (Tripitaka), which is considered a sacred book by the followers of most of the currents of Buddhism. The main currents of Buddhism today are Hinayama (Theravada Buddhism - "Narrow Path to Liberation"), Mahayana ("Wide Path to Liberation") and Vajrayana ("Diamond Path").
Despite some differences between the orthodox and new currents of Buddhism, this religion is based on the belief in reincarnation, karma and the search for the path of enlightenment, after passing which you can free yourself from the endless chain of rebirths and achieve enlightenment (nirvana). The difference between Buddhism and other major religions of the world is the belief of Buddhists that a person’s karma depends on his actions, and everyone goes his own way of enlightenment and is responsible for his own salvation, and the gods, whose existence Buddhism recognizes, do not play a key role in the fate of a person, for they are also subject to the laws of karma.
Christianity
The birth of Christianity is considered to be the first century of our era; The first Christians appeared in Palestine. However, taking into account the fact that the Old Testament of the Bible, the holy book of Christians, was written much earlier than the birth of Jesus Christ, it is safe to say that the roots of this religion are in Judaism, which arose almost a millennium before Christianity. Today, there are three main areas of Christianity - Catholicism, Protestantism and Orthodoxy, branches of these areas, as well as those who also consider themselves Christians.
At the heart of the beliefs of Christians is the belief in the Triune God - the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, in the redemptive sacrifice of Jesus Christ, in angels and demons and in the afterlife. The difference between the three main directions of Christianity is that Orthodox Christians, unlike Catholics and Protestants, do not believe in the existence of purgatory, and Protestants consider inner faith to be the key to the salvation of the soul, and not the observance of many sacraments and rites, therefore the churches of Protestant Christians are more modest than the churches of Catholics and Orthodox, as well as the number of church sacraments among Protestants is less than among Christians who adhere to other currents of this religion.
Islam
Islam is the youngest of the world's major religions, it originated in the 7th century in Arabia. The holy book of Muslims is the Quran, which contains the teachings and instructions of the prophet Mohammed. At the moment, there are three main branches of Islam - Sunnis, Shiites and Kharijites. The main difference between the first and other branches of Islam is that the Sunnis consider the successors of Magomed to the first four caliphs, and, in addition to the Koran, they recognize the sunnahs telling about the prophet Magomed as sacred books, and the Shiites believe that only his direct blood can be the successors of the Prophet. descendants. Kharijites are the most radical offshoot of Islam, the beliefs of the supporters of this trend are similar to those of the Sunnis, however, the Kharijites recognize only the first two caliphs as successors of the Prophet.
Muslims believe in the one God of Allah and his prophet Mohammed, in the existence of the soul and in the afterlife. In Islam, great attention is paid to the observance of traditions and religious rites - every Muslim must perform salat (five daily prayers), fast in Ramadan and at least once in his life make a pilgrimage to Mecca.
Common in the three major world religions
Despite the difference in rituals, beliefs and certain dogmas of Buddhism, Christianity and Islam, all these beliefs have some common features, and the similarity of Islam and Christianity is especially noticeable. Belief in one God, in the existence of the soul, in the afterlife, in fate and in the possibility of the help of higher powers - these are the dogmas that are inherent in both Islam and Christianity. The beliefs of Buddhists differ significantly from the religions of Christians and Muslims, but the similarity between all world religions is clearly visible in the moral and behavioral standards that believers must comply with.
The 10 Biblical Commandments that Christians are required to observe, the laws prescribed in the Koran, and the Noble Eightfold Path contain moral norms and rules of conduct prescribed for believers. And these rules are the same everywhere - all the major religions of the world forbid believers from doing atrocities, harming other living beings, lying, behaving loosely, rudely or disrespectfully towards other people and urge to treat other people with respect, care and and develop in character positive traits.
Why the share of Muslims in the world population is growing the fastest, while the number of religiously unaffiliated is decreasing
The religious characteristics of the world are changing very rapidly, primarily due to differences in birth rates and the size of the younger generation in the spheres of influence of the world's major religions, as well as the fact that people change religion. For the next four decades, Christians will remain the largest religious group, but Islam will grow faster than any other major religion. These current trends will last until 2050…
- The number of Muslims is almost equal to the number of Christians in the world.
“While there will be more atheists, agnostics and other people who do not associate themselves with any particular religion in countries such as the United States and France, their proportion will decrease in the total number of inhabitants of the earth.
— The number of Buddhists will remain approximately the same as in 2010, and there will be more Hindus and Jews than now.
- In Europe, the number of Muslims will be 10% of the total population.
“In India, Hinduism will still remain the majority religion, however, its Muslim population will also become the largest in the world, overtaking the Muslims of Indonesia.
- In the US, the number of Christians from three-quarters of the population in 2010 will drop to two-thirds in 2050, and Judaism will no longer be the largest non-Christian religion. There will be more Muslims than people who define themselves as Jews on the basis of religion.
Four out of every ten Christians in the world will live in sub-Saharan Africa.
These are some of the trends highlighted by the Pew Research Center's new population projections. Projections are based on the current coverage and geographic distribution of the world's major religions, age differences, birth and death rates, international migration, and patterns of transition from one religion to another.
As of 2010, Christianity was by far the largest religion in the world, with an estimated 2.2 billion adherents, nearly a third (31%) of the world's total population of 6.9 billion. Islam ranked second with 1.6 billion adherents, i.e. 23% of all people.
However, if the current demographic trend continues, Islam will almost catch up with the leader by the middle of the 21st century. Between 2010 and 2050, the total population of the Earth is expected to grow to 9.3 billion, that is, by 35%. Over the same period, the number of Muslims - among whom on average there are many young people who provide high birth rates - is projected to increase by 73%. The number of Christians should also increase, but more slowly, at about the same rate (35%) as the general increase in the population of the Earth.
As a result, according to Pew Research Center forecasts, by 2050 the number of Muslims (2.8 billion or 30% of the population) will be almost equal to the number of Christians (2.9 billion or 31%), perhaps for the first time in history.
With the exception of Buddhism, all of the world's religions are poised for at least a small increase in absolute terms in the coming decades. The number of Buddhists in the world is expected to remain about the same due to low birth rates and aging populations in countries such as China, Thailand and Japan.
The number of Hindus worldwide is projected to increase by 34%, from just over a billion to nearly 1.4 billion, roughly in step with the average growth of the entire population on earth. Jews, the smallest religious group for which a separate forecast has been made, are expected to grow by 16%, from just over 14 million worldwide in 2010 to 16.1 million in 2050.
Context
Islam is not like all religions
Globes 05.02.2017Religion changed its mind about leaving Russia
01/20/2017Are earthly religions adapting to aliens?
Nautilus 11/30/2016Three poles that form in the world
Czech Pozice 11/16/2016Is France still a secular state?
Russian service RFI 04.10.2016The number of adherents of various religions, including African traditional beliefs, Chinese folk beliefs, beliefs of the indigenous peoples of the Americas and Aboriginal Australians, is projected to increase by 11%, from 405 million to almost 450 million.
However, despite the growth in the absolute number of adherents of folk religions, Judaism and “other religions” (the entire combined category as a whole), they do not keep pace with the general growth of the entire population of the earth. Each of these groups is projected to make up a smaller percentage of the population in 2050 than it did in 2010.
Similarly, the share of religiously unaffiliated people in the total population of the earth will decrease, although their absolute number will increase. Censuses and polls show that in 2010 there were about 1.1 billion atheists, agnostics, and people who do not identify with any particular religion. By 2050, the number of unaffiliated should reach 1.2 billion. But as for the percentage that will be allotted to them of the total number of people, by the middle of this century it is projected to decrease from 16% to 13%.
At the same time, however, the share of religiously unaffiliated people is expected to increase in the population of much of Europe and North America. In the US, for example, the number of unaffiliated will grow from about 16% of the total population (including children) in 2010 to 26% in 2050.
The example of a group of religiously unaffiliated people shows how strongly geographical differences will influence the pattern of the growth of religions in the coming decades. One of the main determinants of future growth is where each group is geographically concentrated today. Religions with a large number of adherents in developing countries, where birth rates are high and infant mortality is gradually decreasing, are likely to grow rapidly. The global growth of Islam and Christianity, for example, is predicted to be fueled by sub-Saharan Africa. In contrast, religiously unaffiliated people are now densely concentrated in places with low birth rates where populations are aging, such as Europe, North America, Japan, and China.
Globally, Muslims have the highest birth rates, averaging 3.1 children per woman, well above the replacement level (2.1) required to maintain a stable population. Christians are in second place, with 2.7 children per woman. The Hindu birth rate is 2.4, about the same as the world average of 2.5. The birth rate among Jews on average in the world is 2.3, which is also above the minimum level of reproduction. Birth rates in all other groups are too low to support the population: folk beliefs - 1.8 children per woman, other religions - 1.7, religiously unaffiliated - 1.7 and Buddhists - 1.6.
In the coming decades, Christianity is expected to suffer the largest cumulative loss due to change of faith. Overall, about 40 million people are projected to convert to Christianity, while 106 million will abandon it, for the most part choosing to join the ranks of the religiously unaffiliated (see chart above).
In total, the unaffiliated group will add 97 million people and lose 36 million people due to religious change, for a net gain of 61 million people by 2050. A modest "net gain" from religion change is expected for Muslims (3 million), Folk Belief Group (3 million) and Other Religions Composite Group (2 million). Jews due to change of religion will lose about 300,000 people, while Buddhists will lose 3 million.
International migration is another factor influencing the projected size of religious groups in different regions and countries.
Predicting the future directions of migration is difficult, as migration is often linked to the politics of world governments and international events, which can change rapidly. Therefore, many demographic projections do not include migration in their models. But in collaboration with researchers at the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis in Laxenburg, Austria, Pew Research has developed an innovative method of using data from past migration patterns to estimate the religious composition of migration flows for decades to come. (See Chapter 1 for more on how these projections are made.) .
The impact of migration can be seen in the examples in the graph to the right, which compare scenarios predicted with and without migration in regions where it matters the most. In Europe, for example, where migration must be taken into account along with other demographic factors such as birth rates and age as the cause of population change, the Muslim proportion is expected to rise from 5.9% in 2010 to 10.2% in 2050. Excluding migration, the share of Muslims in the European population is projected to be almost two percent lower (8.4%). In North America, if migration is included in the forecast model, the proportion of Hindus will almost double over the coming decades, from 0.7% in 2010 to 1.3% in 2050. Excluding migration, the proportion of Hindus in the population of the region will remain almost unchanged (0. eight%).
In the Middle East and North Africa, continued Christian migration to the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries (Bahrain, Qatar, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, Oman and Saudi Arabia) is expected to offset the exodus of Christians from other countries in the region . If migration were not taken into account in forecasts for 2050, by that time, according to calculations, the proportion of Christians there would have fallen below 3%. With migration included, it will be above 3% (down from 4% in 2010).
After 2050
This report talks about how the religious landscape of our planet will change if current demographic trends remain in place. Year after year, however, the possibility of unforeseen circumstances—war, famine, epidemics, technical innovations, political upheavals, and so on—that can change the size of a particular religious group does not diminish. Because of the difficulty in predicting events more than a few decades into the future, forecasts end at 2050.
Readers may wonder, however, what happens if the demographic trajectories recorded in the report are extended further into the second half of this century? Given the rate at which the proportion of Muslims in the world is projected to increase, will Muslims really outnumber Christians? And if so, when?
The answer depends on how the trend, as described in Chapter 1, can continue. If the basic forecasting model is extended beyond 2050, the share of Muslims in the world population will roughly equal the share of Christians around 2070 at around 32% for each group. After that, the number of Muslims will overtake Christians, but both religious groups will continue to grow at about the same pace, as shown in the graph above. By 2100, there will be about 1% more Muslims in the world (35%) than Christians (34%).
© AFP 2016, Amos Gumulira High school girls in Mchinji, Malawi
The predicted growth in the number of Muslims and Christians will be due in large measure to the fact that the population of Africa will continue to grow. Due to the high concentration of Muslims and Christians in this region with a high birth rate, the share of both groups in the total population of the earth will increase. Together, these two largest religious groups will cover more than two-thirds of the world's population (69%) in 2100, up from 61% in 2050 and 55% in 2010.
It should be reiterated, however, that many factors can alter these developmental curves. For example, if a large proportion of China's population converts to Christianity (a possibility discussed in this box), this phenomenon alone could strengthen Christianity's current position as the world's largest religion. Or if a shift towards unaffiliation becomes common in countries with large numbers of Muslims—as is now the case in countries with large numbers of Christians—this trend could slow or even reverse the growth of the Muslim group.
Forecasts at the level of regions and countries
In addition to forecasts at the global level, this report covers forecasts for religious change in 198 countries and territories with a population of at least 100,000 people, where 99.9% of the world's population lived in 2010. Demographic estimates for an additional 36 countries and territories are included in the regional and global totals throughout the report. The report divides the world into six major regions and looks at potential changes in the religious composition of each region that could occur between 2010 and 2050, based on the assumption that current migration and other demographic trends will continue.
Largely due to high fertility rates, the population of sub-Saharan Africa is projected to experience its fastest growth period, rising from 12% of the global population in 2010 to about 20% in 2050. The Middle East and North Africa region is also projected to grow faster than the world as a whole, expanding from 5% of the world's population to 6%. The constant growth of both regions will contribute to the growth of the proportion of the Muslim population of the earth. In addition, the Christian population of sub-Saharan Africa is expected to double, rising from 517 million in 2010 to 1.1 billion in 2050. The proportion of all Christians living in sub-Saharan Africa will increase from 24% in 2010 to 38% in 2050.
At the same time, the share of the Asia-Pacific region in the world population will decrease (53% in 2050 instead of 59% in 2010). This will lead to a slower growth of religions concentrated in the region, including Buddhism and Chinese folk religions, as well as a slower growth in the number of religiously unaffiliated residents of the region. The only exception would be Hinduism, which is predominantly concentrated in India, which has a younger population and higher birth rates than China and Japan. As stated earlier, Hinduism is projected to grow roughly in step with global population growth. India's large Muslim population is also set for rapid growth. Although India will continue to have a Hindu majority, by 2050 the Muslim population of this country will also be the largest in the world, overtaking the Indonesian.
The share of other geographic regions in the global population will also decline: Europe is projected to decline from 11% to 8%, Latin America and the Caribbean from 9% to 8%, and North America from 5% to just under 5%.
Europe is the only region whose population as a whole will decrease. In the coming decades, there will be 100 million fewer Christians in Europe, from 553 million to 454 million. Remaining the largest religious group in Europe, Christians are predicted to cover less than three-quarters of the population, as they do now, but less than two-thirds. It is expected that by 2050 almost a quarter of all Europeans (23%) will be religiously unaffiliated, and the number of Muslims in the region will increase from 5.9% in 2010 to 10%. During the same period, the number of Hindus in Europe will almost double, from just under 1.4 million (0.2% of Europe's population) to nearly 2.7% (0.4%), largely due to immigration. The same trend appears to be true for Buddhists, who are projected to increase from 1.4 million to 2.5 million.
In North America, Muslims and followers of "other religions" are the fastest growing groups. For example, in the United States, the share of the population belonging to "other religions" is projected to more than double, albeit starting from a very small base - from 0.6% to 1.5%. The number of Christians is projected to decrease from 78% of the US population in 2010 to 66% in 2050, while the share of the religiously unaffiliated will increase from 16% to 26%. And it looks like there will be more Muslims (2.1%) than Jews (1.4%) in the US by mid-century.
In Latin America and the Caribbean, Christianity will remain the largest religious group, covering 89% of the population in 2050, down slightly from 90% in 2010. The religiously unaffiliated population of Latin America is projected to grow both in absolute terms and as a percentage, from about 45 million or 8% in 2010 to 65 million or 9% in 2050.
Religious Majority Change
Some countries are predicted to have a change in religious majorities by 2050 from what they were in 2010. The number of Christian-majority countries should decrease from 159 to 151, due to the fact that the number of Christians will be less than 50% of the population, in Australia , Benin, Bosnia and Herzegovina, France, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Macedonia and the UK.
© AP Photo, Boris Grdanoski Wedding celebration in Macedonia
Muslims are expected to make up more than 50% of the population in 51 countries by 2050, two more than in 2010, as they become the religious majority in the Republic of Macedonia and Nigeria. But Nigeria's Christian population will also remain very large. What's more, by 2050 Nigerian Christians are predicted to be the third largest group of Christians in the world, after the United States and Brazil.
As of 2050, the largest religious group in France, New Zealand and the Netherlands should be the religiously unaffiliated.
About these predictions
While many have made predictions about the future of religions, these are the first official demographic projections based on data on age, births, deaths, migrations and conversions for numerous religious groups around the world. Demographers from the Pew Research Center in Washington and the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) in Laxenburg, Austria, have collected input data from more than 2,500 surveys, surveys, and population registers—a work that has taken six years and is still incomplete.
These demographic projections cover eight major groups: Buddhists, Hindus, Jews, Muslims, Christians, folk believers, non-religious people, and people who are not religiously affiliated (see Appendix C: Definition of Religious Groups). Because censuses and surveys in many countries do not provide information on religious subgroups—such as Sunnis and Shiites in Islam, or Catholics, Protestants, and Orthodox in Christianity—the forecasts treat religious groups as homogeneous. Data on the composition of the religiously unaffiliated group is also not available in many countries. As a result, it is not possible to model separate predictions for atheists or agnostics.
The forecasting model was developed in collaboration with researchers from the Age and Cohort Change project at IIASA, world leaders in demographic forecasting methodology. The model uses an improved version of the cohort-component method, which is commonly used by demographers to predict population growth. She starts with basic age groups, or cohorts, separated by gender and religious affiliation. For each cohort, a forecast is made by adding potential future adherents (immigrants and people who have adopted this religion as adults) and subtracting possible losses (death, emigration, people who leave this religion) year by year. The youngest cohorts, aged 0 to 4 years, are created on the basis of age categories for fertility for each female reproductive age group (15-49) and children are assigned to the mother's region. You can read more about this in the Methodology.
In the process of collecting input data and developing a predictive model, Pew Research Center published preliminary reports on the actual size and geographic location of major religious groups, including Muslims (2009), Christians (2011), and data for several other faiths (2012). The original set of forecasts for one religious group, Muslims, was published in 2011, however, it did not take into account the change of faith.
Some social theorists have suggested that as countries develop economically, more of their inhabitants will refuse to identify themselves with a particular religion. Although this has been the main trend in some parts of the world, especially Europe, it is not yet clear if this pattern is universal. In any case, our projections are not based on a theory that links economic development to secularization.
Related Articles
Buddhists against Abramovich
Radio Free Europe / Radio Liberty 01/24/2017Christianity, the religion of the few
Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung 20.09.2016Instead, these projections build on current recorded trends in religion change in those countries for which such information was available (70 countries in total). In addition, the projections reflect the UN's expectation that in countries with currently high fertility rates, fertility rates will gradually decline over the coming decades as women's education levels rise. Projections also suggest that life expectancy will gradually increase in most countries. These and other key inputs and assumptions are detailed in Chapter 1 and the Methodology (Appendix A).
Since forecasts of religious change have never before been made on such a scale, a few words of caution must be said. Demographic projections are assumptions based on current population data and a preliminary estimate of demographic trends such as declining birth rates and increasing life expectancy in specific countries. Forecasts are what will happen if actual data and current trends continue. But many events—scientific discoveries, armed conflicts, social movements, political upheavals, and much, much more—can change demographic trends in unforeseen ways. That is why the projections are limited to a period of 40 years, and in the subsequent chapters of this report we will try to give an idea of how different the results could be if the key points were different.
For example, China's population of 1.3 billion people (as of 2010) has a very strong influence on global trends. At the moment, about 5% of the Chinese are Christians, and more than 50% are religiously unaffiliated. Since there are no reliable data on religious conversion in China, these projections do not include any assumptions about religious conversion in this most populous country in the world. But if Christianity spreads in China in the coming decades, as some experts predict, then by 2050 the total number of Christians on earth could be higher than predicted, and the decrease in the proportion of the religiously unaffiliated in the world could be even more significant (more on the possible impact of the process of change of faith for China, see Chapter 1).
As a final reminder, readers should keep in mind that within each major religious group there is a range of degrees of belief and observance. Predictions are based on the number of people who self-identify with a particular religious group, regardless of their level of adherence to the rules. Understanding what it means to be a Christian, Muslim, Hindu, Buddhist, Jewish, or any other faith can change from person to person, country to country, and decade to decade.
Words of gratitude
These demographic projections were made by the Pew Research Center as part of the Pew-Templeton Global Religious Futures project, which is dedicated to analyzing religious change and its impact on society around the world. Funding for the project was provided by The Pew Charitable Trusts and the John Templeton Foundation.
Many members of the Religion & Public Life Project at the Pew Research Center have been involved in this hard work. Conrad Hackett was the lead researcher on the project and the main author of this report. Alan Cooperman became editor-in-chief. Anne Shi and Juan Carlos Esparza Ochoa were the most significant contributors to data collection, storage and analysis. Bill Webster created the graphs, while Stacy Rosenberg and Ben Wormald oversaw the development of interactive data presentations and the Global Religious Futures website. Sandra Stencel, Greg Smith, Michael Lipka and Aleksandra Sandstrom assisted with editing. The report figures were verified by Shea, Esparanza Ochoa, Claire Gecewicz and Angelina Theodorou.
Several researchers from the Age and Cohort Change project at the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis have collaborated on the projections, providing invaluable expertise in advanced (multi-component) demographic modeling and input data standardization. Marcin Stonawski wrote the groundbreaking software for these forecasts and led the data collection and analysis for Europe. Michaela Potančoková standardized fertility data. Vegard Skirbekk coordinated the MIASA research. Finally, Guy Abel of the Vienna Institute of Demography helped construct the country-level migration flow data used in these projections.
Over the past six years, some former Pew Research Center employees have also been instrumental in creating these demographic projections. Phillip Connor provided background information on migration, created descriptions of outcomes and modes of migration, and helped write sections for each religious group and geographic region. Noble Kuriakose was involved in almost all phases of the project and helped develop the demographics and methodology section. Former intern Joseph Naylor helped design the maps, and David McClendon, another former intern, contributed to research on global trends of religious change. The original concept for this study was developed by Luis Lugo, former Project Manager for Religion & Public Life at the Pew Research Center, with assistance from former Principal Scientist Brian J. Grim and Visiting Senior Scientist Mehtab Karim .
Other Pew Research Center staff members who provided editorial and scientific advice include Michael Dimock, Claudia Deane, Scott Keeter, Jeffrey S. Passel, and D'Vera Cohn (D "Vera Cohn). Communications was handled by Katherine Ritchey and Russ Oates.
We also received very helpful advice and feedback on parts of the report from Nicholas Eberstadt, Henry Wendt, political economists at the American Enterprise Institute; Roger Finke, Director of the Religion Data Archives Association and Distinguished Professor of Sociology and Religious Studies at Pennsylvania State University; Carl Haub, Senior Demographer, Bureau of Population Information; Todd Johnson, world Christianity expert and director of the Center for the Study of Global Christianity, Gordon Conwell of Theological Seminary; Ariela Keysar, Associate Professor and Associate Director, Institute for the Study of Secularism in Society and Culture, Trinity College; Chaeyoon Lim, assistant professor of sociology at the University of Wisconsin-Madison; Arland Thornton, Research Fellow, Center for Population Research, Michigan State University; Jenny Trinitapoli, Associate Professor of Sociology, Demography, and Religious Studies, Pennsylvania State University; David Voas, Professor of Population Studies and Acting Director of the Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex; Robert Wuthnow, professor of sociology and director of the Center for the Study of Religion at Princeton University; and Fenggang Yang, Professor of Sociology and Director of the Center for the Study of Religion and Chinese Society at Purdue University.
Because our consultants and experts led the data collection and methodology, Pew Research Center is solely responsible for interpreting and reporting the data.
Report guide
The remainder of the report goes into more detail about forecasts from different angles. The first chapter looks at the demographic factors that shape projections, including sections on fertility rates, life expectancy, age structure, religious change, and migration. The next chapter details the forecasts by religious group, separately for Christians, Muslims, religiously unaffiliated, Hindus, Buddhists, adherents of folk or traditional religions, and followers of "other religions" (considered as a collective group), and Jews. The final article provides detailed forecasts for geographic regions, namely Asia-Pacific, Europe, Latin America and the Caribbean, the Middle East and North Africa, and sub-Saharan Africa.
InoSMI materials contain only assessments of foreign media and do not reflect the position of the InoSMI editors.
The birth of religions
The process of sociogenesis, which lasted 1.5 million years during the "Stone Age" (Paleolithic), ended approximately 35-40 thousand years ago. By this turn, the forefathers - Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons already knew how to make fire, had a tribal system, language, rituals, and painting. The presence of tribal relations meant that food and sexual instincts were placed under the control of society. There is an idea of what is permitted and forbidden, totems appear - initially these are "sacred" symbols of animals. There are magical rites - symbolic actions aimed at a specific result.
In the IX-VII millennium BC, the so-called neolithic revolution- the invention of agriculture. The Neolithic period lasts until the appearance of the first cities in the 4th millennium BC, when the history of civilization is considered to have begun.
At this time, private property arises and, as a result, inequality. The processes of disunity that have arisen in society must be opposed by a system of values and standards of behavior recognized by all. The totem is modified and becomes a symbol of a higher being that has unlimited power over a person. Thus, religion acquires a global character, finally taking shape as a socially integrating force.
Ancient Egypt
Arising on the banks of the Nile IV millennium BC Egyptian civilization one of the oldest. The influence of totemism in it is still very strong, and all the original Egyptian gods are animal-like. Faith in the afterlife retribution appears in religion, and existence after death is no different from earthly. Here, for example, are the words of the self-justification formula of the deceased before Osiris: "... I did no harm ... I did not steal ... I did not envy ... I did not measure my face ... I did not lie ... I did not idle talk .. ... I did not commit adultery ... I was not deaf to right speech ... I did not offend another ... I did not raise my hand to the weak ... I did not cause tears ... I did not kill ... I did not cursed..."
It is believed that Osiris dies daily and is resurrected as the Sun, in which his wife Isis helps him. The idea of resurrection will then be repeated in all religions of redemption, and the cult of Isis will exist in the time of Christianity, becoming the prototype of the cult of the Virgin Mary.
Egyptian temples are not only a place of worship - they are workshops, schools, libraries, and a gathering place not only for priests, but for scientists of that time. Religion and science, like other social institutions, did not yet have a clear differentiation at that time.
Ancient Mesopotamia
In the 4th millennium BC, in the valley between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, the state of the Sumerians and Akkadians developed - Ancient Mesopotamia. The Sumerians invented writing, began to build cities. They passed on to their historical successors - the Babylonians and Assyrians, and through them - to the Greeks and Jews, their technical achievements, legal and moral norms. Sumerian legends about the global flood, the creation of a man from clay, and women from a man's rib became part of the Old Testament traditions. In the religious beliefs of the Sumerians, man is a lower being, his destiny is enmity and illness, and after death - existence in the gloomy underworld.
All the inhabitants of the Sumerians belonged to their temple as a community. The temple took care of orphans, widows, beggars, performed administrative functions, settled conflicts between the townspeople and the state.
The religion of the Sumerians was associated with the observation of the planets and the interpretation of the cosmic order - astrology, of which they became the founders. Religion in Mesopotamia did not have the character of strict dogmas, which was reflected in the freethinking of the ancient Greeks, who adopted a lot from the Sumerians.
Ancient Rome
The main religion of Rome was the cult of the polis gods - Jupiter (the main god), Hope, Peace, Valor, Justice. The mythology of the Romans is little developed, the gods are presented as abstract beginnings. At the forefront of the Roman Church is expediency, assistance in specific earthly affairs with the help of magical rites.
Judaism
Judaism - begins to take shape in its present form in the XIII century BC. when the Israelite tribes came to Palestine. The main god was Yahweh (Jehovah), whom the Jews considered their own god of their people, but did not exclude their gods from other peoples. In 587 BC. e. Jerusalem was captured by the troops of the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar. When Babylon fell 50 years later, a new era of Judaism begins: the myth of the prophet Moses arises, Yahweh is recognized as the only god of all things, and the people of Israel are the only God-chosen people, provided that they honor Yahweh and recognize his monotheism.
Religiosity in Judaism is reduced to purely external worship, strict observance of all prescribed rituals, as the fulfillment of the terms of the "agreement" with Yahweh, in expectation of a "fair" retribution from him.
Kabbalah. In the XII century, a new trend appeared in Judaism - cabal. The essence of which is the esoteric study of the Torah and other Jewish religious artifacts as sources of mystical knowledge.
world religions
Buddhism
Buddhism originated in India in the 6th-5th century BC. e. in contrast to caste Hinduism, where only the highest castes of Brahmins can achieve enlightenment. At that time, in India, as well as in China, and Greece, there were processes of philosophical rethinking of existing norms, which led to the creation of a religion independent of caste, although the concept of karma (reincarnations) was not denied. The founder of Buddhism, Siddhartha Gautama Shakyamuni - the Buddha - was the son of a prince from the Shakya tribe, who did not belong to the Brahmin caste. For these reasons, Buddhism was not widely spread in India.
In the views of Buddhism, the world strives for peace, the absolute dissolution of everything in nirvana. Therefore, the only true aspiration of a person is nirvana, tranquility and merging with eternity. Buddhism did not attach any importance to any social community and religious dogmas, and the main commandment was absolute mercy, non-resistance to any evil. A person could rely only on himself, no one will save and save him from the suffering of samsara, except for a righteous lifestyle. Therefore, in fact, Buddhism can be called a teaching, an "atheistic" religion.
In China, where Buddhism was very widespread, although not as much as Confucianism, Zen Buddhism arose in the 7th century, absorbing the rationalism inherent in the Chinese nation. It is not necessary to achieve nirvana, you just need to try to see the Truth around you - in nature, work, art and live in harmony with yourself.
Zen Buddhism also had a huge impact on the cultures of Japan and some other countries of the East.
Christianity
One of the fundamental differences between Christianity and other world religions is the integrity of the historical description of the world, which once exists and is directed by God from creation to destruction - the coming of the Messiah and the Last Judgment. In the center of Christianity is the image of Jesus Christ, who is both god and man at the same time, whose teachings must be followed. The holy book of Christians is the Bible, in which the New Testament, which tells about the life and teachings of Christ, is added to the Old Testament (the holy book of the followers of Judaism). The New Testament includes four Gospels (from Greek - the gospel).
The Christian religion promised its followers the establishment of peace and justice on earth, as well as salvation from the terrible judgment, which, as the first Christians believed, was to take place soon.
Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire in the 4th century. In 395, the Roman Empire split into western and eastern parts, which led to the separation of the western church, headed by the pope, and the eastern churches, headed by the patriarchs - Constantinople, Antioch, Jerusalem and Alexandria. Formally, this gap ended in 1054.
Christianity brought a high level of culture, philosophical and theological thought to Russia from Byzantium, contributed to the spread of literacy, softening of morals. Orthodox Church in Russia, in fact, it was part of the state apparatus, always following the commandment "all power is from God." For example, leaving Orthodoxy until 1905 was considered a criminal offense.
Dominated in Western Europe Roman Catholic Church(Catholic - universal, universal). For the Catholic Church, claims to supreme power both in politics and in secular life are typical - theocracy. Related to this is the intolerance of the Catholic Church towards other confessions and worldviews. After Second Vatican Council(1962 - 1965) the positions of the Vatican were significantly adjusted in accordance with the realities of modern society.
The anti-feudal movement that began in the 16th century was also directed against Catholicism, as the ideological pillar of the feudal system. The leaders of the Reformation in Germany and Switzerland - Martin Luther, John Calvin and Ulrich Zwingli - accused the Catholic Church of distorting true Christianity, calling for early Christians to return to the faith, eliminating intermediaries between man and God. The result of the Reformation was the creation of a new variety of Christianity - Protestantism.
The Protestants came up with the idea universal priesthood, abandoned indulgences, pilgrimages, church clergy, veneration of relics, etc. It is believed that the teachings of Calvin and Protestant ideas in general contributed to the emergence of the "spirit of capitalism", became the moral basis of new social relations.
Islam
Islam can be called a religion of humility and complete submission to the will of God. In VII, Islam was founded by the Prophet Mohammed on the foundation of the Arab tribal religions. He proclaimed the monotheism of Allah (al or el - the general Semitic root of the word "god") and obedience to his will (Islam, Muslims - from the word "submission").
Muslims explain the numerous coincidences of the Bible and the Koran by the fact that Allah had previously transmitted his commandments to the prophets - Moses and Jesus, but they were distorted by them.
In Islam, the will of God is incomprehensible, irrational, therefore, a person should not try to understand it, but should only blindly follow it. The Islamic Church is essentially a state itself, a theocracy. The laws of Islamic Sharia are the laws of Muslim law that regulate all aspects of life. Islam is a powerful motivating and unifying religious doctrine, which made it possible in a short time to create a highly developed civilization from a few Semitic tribes, which in the Middle Ages for some time became the head of world civilization.
After the death of Muhammad, a conflict broke out between his relatives, accompanied by the murder of Muhammad's cousin Ali ibn Abu Talib and his sons, who wished to continue the teachings of the prophet. Which led to the split of Muslims into Shiites (minority) - recognizing the right to lead the Muslim community only for the descendants of Muhammad - imams, and Sunnis (majority) - according to which, power should belong to caliphs elected by the entire community.
world religions - Buddhism, Christianity and Islam appeared in the era of great historical turns, in the conditions of the folding of "world empires". These religions became world religions because of the so-called universalism, i.e. their appeal to everyone and everyone, regardless of class, estate, caste, national, state, etc. belonging, which led to a large number of their adherents and the wide spread of new religions around the globe.
2.1. Buddhism is the world's oldest religion, originating in India in the 6th century. BC. The origins of Buddhism go back to Brahmanism the religions of the ancient Hindus. According to these views, the basis of the universe is a single world soul - Atman (or Brahman). It is the source of individual souls. After death, the souls of people move to other bodies. All living things are subject to the law karma ( posthumous reward for deeds during life) and is included in the chain of continuous incarnations - the wheel Samsara. The next incarnation may be higher or lower. Everything that exists is based on dharma, - the flow of these non-material particles, their various combinations determine the existence of inanimate objects, plants, animals, humans, etc. After the disintegration of a given combination of dharmas, their corresponding combination disappears, and for a person this means death, but the dharmas themselves do not disappear, but form a new combination. There is a rebirth of the individual in a different guise. The ultimate goal of these beliefs is to break out of the wheel of samsara and reach Nirvana. Nirvana- this is a state of eternal bliss, when the soul perceives everything, but does not react to anything ("nirvana" - from Sanskrit: "cooling, attenuation" - a state beyond life and death, the moment of connection of the human soul with the Atman). According to Buddhism, it is possible to fall into nirvana during life, but it is fully achieved only after death.
Founder of Buddhism - Prince Siddhartha Gautama (564/563 - 483 BC), the first Buddha(in translation from Sanskrit - “enlightened one”), the son of the king of the Shakya tribe (hence one of the names of the Buddha - Shakyamuni- a sage from the Shakya family). The turning point in Siddhartha's life came when he was 29 years old and left the palace where he lived. Face to face with old age, illness and death, he realized that all these are integral elements of life that need to be accepted. He became acquainted with various religious teachings in the hope of comprehending the meaning of life, but, disappointed in them, he concentrated entirely on meditation(deep reflection) and one day - after 6 years of wandering - he finally discovered the true meaning of the existence of all things. Siddhartha expounded his creed in the so-called Benares sermon. It is similar to the Sermon on the Mount of Jesus Christ. In it he sets out "4 Great Truths": 1) life is suffering; 2) the cause of suffering is our desires, attachment to life, thirst for being, passions; 3) you can get rid of suffering by getting rid of desires; 4) the way to salvation leads to the observance of 8 certain conditions - "The Eightfold Path of Self-Improvement" which involves mastering the art of having the righteous: views, aspirations, speech, actions, life, efforts, contemplation, reflection.
Essentially, Buddhism is a religious and philosophical doctrine. Many researchers consider Buddhism to be a polytheistic religion, since one who manages to go through all the stages of the eightfold path and reach nirvana becomes a Buddha. buddha- these are the gods of the Buddhist religion, there are many of them. On earth there are also bodhisattvas(bodhisattvas) - saints who almost reached nirvana, but remained to live an earthly life in order to help others achieve enlightenment. Buddha Shakyamuni himself, having reached nirvana, preached his teaching for more than 40 years. Buddhism affirms the equality of all people and the possibility for anyone, regardless of caste, to achieve "enlightenment". Buddhism requires from its adherents not asceticism, but only indifference to worldly goods and hardships. The "middle way" of Buddhism requires avoiding extremes in everything, not making too harsh demands on people. The main tenets of Buddhism are concentrated in the texts Tripitaka(Tipitaka) - (in translation - "Three Baskets": Basket of the charter of the community - sangha, Basket of doctrine, Basket of interpretation of doctrine). There are a number of branches in Buddhism, the earliest being Hinayana and Mahayana formed in the first centuries of our era. Hinayana(Sanskrit - “narrow chariot”, narrow path of liberation) promises liberation from suffering, from samsara only to monks, members of the sangha . Mahayana(Sanskrit - “wide chariot”) believes that not only a monk can achieve liberation from samsara, but also any believer who keeps the vows of spiritual perfection.
In the 3rd c. BC. the ruler of India's largest state, Ashoka, declared himself the patron of Buddhist monasticism and the protector of the teachings of Buddhism. Having reached its heyday in India at the end of the 1st millennium BC, Buddhism by the 13th century. AD lost influence in this country and gained distribution in the countries of South, Southeast, Central Asia, the Far East. Now there are about 800 million Buddhists in the world.
2.2. Christianity - one of the world's religions in the 1st century AD in the eastern province of the Roman Empire (in Palestine) as the religion of the oppressed. Christianity is a collective term for three main directions religions: Catholicism, Orthodoxy and Protestantism. Each of these major areas, in turn, is subdivided into a number of smaller denominations and religious organizations. All of them are united by common historical roots, certain provisions of the dogma and cult actions. Christian doctrine and its dogmas have long been an important part of world culture.
Christianity is named after Jesus Christ(he acts as the Messiah predicted by the Old Testament Jewish prophets). Christian doctrine is based on Holy Scripture - the Bible(Old Testament - 39 books and New Testament - 27 books) and sacred tradition(resolutions of the first 7 ecumenical councils and local councils, the works of the "Church Fathers" - Christian writers of the 4th-7th centuries AD). Christianity originated as a sect within Judaism in conditions of deep economic, political, social and ethnic inequality and oppression of peoples in the territory of the Roman Empire.
Judaism was one of the first monotheistic religions. A biblical legend from the Old Testament tells of the three sons of the Jew Jacob, who ended up in the Nile Valley. At first they were well received, but over time, their lives and the lives of their descendants became increasingly difficult. And then Moses appears, who, with the help of Almighty God, leads the Jews out of Egypt to Palestine. The "Exodus" lasted 40 years and was accompanied by many miracles. God (Yahweh) gave 10 commandments to Moses, and he actually became the first Jewish legislator. Moses is a historical figure. Sigmund Freud believed that he was an Egyptian and a follower of Akhenaten. After the prohibition of the religion of Aton, he tried to introduce it in a new place and chose the Jewish people for this. The biblical campaign coincides in time with the reforms of Akhenaten, as evidenced by historical chronicles.
Arriving in Palestine, the Jews created their own state there, destroying the culture of their predecessors and devastating the fertile lands. Exactly in Palestine in the 11th century BC monotheistic religion of God Yahweh. The Jewish state turned out to be fragile and quickly fell apart, and in 63 BC. Palestine became part of the Roman Empire. At this time, the first communities of the Christian type appear in the form of heresies - deviations from the dogmas of Judaism.
The God of the ancient Jews, the God of the Old Testament (he is known by various names - Yahweh, Jehovah, Sabaoth) was a prototype of the Christian God. As a matter of fact , for Christianity it is the same God, only his relationship with the person changes. The sermon of Jesus of Nazareth in its content went far beyond the national religion of the ancient Jews (as the Bible indicates, Jesus was born into a Jewish family. His earthly parents, Mary and Joseph, were faithful Jews and sacredly observed all the requirements of their religion). If the God of the Old Testament is addressed to the whole people as a whole, then the God of the New Testament is addressed to each individual. The Old Testament God pays great attention to the implementation of a complex religious law and the rules of everyday life, numerous rituals that accompany each event. The God of the New Testament is addressed, first of all, to the inner life and inner faith of each person.
Asking why the peoples of the Roman Empire, among whom Christianity first began to spread, turned out to be so receptive to this teaching, modern historical science has come to the conclusion that by the middle of the 1st century AD. the time had come when the Romans' confidence that their world was the best possible world was a thing of the past. This confidence was replaced by a feeling of imminent catastrophe, the collapse of age-old foundations, the near end of the world. In the public consciousness, the idea of fate, fate, the inevitability of what is destined from above acquires a dominant position. In the lower social classes, dissatisfaction with the authorities is growing, which periodically takes the form of riots and uprisings. These speeches are brutally suppressed. Moods of discontent do not disappear, but seek other forms of expression.
Christianity in the Roman Empire was initially perceived by most people as a clear and understandable form of social protest. It awakened faith in an intercessor capable of asserting the idea of universal equality, the salvation of people, regardless of their ethnic, political and social affiliation. The first Christians believed in the imminent end of the existing world order and the establishment, thanks to the direct intervention of God, of the "Kingdom of Heaven", in which justice would be restored, righteousness would triumph. The denunciation of the corruption of the world, its sinfulness, the promise of salvation and the establishment of the kingdom of peace and justice - these are the social ideas that attracted hundreds of thousands, and later millions of followers to the side of Christians. They gave hope for the consolation of all those who suffer. It is to these people, as follows from the Sermon on the Mount of Jesus and the Revelation of John the Theologian, that the Kingdom of God was first of all promised: “Those who are first here will be the last there, and the last here - there will be the first. Evil will be punished, and virtue will be rewarded, a terrible judgment will be done and everyone will be rewarded according to their deeds.
The ideological basis for the formation of Christian associations was universalism - appeal to all people, regardless of ethnic, religious, class and state affiliation. “There is no Hellene, no Roman, no Jew, neither rich nor poor, everyone is equal before God". On the basis of this ideological attitude, an opportunity was created to unite representatives of all segments of the population.
The traditional view sees Christianity as the result of the deeds of one man, Jesus Christ. This idea continues to dominate in our time. In the latest edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica, twenty thousand words are devoted to the personality of Jesus - more than to Aristotle, Cicero, Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar, Confucius, Mohammed or Napoleon. In scientific works devoted to the study of the problem of the historicity of Jesus Christ, there are two directions - mythological and historical. The first considers Jesus to be a mythological collective image created on the basis of agricultural or totemic cults. All gospel stories about his life and miraculous deeds are borrowed from myths. The historical direction recognizes that the image of Jesus Christ is based on a real historical figure. Its supporters believe that the development of the image of Jesus is associated with mythologization, the deification of a really existing preacher from Nazareth. Truth is separated from us by two millennia. However, in our opinion, from doubts about the reliability of individual biographical details, one cannot conclude that the preacher Jesus never existed as a historical person. In this case, the very emergence of Christianity and the spiritual impulse that (with all the private disagreements) unites and leads the authors of the Gospels (they were formed at the end of the 1st - beginning of the 2nd centuries AD) and unites the first Christian communities becomes a miracle. This spiritual impulse is too brilliant and powerful to be simply the result of concerted fiction.
Thus, under the influence of a number of sociocultural factors at the end of the 1st - beginning of the 2nd centuries, Christian communities began to appear and spread on the territory of the Roman Empire - ecclesias. Word "Eklesia" in Greek means assembly. In Greek cities, this term was used in a political context as a popular assembly - the main body of polis self-government. Christians have given the term a new connotation. . An ekklesia is a gathering of believers, to which anyone who shared their views could freely come. Christians accepted everyone who came to them: they did not hide their belonging to a new religion. When one of them got into trouble, others immediately came to his aid. At the meetings, sermons and prayers were delivered, the "sayings of Jesus" were studied, the rites of baptism and communion were performed in the form of collective meals. Members of such communities called each other brothers and sisters. All of them were equal to each other. No traces of a hierarchy of positions in the early Christian communities have been noticed by historians. In the 1st century A.D. there was still no church organization, officials, cult, clergy, dogmatists. The organizers of the communities were prophets, apostles, preachers, who, it was believed, possessed charisma(the ability "given by the spirit" to prophesy, teach, perform miracles, heal). They did not call for struggle, but only for spiritual liberation, they were waiting for a miracle, preaching that heavenly retribution would reward everyone according to their deserts. They declared everyone equal before God, thus providing themselves with a solid base among the poor and disadvantaged population.
Early Christianity is the religion of the destitute, powerless, oppressed and enslaved masses. This is reflected in the Bible: “It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom of God.” Of course, this could not please the ruling Roman elite. They were joined by Orthodox Jews who did not want to see Jesus Christ as the messiah. They were waiting for a completely different deliverer, a new Jewish king. This is confirmed by the texts of the Gospels, in which the Jews are responsible for the execution of Jesus. Pontius Pilate, according to the Gospels, tried to save Christ, but the crowd snatched his consent to the execution by shouting: "His blood is on us and on our descendants!"
But for all the "openness" of their communities, Christians did not perform public services, did not take part in polis festivities. Their religious gatherings were to them a sacrament that could not be performed in front of the uninitiated. They internally separated themselves from the outside world, this was precisely the secret of their teaching, which worried the authorities and caused condemnation from many educated people of that time. The accusation of secrecy has therefore become one of the common accusations thrown at Christians by their opponents.
The gradual growth of Christian communities, the increase in their wealth with a change in class composition, required the performance of a number of functions: organizing a meal and serving its participants, purchasing and storing supplies, disposing of the community's funds, etc. All this staff of officials had to be managed. This is how an institution is born. bishops, whose power gradually increased; the position itself was for life. In every Christian community, there was a group of people who were especially respected by members for their devotion to the church - bishops and deacons. Along with them, early Christian documents mention presbyters(elders). However, it should be noted that at an early stage of development (30 - 130 AD) of Christian communities, these persons were in "living unity with the church", their power was not of a legal nature, but of grace, freely recognized by the assembly. That is, their power in the first century of the existence of the church rested only on authority.
Appearance clergy refers to the 2nd century and is associated with a gradual change in the social composition of the early Christian communities. If earlier they united slaves and the free poor, then in the 2nd century they already included artisans, merchants, landowners and even the Roman nobility. If earlier any member of the community could preach, then as the apostles and prophets are squeezed out, the bishop becomes the central figure in propaganda activities. The well-to-do part of Christians is gradually concentrating in their hands the management of property and the management of liturgical practice. Officials, first elected for a fixed term, and then for life, form the clergy.. Priests, deacons, bishops, metropolitans are driving out the charismatics (prophets) and concentrating all power in their hands.
The further development of the hierarchy led to the emergence of the Catholic Church, to the complete rejection of the sovereignty of the communities that existed before, to the establishment of strict internal church discipline.
As already noted, Christianity in the first three centuries of its existence was a persecuted religion. Christians were originally identified with Jews. At first, the hostility of the local population of different provinces to Christians was determined not by the essence of their teaching, but by their position as strangers who denied traditional cults and beliefs. The Roman authorities treated them in much the same way.
Under their name, Christians appear in the minds of the Romans in connection with the fire in Rome under the emperor Nero. Nero blamed Christians for the arson, and in connection with this, many Christians were subjected to severe torture and execution.
One of the main reasons for the persecution of Christians was their refusal to offer sacrifices in front of statues of the emperor or Jupiter. The performance of such rituals meant the fulfillment of the duty of a citizen and subject. Refusal meant disobedience to the authorities and, in fact, non-recognition of these authorities. Christians of the first centuries, following the commandment "Thou shalt not kill", refused to serve in the army. And this also served as a reason for their persecution by the authorities.
At that time, an active ideological struggle was waged against Christians. Rumors spread in the public mind about Christians as atheists, blasphemers, immoral people who committed cannibal rites. Incited by such rumors, the Roman plebs repeatedly staged massacres of Christians. From historical sources, cases of the martyrdom of some Christian preachers are known: Justin the Martyr, Cyprian and others.
The first Christians did not have the opportunity to openly hold their services and were forced to look for hidden places for this. Most often they used the catacombs. All catacomb temples (“cubicules”, “crypts”, “chapels”) were rectangular in shape (basilica type), in the eastern part a vast semicircular niche was made, where the tomb of the martyr was placed, which served throne ( altar ) . The altar was separated by a low lattice from the rest of the temple. Behind the throne there was a bishop's chair, in front of him - salt ( elevation, step ) . The middle part of the temple followed the altar, where the worshipers gathered. Behind it is a room where those wishing to be baptized gathered. (announced) and penitent sinners. This part was later called vestibule. It can be said that the architecture of Christian churches was formed, basically, back in the period of early Christianity.
The last, most cruel period of persecution, Christians experienced under the emperor Diocletian. In 305, Diocletian abdicated, and his successor Galerius in 311 ordered the abolition of the persecution of Christians. Two years later, by the Edict of Milan, Constantine and Licinius, Christianity was recognized as a tolerant religion. According to this edict, Christians had the right to openly perform their worship, communities received the right to own property, including real estate.
In the context of the crisis in the Roman Empire, the imperial government felt an urgent need to use the new religion for their political and ideological purposes. As the crisis deepened, Roman authorities shifted from brutal persecution of Christians to support of the new religion, until Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire during the 4th century.
At the center of Christianity is the image god-man- Jesus Christ who, by his martyrdom on the cross, by suffering for the sins of mankind, atoned for these sins, reconciled the human race with God. And with his resurrection, he opened for those who believed in him a new life, the path to reunion with God in the Divine kingdom. The word "Christ" is not a surname and not a proper name, but, as it were, a title, a title assigned by humanity to Jesus of Nazareth. Christ is translated from Greek as "anointed", "messiah", "savior". With this common name, Jesus Christ is associated with the Old Testament traditions about the coming to the land of Israel of a prophet, a messiah who will free his people from suffering and establish a righteous life there - God's kingdom.
Christians believe that the world was created by one eternal God, and created without evil. Man was created by God as the bearer of the "image and likeness" of God. Man, endowed with free will, according to God's plan, fell under the temptation of Satan, one of the angels who rebelled against God's will, while still in paradise, and committed an offense that fatally affected the fate of mankind. The man violated God's prohibition, desired to become "like God" himself. This changed its very nature: having lost its good, immortal essence, a person became available to suffering, illness and death, and Christians see this as a consequence of original sin, transmitted from generation to generation.
God expelled man from paradise with parting words: "... in the sweat of your face you will eat bread ..." (Gen. 3.19.) The offspring of the first people - Adam and Eve - inhabited the earth, but from the very beginning of history there was an abyss between God and man. In order to return a person to the path, the true God revealed himself to His chosen people - the Jews. God repeatedly revealed himself to the prophets, concluded covenants (alliances) with “His” people, gave them the Law containing the rules of a righteous life. The Holy Scriptures of the Jews are imbued with the expectation of the Messiah - the one who will deliver the world from evil, and people from the slavery of sin. To do this, God sent his Son into the world, who, through suffering and death on the cross, atoned for the original sin of all mankind - past and future.
That is why Christianity emphasizes the purifying role of suffering, any restriction by a person of his desires and passions: “by accepting his cross”, a person can overcome evil in himself and in the world around him. Thus, a person not only fulfills God's commandments, but also transforms himself and makes an ascent to God, becomes closer to him. This is the purpose of the Christian, his justification of the sacrificial death of Christ. The resurrection of Christ marks for Christians the victory over death and the newfound possibility of eternal life with God. It was from that time for Christians begins the history of the New Testament with God.
The main direction in the rethinking of Judaism by Christianity is to affirm the spiritual nature of man's relationship with God. The main idea of the Gospel preaching of Jesus Christ was to convey to people the idea that God - the Father of all people - sent him to bring people the news of the imminent establishment of the Kingdom of God. The good news is the news about the salvation of people from spiritual death, about the communion of the world with spiritual life in the Kingdom of God. The "Kingdom of God" will come when the Lord reigns in the souls of people, when they feel a bright, joyful feeling of the nearness of the Heavenly Father. The way to this Kingdom is opened to people by faith in Jesus Christ as the Son of God, mediator between God and man.
Basic moral values of Christianity are Faith, Hope, Love. They are closely related to each other and pass one into another. However, chief among them is Love, which means, first of all, spiritual connection and love for God and which opposes physical and carnal love, which is declared sinful and vile. At the same time, Christian love extends to all "neighbors", including those who not only do not reciprocate, but also show hatred and hostility. Christ urges: "Love your enemies, bless those who curse you and persecute you."
Love for God makes faith in Him natural, easy and simple, requiring no effort. Faith means a special state of mind that does not require any evidence, arguments or facts. Such faith, in turn, easily and naturally transforms into love for God. Hope in Christianity means the idea of salvation.
Salvation will be granted to those who strictly follow the commandments of Christ. In list commandments- suppression of pride and greed, which are the main sources of evil, repentance for sins committed, humility, patience, non-resistance to evil, the requirement not to kill, not to take someone else's, not to commit adultery, to honor parents and many other moral norms and laws, the observance of which gives hope for salvation from the torments of hell.
In Christianity, moral commandments are addressed not to external deeds (as it was in paganism) and not to external manifestations of faith (as in Judaism), but to internal motivation. The highest moral authority is not duty, but conscience. It can be said that in Christianity God is not only love, but also Conscience.
Christian doctrine is based on the principle self-worth of the individual. The Christian person is a free being. God has endowed man with free will. Man is free to do either good or evil. The choice of goodness in the name of love for God and people leads to spiritual growth and transformation of a person's personality. The choice of evil is fraught with the destruction of the personality and the loss of the very freedom of man.
Christianity brought into the world idea of the equality of all people before God. From the point of view of Christianity, regardless of race, religion, social status, all people as bearers of the “image of God” are equal and, therefore, worthy of respect as individuals.
Of fundamental importance for the approval of Christian dogma was the adoption of the Niceno-Constantinopolitan "Creed" (the 1st Ecumenical Council in Nicea in 325, the 2nd Ecumenical Council in Constantinople in 381). Symbol of faith is a concise summary of the main provisions of the Christian faith, consisting of 12 tenets. These include: the dogmas of creation, providentialism; the triunity of God, acting in 3 hypostases - God the Father, God the Son, God the Holy Spirit; incarnation; the resurrection of Christ; redemption; the second coming of Christ; immortality of the soul, etc. The cult is formed by sacraments, rituals, holidays. Christian sacraments – special cult actions designed to really bring the divine into human life. The sacraments are considered established by Jesus Christ, their 7: baptism, chrismation, communion (eucharist), repentance, priesthood, marriage, unction (unction).
In 395 there was an official division of the empire into the Western and Eastern Roman Empires, which led to an increase in disagreements between the churches of East and West and their final break in 1054. The main dogma that served as a pretext for the split was filioque controversy(i.e. about the procession of God the Holy Spirit). The Western Church became known as Roman Catholic(the term "Catholicism" is derived from the Greek "satholicos" - universal, ecumenical), which meant "Roman world church", and the eastern one - Greek Catholic, Orthodox, i.e. world-wide, faithful to the principles of orthodox Christianity (“Orthodoxy” - from the Greek. "orthodoxy"- correct doctrine, opinion). Orthodox (Eastern) Christians believe that God - the Holy Spirit comes from God the Father, and Catholics (Western) believe that it also comes from God the Son ("filioque" from Latin - "and from the Son"). After the adoption of Christianity by Kievan Rus in 988 under Prince Vladimir from Byzantium in its eastern, orthodox version, the Russian Church became one of the metropolises (church regions) of the Greek Church. The first Russian metropolitan in the Russian Orthodox Church was Hilarion (1051). AT 1448 The Russian Church declared itself autocephalous(independent). After the destruction of Byzantium under the onslaught of the Ottoman Turks in 1453, Russia turned out to be the main stronghold of Orthodoxy. In 1589 Metropolitan Job of Moscow became the first Russian Patriarch. Orthodox churches, unlike the Catholic, do not have a single center of government. Currently, there are 15 autocephalous Orthodox churches. The Russian Patriarch today is Kirill, Pope – FrancisI.
In the 16th century during the period Reformation (from lat. transformation, correction), broad anti-Catholic movement appears Protestantism. The Reformation in Catholic Europe took place under the slogan of restoring the traditions of the early Christian church and the authority of the Bible. The leaders and ideological inspirers of the Reformation were Martin Luther and Thomas Müntzer in Germany, Ulrich Zwingli in Switzerland and John Calvin in France. The starting point at the beginning of the Reformation was October 31, 1517, when M. Luther nailed to the door of the Wittenberg Cathedral his 95 theses against the doctrine of salvation by the merits of saints, of purgatory, of the mediating role of the clergy; he denounced the mercenary sale of indulgences as a violation of the gospel covenants.
Most Protestants share common Christian ideas about creation, providentialism, about the existence of God, about his trinity, about the God-manhood of Jesus Christ, about the immortality of the soul, and so on. Important principles of most Protestant denominations are: justification by faith alone, and good deeds are the fruit of love for God; the priesthood of all believers. Protestantism rejects fasting, Catholic and Orthodox rites, prayer for the dead, worship of the Mother of God and saints, veneration of relics, icons and other relics, church hierarchy, monasteries and monasticism. Of the sacraments, baptism and communion have been retained, but they are interpreted symbolically. The essence of Protestantism can be expressed as follows: divine grace is bestowed without the mediation of the church. Man's salvation occurs only through his personal faith in the atoning sacrifice of Christ. Communities of believers are headed by elected priests (the priesthood extends to all believers), worship is extremely simplified.
Protestantism from the very beginning of its existence was divided into a number of independent denominations - Lutheranism, Calvinism, Zwinglianism, Anglicanism, Baptism, Methodism, Adventism, Mennonism, Pentecostalism. There are also a number of other currents.
At present, the leaders of both the Western and Eastern Churches are striving to overcome the pernicious consequences of centuries of enmity. So, in 1964, Pope Paul YI and Patriarch Athenagoras of Constantinople solemnly canceled the mutual curses pronounced by representatives of both Churches in the 11th century. A beginning has been laid for overcoming the disunity of Western and Eastern Christians. From the beginning of the 20th century the so-called ecumenical movement (from the Greek "eikumena" - the universe, the inhabited world). At present, this movement is carried out mainly within the framework of the World Council of Churches, of which the Russian Orthodox Church is an active member. Today, an agreement has been reached on coordinating the activities of the Russian Orthodox Church and the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad.
2.3. Islam - the youngest world religion (“Islam” in Arabic means obedience, and the name Muslims comes from the word “Muslim” - giving himself to God). Islam was born in the 7th century AD in Arabia, whose population at that time lived in the conditions of the decomposition of the tribal system and the formation of a single state. In this process, one of the means of uniting the numerous Arab tribes into a single state was a new religion. Prophet is the founder of Islam Muhammad (570-632), a native of the city of Mecca, who in 610 began his preaching activity. The tribes that lived on the Arabian Peninsula before the rise of Islam were pagans. The pre-Islamic era is called jahiliyyah. The pantheon of pagan Mecca consisted of many gods, whose idols were called betyls. One of the idols, as the researchers believe, bore the name Allah. AT 622 g. Muhammad and his followers muhajirs- was forced to flee from Mecca to Yathrib, which later became known as Medina (the city of the prophet). Resettlement (in Arabic "hijra") Muslims in Yathrib became the first day of the Muslim chronology. After the death of Muhammad in 632, the first four heads of the Muslim community were Abu Bakr, Omar, Osman, Ali, who received the title of "righteous caliphs" (Arabic successor, deputy).
Judaism and Christianity played a special role in shaping the Muslim worldview. Muslims, along with Jews and Christians, revere the same Old Testament prophets, and Jesus Christ as one of them. That is why Islam is called Abrahamic religion(after the name of the Old Testament Abraham - the founder of the "12 tribes of Israel"). The basis of the teachings of Islam are Koran(Arabic for "reading aloud") and Sunnah(Arabic "sample, example"). The Quran reproduces many biblical scenes, mentions biblical prophets, the last of which, the "seal of the prophets", is Muhammad. The Quran consists of 114 suras(chapters), each of which is divided into verses(poetry). The first sura (the largest) - “Fatiha” (Opening) means for a Muslim the same thing as the prayer “Our Father” for Christians, i.e. everyone must know it by heart. Along with the Quran, a guide for the entire Muslim community ( ummah) in solving the pressing problems of public and private life is the Sunnah. This is a collection of texts hadith), describing the life of Muhammad (similar to the Christian Gospels), his words and deeds, and in a broad sense - a collection of good customs, traditional institutions, supplementing the Koran and revered on a par with it. An important document of the Muslim complex is sharia(Arabic "proper way") - a set of norms of Muslim law, morality, religious prescriptions and rituals.
Islam affirms 5 pillars of faith which reflect the duties of a Muslim:
1. Shahada- evidence of faith, expressed by the formula "There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah." It contains 2 most important tenets of Islam - the confession of monotheism (tawhid) and the recognition of the prophetic mission of Muhammad. During the battles, the shahada served the Muslims as a battle cry, so the soldiers who fell in battle with the enemies of the faith were called martyrs(martyrs).
2. Namaz(Arabic "salad") - a daily 5-fold prayer.
3. saum(Turkish “uraza”) fasting in the month of Ramadan (Ramazan) - the 9th month of the lunar calendar, “the month of the prophet”.
4. Zakat- obligatory alms, a tax in favor of the poor.
5. Hajj- a pilgrimage to Mecca, which every Muslim should make at least once in his life. Pilgrims go to Mecca, to the Kaaba, which is considered the main shrine of Muslims.
Some Muslim theologians consider the 6th "pillar" of jihad (ghazawat). This term refers to the struggle for faith, which is conducted in the following main forms:
- "jihad of the heart" - the fight against one's own bad inclinations (this is the so-called "Great Jihad");
- “jihad of the tongue” - “commandment worthy of approval and prohibition worthy of blame”;
- "jihad of the hand" - the adoption of appropriate punishment measures against criminals and violators of moral standards;
- "Jihad of the sword" - the necessary recourse to weapons in order to deal with the enemies of Islam, to destroy evil and injustice (the so-called "Small Jihad").
Shortly after the death of Muhammad, a split occurred within the Muslims into Shiites and Sunnis. Shiism(Arabic "party, group") - recognizes Ali, the 4th "righteous caliph" and his descendants, the only legitimate successors of Muhammad (because he was his blood relative), i.e. advocates the transfer of the rank of supreme leader of the Muslims ( and mother) by inheritance within the family marked by God's care. Later in the Islamic world there were Shiite states - imamats. Sunnism - the largest denomination in Islam, recognizes the legitimate authority of all 4 "righteous caliphs", rejects the idea of mediation between Allah and people after the death of the prophet, does not accept the idea of the "divine" nature of Ali and the right of his descendants to spiritual supremacy in the Muslim community.
Explain the meaning of the terms: denomination, sect, orthodoxy, catholicism, protestantism, dogma, gospel, old testament, new testament, apostle, messiah, white and black clergy, patriarch, Reformation, charisma, nirvana, Buddha, stupa, brahminism, karma, samsara, caste, wahhabism , Kaaba, jihad (gazavat), prayer, hajj, shahada, saum, zakat, clergy, prophet, hijra, caliphate, sharia, imamat, sunnah, shiism, sura, ayat, hadith.
Persons: Siddhartha Gautama, Abraham, Moses, Noah, Jesus Christ, John, Mark, Luke, Matthew, Muhammad (Magomed), Abu Bakr, Omar, Osman, Ali, Martin Luther, Ulrich Zwingli, John Calvin.
Questions for self-examination:
1. How do the concepts of culture and religion relate?
2. What are the functions of religion?
3. What religions are called Abrahamic?
4. What religions are called monotheistic?
5. What is the essence of Buddhism?
6. What is the essence of Christian and Islamic beliefs?
7. When and where did world religions originate?
8. What denominations exist in Christianity?
9. What denominations exist in Islam?
WORKSHOPS
Plans of seminars for students of OZO SK GMI (GTU)
Seminar 1. Culturology in the system of humanitarian knowledge
Plan: 1. Origin and meaning of the term "culture".
2. The structure of culture and its main functions.
3. Stages of formation of cultural studies. The structure of cultural studies.
Literature:
When preparing for the seminar, one should pay attention to the etymology of the term "culture" and trace the historical development of ideas about culture: in antiquity, in the Middle Ages, in the Renaissance, in modern times and in modern times. Students can present various definitions of the term "culture" and comment on the positions from which this or that definition is given. It is important to present a classification of the main definitions of culture. As a result, we will get an idea of the diversity, versatility of the definitions of culture in modern cultural studies.
When preparing the 2nd question, the student must consider the structure of culture and not only know the main functions of culture, but also understand how they are implemented in the life of society, be able to give examples. Students should explain why the function of socialization or inculturation is central to culture.
The 3rd question involves an analysis of the structure of cultural studies itself as an integrative humanitarian discipline. Revealing the process of folding the science itself, studying the main stages in the formation of cultural studies as a science will make it possible to verify its many-sided connections with ethnography, history, philosophy, sociology, anthropology, and other sciences.
Discussion of all the issues of the seminar will allow students to draw reasonable conclusions about the place and role of cultural studies in the system of modern humanities knowledge.
Seminar 2. Basic concepts of cultural studies.
Plan:
Information-semiotic approach to culture. The main types of sign systems of culture.
Cultural values, essence and types.
The concept of norms in cultural studies, their functions and types.
Literature:
1. Baghdasaryan. N.G. Culturology: textbook - M.: Yurait, 2011.
2. Culturology: textbook / ed. Yu.N. Corned beef, M.S. Kagan. – M.: Higher education, 2011.
3. Karmin A.S. Culturology: a short course - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2010.
When preparing the first question, students should understand the difference in the definition of culture from the standpoint of the information-semiotic approach in relation to the definitions they already know (“Culture is a special non-biological form of the information process”), which involves considering culture in three main aspects: culture as a world of artifacts , culture as a world of meanings and culture as a world of signs. The content of culture always finds expression in language. language in the broad sense of the term name any sign system(means, signs, symbols, texts), which allows people to communicate and transmit various information to each other. Systems of signs and the information that is accumulated with their help are the most important necessary components of culture. Students need to remember this, considering culture as a complex sign system.
It is important to note that today the information-semiotic approach to understanding culture is one of the main ones in cultural studies. It is on it that cultural scientists Kagan M.S., Karmin A.S., Solonin Yu.N. base their understanding of culture. and others, whose textbooks are recommended by the Ministry of Higher Education of the Russian Federation as basic.
Considering the main types of sign systems, students should take care to give examples for each of the types of sign systems. The clarity and persuasiveness of the examples contribute to a better understanding and assimilation of the program material.
Considering the issue of values, students should emphasize the role of values in culture, find out their nature and connection with norms, mentality, determine the types of values and their classification. It is important to imagine the system of value orientations of the individual and the factors of its formation.
The concept of a norm in cultural studies depends on the degree and specifics of the normativity of culture, the student should familiarize himself with various classifications of norms and give examples.
Seminar 3.Culture and religion.
Plan: 1. Religion in the cultural picture of the world. Basic elements and functions of religion.
2. World religions:
a) Buddhism: origins, teachings, sacred texts;
b) Christianity: the emergence and foundations of the Christian doctrine, denomination.
c) Islam: origins, dogma, confessions.
Literature:
1. Baghdasaryan. N.G. Culturology: textbook - M.: Yurait, 2011.
2. Culturology: textbook / ed. Yu.N. Corned beef, M.S. Kagan. – M.: Higher education, 2011.
3. Karmin A.S. Culturology: a short course - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2010.
4. Culturology: uch.pos. / ed. G.V. Fight. - Rostov/Don: Phoenix, 2012.
5. Culturology. History of world culture / ed. A.N. Markova - M.: Unity, 2011.
6. Kostina A.V. Culturology: electronic textbook. – M.: Knorus, 2009.
7. Kvetkina I.I., Tauchelova R.I., Kulumbekova A.K. etc. Lectures on cultural studies. Uch. settlement - Vladikavkaz, ed. SK GMI, 2006.
Questions of religion are closely connected with culture. It is not for nothing that the root of the word culture is the word "cult" - veneration, worship of someone or something. That is why the seminar based on self-training of students, proposed for the study of the most common religions in the world. As for Christianity and Islam, we live in a region where both of these confessions exist around us. By their religious origin, many students are Christians or Muslims, and it is not at all useful for them to know the basics of the religion of their ancestors.
When preparing the 1st question of the seminar, it should be understood that any religion is a fundamental factor in social life. Growing out of mythology, religion inherits from it a fundamental place in culture. At the same time, in a developed society, where art, philosophy, science, ideology, politics form independent spheres of culture, religion becomes their common, backbone spiritual basis. Its influence on the life of society was and remains very significant, and in some periods of history - decisive. Students should be able not only to list the main elements of religion, but also to comment on their content. And also tell in detail about the main functions of religion.
Unlike other world religions, Buddhism is often interpreted as a philosophical and religious teaching, a religion "without a soul and without God" - Siddhartha Gautama (563 - 486-473 BC) - Buddha, i.e. the "enlightened one" was a historical figure, the son of the king of the Shakyas, a small tribe that lived in the foothills of the Himalayas. He was deified by his followers after his death. Speaking about the origins of Buddhism, students should know that it grew out of ancient Indian Brahmanism. Buddhist philosophers borrowed from him the idea of rebirth. Today Buddhism is not only a religion, but also ethics and a certain way of life.
Shortly before his death, the Buddha formulated the principles of his teaching: the "four noble truths", the theory of causality, the impermanence of the elements, the "middle path", the "eightfold path". The task of students is not only to list, but also to be able to reveal the content of these principles, concluding that their ultimate goal is to achieve nirvana. Students need to understand that nirvana (explain the term) is the highest state of spiritual activity and energy that is free from base attachments. Buddha, having reached nirvana, preached his teaching for many more years.
The history of Christianity is detailed in many textbooks and manuals. When preparing this part of the question, it is important to present the origins of the emergence of a new religion in line with Judaism, the difference between Christianity and Judaism and the foundations of the Christian faith (Jesus' Sermon on the Mount, the Creed). The Bible can be presented in 2 of its main parts - the Old and New Testaments. Moreover, students should have an idea about the essence of the New Testament itself as a new contract between God and people. Students also need to form an idea about the 3 main branches of Christianity - Orthodoxy, Catholicism and Protestantism and the main differences between them.
When preparing a question about Islam, it should be taken into account that Islam, as the youngest of the world religions, has absorbed a lot from both Judaism and Christianity, which is why Islam is considered to be Abrahamic religions. Muhammad (Mohammed) - the prophet of Islam, the last Messiah (according to the Muslim faith), speaking out against the Arab paganism, with the help of the new faith proclaimed by him, contributed not only to the ethnic, but also to the state consolidation of the Arabs. This explains the presence in the original Islam of the idea of "jihad" ("ghazawat"). Students should trace the historical evolution of this idea and its modern embodiment in Islamic fundamentalism (in particular, the current of Wahhabism). The essence of the doctrine of Islam comes down to the recognition of the 5 "pillars of Islam", which students must not only state, but also explain. It is also necessary to trace the history of the creation of the Koran and the Sunnah, their role in the life of believers. Students should also have an idea about the main currents of Islam - Sunnism and Shiism.
Basic literature for the course:
1. Karmin A.S. Culturology: a short course - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2010. - 240 p.
2. Culturology: textbook / ed. Yu.N. Corned beef, M.S. Kagan. - M.: Higher education, 2010. - 566 p.
3. Baghdasaryan. N.G. Culturology: textbook - M.: Yurayt, 2011. - 495 p.
additional literature:
1. Culturology: textbook for bachelors and specialists / ed. G.V. Dracha and others - M .: Piter, 2012. - 384 p.
2. Markova A.N. Culturology. – M.: Prospekt, 2011. – 376 p.
3. Kostina A.V. Culturology. – M.: Knorus, 2010. – 335 p.
4. Gurevich P.S. Culturology: textbook. settlement - M .: "Omega-L", 2011. - 427 p.
5. Stolyarenko L.D., Samygin S.I. etc. Culturology: textbook. settlement - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 2010. - 351s.
6. Viktorov V.V. Culturology: textbook. for universities. - M .: Financial University under the Rights. RF, 2013. - 410 p.
7. Yazykovich V.R. Culturology: teaching aid for universities. - Minsk: RIVSH, 2013. - 363 p.
Suggestedtopicssabstracts:
1. Cultural anthropology as an integral part of cultural studies. F. Boas. 2. Methods of cultural studies. 3. Semiotics as a science. 4. Culture as a text. 5. The essence and functions of the language of culture. 6. Plurality of languages of culture. 7. Symbol as a means of the language of culture. 8. Symbol in science and art. 9. The role of the value component in people's lives. 10. The value core of culture and factors influencing its formation. 11. The problem of correlation of values and motivations of the individual. 12. The problem of correlation of the world of values of the individual and society. 13. The meaning of mentality. 14. Mentality and national character. 15. Primitive and ancient mentalities. 16. Mentality in the Middle Ages. 17. Anthropological structure of culture. 18. "Cultural environment" and "natural environment", their real correlation in human life. 19. The role of the game beginning in culture. 20. Culture and intelligence. 21. Historical dynamics of the existence of culture. 22. Beauty as the essence of art. 23. Artistic and scientific picture of the world. 24. Perception of a work of art. 25. Art and religion. The concept of "dehumanization" of art by J. Ortega y Gasset. 26. Art in the modern world. 27. Tradition and innovation in culture. 28. The laws of history and the development of culture. 29. The problem of historical and cultural typology. 30. Ethnos and culture in the concept of LN Gumilyov. 31. Ethnocultural stereotypes. 32. Semiotic types of cultures Yu.Lotman. 33. Youth subculture. 34. Counterculture as a mechanism of sociodynamics. 35. Countercultural phenomena. 36. Primitive painting. 37. Myth as a cultural phenomenon. 38. Myths in the life of the ancient Greeks. 39. Myth and magic. 40. Characteristic features of myth and the logic of mythological thinking. 41. Sociocultural functions of myth and myths in modern culture. 42. Russia in the East-West system: confrontation or dialogue of cultures. 43. Russian national character. 44. Orthodox motives of Russian culture. 45. Westerners and Slavophiles about Russian culture and the historical fate of Russia. 46. Christian temple as the center of spiritual and cultural life. 47. Secularization of Russian culture in the 17th century. 48. Features of the culture of the Enlightenment in Russia. 49. Typological model of culture F. Nietzsche. 50. The concept of cultural-historical types N.Ya.Danilevsky. 51. Typology of culture by O. Spengler and A. Toynbee. 52. The theory of socio-cultural dynamics P. Sorokin. 53. K. Jaspers on a single path of human development and its main stages. 54. The main threats and dangers to culture in the 21st century. 55. Technology as a socio-cultural phenomenon. 56. Prospects for the interaction of culture and nature in the 21st century. 57. Protection of cultural monuments. 58. Museums of the world and their role in the preservation of the cultural heritage of mankind. 59. Cultural universals in the modern world process.
From ancient times to the present day, religion has played an invaluable role in human life. Not surprisingly, various currents appear regularly. Some of them take root and spread, some die for lack of adherents. The formation of modern religions and trends is a phenomenon that is unlikely to ever disappear from life, which is why it is easy to get confused in the huge variety of sects and confessions. Only three religions, called world ones, do not lose their importance.
In contact with
Features of Christianity
Christianity is rightly considered the most powerful, most multinational and widespread of all types of religions. It is ahead of young Islam and more ancient Buddhism. Supporters of Christianity can be found in various parts of our planet, it is the official religion of eleven countries.
The essence of Christianity is the worship of Jesus, the Son of God, who descended to our earth in order to atone for all the sins of mankind and open the gates of the Kingdom of Heaven for souls. Adherents of this religion believe that Jesus Christ is the only true God and Messiah who will come to our earth again to save the human race.
Origins
Christianity takes its roots from the first century AD. The first mention of it was recorded in Palestine. In the earliest years of its existence, this trend already boasted a huge number of supporters. Historians consider the plight of the inhabitants at that time to be the impetus for its emergence. It is not surprising that the people tried to find support and solace in this way. The world learned about Christianity after the Holy Spirit descended on the apostles. The following regions were the first to learn about religion:
- Jerusalem;
- Roman;
- Constantinople;
- Alexandrian;
- Antioch.
A little later, the above territories began to be called Churches. Among them, the main one is not distinguished, and each is considered equal to the others.
The Jews were the first to adopt Christianity. They also endured terrible persecution and numerous troubles that befell them after the fall of Jerusalem. The Romans worshiped pagan gods, their beliefs had nothing to do with the Christian worldview. If Christianity called to be merciful, humble and believe in one God, then paganism denied all virtues and had countless idols. Until 312, the followers of Christ suffered humiliation, were subjected to numerous tortures, and only during the reign of Emperor Constantine were all prohibitions on preaching this religion lifted, moreover, he made it the state religion.
Christian rules and customs that are familiar to believers at the present time have been questioned and discussed more than once in the past. To resolve especially important issues, Councils were established, membership in which went to bishops and other significant and famous clergymen. For example, at the first Council in history, the “Symbol of Faith” prayer was adopted, which is currently a kind of alphabet for every believer.
It is not surprising that now this religion occupies an honorable first place in terms of prevalence, because it began to strive for its superiority a very long time ago. The Roman Empire, which professed Christianity, became one of the superpowers of that time. Currents supported in it, are widely used throughout the world.
Catholicism and Orthodoxy
1054 is a special year in the history of Christianity, since the current was divided into two parts: the Catholic Church and the Orthodox. Although both churches have the same source, they have a number of differences that have acquired certain traditions and innovations as a result of the change.
The list of main differences is as follows:
Despite multiple differences and some misunderstandings, Catholics and Orthodox profess the same faith, so the main number of dogmas and rules they have is the same.
History of Buddhism
Buddhism is the oldest and most ancient religion that originated in the first millennium BC. This means that Buddhism is even older than Christianity. The first mentions appeared in India, to be more precise, in its northern part. Buddhism is an integral part of Indian philosophy.
The researchers believe that Buddhism owes its origin certain changes that have taken place in the life of the people. In the middle of the sixth century BC, the people of India were shocked by many changes in traditional attitudes, suffered a decline in both culture and economy, and also experienced the emergence of more categorical relations between classes. These events led to the emergence of a huge number of people who decided to lead an ascetic lifestyle. They began to move closer to nature or completely abandoned everything they had and began to travel around India with one bag on their shoulders. At this time, Buddhism arose, which received instant gratitude from the people.
Most scholars agree that the person who gave rise to the new religion was Siddhartha Gautama, better known as Shakyamuni Buddha. He was brought up in a very wealthy family. Parents and relatives protected him from the dangers and disappointments of this world in every possible way. Already quite an adult, the boy did not know about such phenomena as ailments, aging and death.
However, he did not remain in such ignorance for long. One day, leaving the walls of his palace, he became an accidental witness to the funeral procession. Of course, this came as a shock to the young man, and, unable to continue living in luxury and wealth, he went on a journey with a small group of hermits. Siddhartha hopes to find the meaning of life, thinks a lot about the causes of all disasters, as well as how to overcome them.
For six whole years he spent in wanderings, during which he realized that it was impossible to achieve peace with the help of any techniques. All that remains for us is meditation and prayer. One day, while meditating once again in the bosom of nature, he suddenly felt an amazing insight and realized that enlightenment had finally come. It was from this moment that Siddhartha began to be called the Buddha. Having achieved enlightenment himself, the Buddha began to preach it to people.
Fundamentals of Religion
If not the main, then the main idea of this trend is to achieve nirvana, that is, such a state of mind when, after self-denial and rejection of things that bring comfort to our lives, a person feels not deprived, but full and can contemplate everything around with calmness. This requires a special method of mind control, mastered for the first time by the Buddha.
The main flaws of people, the teacher called the incredible attachment of people to everything worldly, material goods and dependence on what others say. He rightly believed that such behavior not only does not allow us to live peacefully and happily, but also pushes us onto the path of degradation and decay. And just reaching nirvana we can get rid of these bad attachments.
Like any other religion Buddhism is based on four truths:
Interesting and very important is the fact that the Buddha's teaching does not preach an ascetic way of life. It calls on people to find that golden mean between the material and the spiritual, so as not to be dependent on worldly goods and thereby destroy themselves.
Origin of Islam
The roots of this religion, whose name is translated as "submitting to Allah", originate among the endless deserts of the east. Despite the fact that Islam is much younger than both Christianity and Buddhism, it was able to become a world trend. “There is no deity but Allah, and Muhammad is the prophet of Allah” is the main truth for every Muslim.
Adherents of the current believe that Allah transmitted his teaching, called the Koran, to the prophet Muhammad. Interesting, that there are certain similarities between the Quran and the Bible, however, Muslims have a rather controversial attitude towards the writings of Christians, since there is no mention of Allah in it. They do not deny the existence of certain similarities, but they believe that the Bible is a distorted version of the Koran.
Today, Islam is divided into two branches:
- Sunnis, which is the majority of believers, follow the set of hadiths that they adopted in antiquity. Sunnis have a special guideline explaining how to lead a Muslim in a given situation. This religious practice is called Sunnah.
- The Shiites do not completely reject the Sunnahs, but they introduce their own rulings into them. Adherents of this variety of Islam believe that power in the party they represent should be in the hands of the descendants of Muhammad, that is, his daughter and cousin.
Pillars of religion
There are only five provisions that must be impeccably carried out by the followers of religion:
One of the main features of Islam from Christianity is the attitude of people towards God. Christians believe that Jesus is love, he is merciful to people, forgives their sins and tries with all his might to grant salvation. Allah, according to Muslims, is not an all-forgiving Lord, but a strict judge who will reward everyone according to their merits. Allah is not merciful to sinners, which is mentioned in the scriptures of Muslims more than 20 times.
Loading...