Biologically significant elements (as opposed to biologically inert elements) are chemical elements necessary for living organisms to ensure normal functioning. Biologically significant elements are classified into:
- macroelements (the content of which in living organisms is more than 0.01%)
- trace elements (content less than 0.001%).
Macronutrients
These elements make up the flesh of living organisms. Macroelements include those elements whose recommended daily intake is more than 200 mg. Macroelements, as a rule, enter the human body with food.
Biogenic elements:
- Oxygen - 65%
- Carbon - 18%
- Hydrogen - 10%
- Nitrogen - 3%
These macroelements are called biogenic (organogenic) elements or macronutrients. Macronutrients are mainly composed of organic substances such as proteins, fats, carbohydrates and nucleic acids. The acronym CHNO is sometimes used to designate macronutrients, consisting of the designations of the corresponding chemical elements in the periodic table.
Other macronutrients
- Potassium
- Calcium
- Magnesium
- Sodium
- Phosphorus
Microelements
The term “microelements” gained particular currency in the medical, biological and agricultural scientific literature in the mid-20th century. In particular, it became obvious to agronomists that even a sufficient amount of “macroelements” in fertilizers (the NPK trinity - nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium) does not ensure normal plant development.
Microelements are elements whose content in the body is small, but they participate in biochemical processes and are necessary for living organisms. The recommended daily intake of micronutrients for humans is less than 200 mg. Recently, the term micronutrient, borrowed from European languages, has begun to be used.
Maintaining a constant internal environment (homeostasis) of the body involves, first of all, maintaining the qualitative and quantitative content of minerals in organ tissues at a physiological level.
Essential microelements
According to modern data, more than 30 microelements are considered necessary for the life of plants, animals and humans. Among them (in alphabetical order):
- Iron
- Cobalt
- Manganese
- Molybdenum
- Selenium
The lower the concentration of compounds in the body, the more difficult it is to establish the biological role of the element and to identify the compounds in the formation of which it takes part. Among the undoubtedly important ones are boron, vanadium, silicon, etc.
Micronutrient Compatibility
In the process of absorption of vitamins, microelements and macroelements by the body, antagonism (negative interaction) or synergy (positive interaction) between different components is possible.
Read more about micronutrient compatibility HERE:
Lack of microelements in the body
The main reasons causing a lack of minerals:
- Incorrect or monotonous diet, poor-quality drinking water.
- Geological features of various regions of the earth are endemic (unfavorable) areas.
- Large loss of minerals due to bleeding, Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis.
- Use of certain medications that bind or cause loss of microelements.
Microelementosis
All pathological processes caused by deficiency, excess or imbalance of microelements are called microelementosis.
Basic properties of minerals
Minerals - macroelements
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Minerals-trace elements
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* - Average daily requirement for adults: men and women aged 25 to 51 years. The table shows the standards recommended by the German Society of Nutritionists (Deutsche Gesselschaft fur Ernahrung - DGE).
** - The table shows the doses recommended by the Food and Nutrition Board (FNB) of the US Institute of Medicine and the Scientific Committee on Food (SCF) of the European Union.
- Iron - causes disruption of the formation of red blood cells (erythropoiesis); growth disorder; fatigue throughout the day and frequent awakenings at night; increased risk of infectious diseases; anemia, unnatural pale skin; general deterioration of health; brittleness of hair and nails; frequent headaches; irritability; shallow and rapid breathing; gastrointestinal diseases; constipation and cracks in the corners of the mouth.
- Magnesium - causes apathy, itching, muscular dystrophy and cramps; diseases of the gastrointestinal tract; heart rhythm disturbance; skin aging; fears; nervousness; impatience; insomnia; headache; constant feeling of fatigue; uncontrollable irritation. With a lack of magnesium, the body “steals” it from the bones. With prolonged magnesium deficiency in the body, increased deposition of calcium salts is observed in the walls of arterial vessels, heart muscle and kidneys.
- Potassium - causes muscular dystrophy, muscle paralysis, disruption of nerve impulse transmission and heart rhythm, as well as edema and sclerosis.
- Calcium - causes osteoporosis, seizures. A decrease in its concentration in the blood is fraught with dysfunction of the nervous system. When there is an excess of calcium in the body, it is deposited in various organs and tissues.
- Sodium - causes hypotension, tachycardia, muscle cramps.
- Phosphorus - causes growth disorders, bone deformities, rickets, osteomalacia. Phosphorus deficiency is caused by excess calcium with a deficiency of proteins and vitamin D, which is manifested by loss of appetite, apathy, decreased mental and physical performance, and weight loss. Excess interferes with the absorption of calcium from the intestines, inhibits the formation of the active form of vitamin D, binds part of the calcium in the blood, which leads to its removal from the bones and the deposition of calcium salts in the kidneys and blood vessels.
- Iodine - causes Graves' disease (diffuse toxic goiter), which is characterized by an increase in the function of the thyroid gland, accompanied by an increase in its size, due to autoimmune processes in the body, as well as a slowdown in the development of the central nervous system.
- Manganese - causes weight loss, dermatitis, nausea, vomiting.
- Cobalt - causes an increase in the synthesis of nucleic acids. Cobalt, manganese and copper prevent early gray hair and improve the condition, and also participate in the overall restoration of the body after serious illnesses.
- Copper - causes anemia.
- Fluoride - causes growth disturbance; disruption of the mineralization process. Lack of fluoride causes tooth decay. Excess fluoride causes osteochondrosis, changes in the color and shape of teeth, and bone growths.
- Zinc - causes impaired growth, poor wound healing, lack of appetite, impaired taste, and an increase in prostate size.
- Selenium - causes anemia, cardiomyopathy, impaired growth and bone formation. There is a high risk of cancer of the rectum, breast, uterus and ovaries, prostate, bladder, lungs and skin.
- Chromium - makes the body work with double energy to maintain sugar balance. As a result, there is an urgent need for sweets. Excess chromium in dust causes asthma.
- Molybdenum - causes disruption of the metabolism of sulfur-containing amino acids, as well as dysfunction of the nervous system.
Many people have probably heard the words “macro- and microelements”? And the question probably arises: what is the difference between them?
You will learn about this here.
And also about why these elements are important in the human body. And what problems can be caused by their deficiency.
Macronutrients- these are minerals present in our body in quantities from 25 g to 1 kg. These include sodium, chlorine, potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, calcium, and sulfur.
Microelements- these are minerals present in the body in quantities of less than 0.015 g. These include: manganese, copper, molybdenum, nickel, vanadium, silicon, tin, boron, cobalt, fluorine, iron, zinc, selenium.
Calcium
Calcium, the body normally contains about 1200 g of calcium, 99% of it is concentrated in the bones. Every day, up to 700 mg of calcium is removed from bone tissue, and the same amount should be deposited. Bone tissue is the “warehouse” of our body, where its mineral (alkaline) reserves are stored. With acidosis (acidification of tissues), the body needs increased amounts of alkaline reserves to neutralize acid. From there (from reserves) the body extracts calcium and phosphorus when there is insufficient supply from food. Consequently, bone tissue plays the role of a calcium and phosphorus depot.
Our need for calcium, compared to other nutrients, is enormous. It should be noted that sugar acidifies the blood, causing calcium to be excreted from the body.
Calcium is the main mineral that fights acids. Therefore, the healthier the diet and the fewer acid-forming foods in the diet, the better the condition of teeth and bones.
Calcium promotes a healthy cardiovascular system, helping to reduce blood cholesterol and triglyceride levels, and ensures stable sleep.
Calcium deficiency is associated with bone pain in bad weather, since it is believed that a drop in atmospheric pressure causes calcium to be rapidly removed from the body, which leads to “complaints about bad weather,” especially in older people. Hyperactivity in children is associated with calcium deficiency. When a child cannot sit still and is naughty a lot.
Potassium
Potassium is an essential macronutrient. Provides cellular balance with other electrolytes. Potassium is responsible for normalizing blood pressure. Potassium is closely related to the heart and a lack of potassium levels in the blood affects the functioning of the heart rhythm.
Manganese (aspartate)
Manganese is essential for the production of natural insulin and helps regulate blood sugar.
Reduces the risk of atherosclerosis - strengthens arterial tissue, making them more resistant to the formation of sclerotic plaques, and, together with magnesium, helps normalize cholesterol and triglyceride levels, having a special stabilizing effect on “bad” cholesterol.
The concentration of manganese in the body should be small, but our daily diet is often unable to provide even this amount.
Chromium
The human body contains a very small amount of chromium (on average, about 5 mg - about 100 times less than zinc or iron). From inorganic compounds supplied with food, only 0.5 - 0.7% of chromium is absorbed, and from organic compounds - 25%.
Chromium stimulates insulin production. Chromium deficiency can cause numbness and pain in the limbs, which is common in diabetes. With a lack of chromium, a person craves sweets, and the more sugar he eats, the more chromium reserves are depleted.
Zinc
Zinc is necessary for the synthesis and production of insulin, as well as digestive enzymes. Zinc is involved in more than 80 internal processes that occur in the body at the level of hormones and enzymes. Regulates hormonal and enzyme levels.
Zinc deficiency leads to serious consequences, including schizophrenia and mental disorders, diabetes and prostate adenoma, cataracts, heart disease, brain and nervous system damage, impaired immune system function, digestive disorders and food allergies and peptic ulcers.
With zinc deficiency, toxic metals accumulate, wounds heal poorly, osteoporosis, skin diseases, excessive fatigue and loss of appetite, hearing impairment, and blood sugar imbalance may develop.
Zinc and calcium “do not like” each other - taking calcium can reduce the absorption of zinc by almost 50%. Zinc is intensively removed from the body under stress, as well as under the influence of toxic metals, pesticides, etc.
Selenium
Strong antioxidant. With its deficiency, the activity of the pancreas decreases, which provokes the onset of diabetes. For diabetes and thyroid problems, selenium supplementation is mandatory.
Magnesium
The adult human body contains 25 g of magnesium. Magnesium is an activator of more than 300 enzymes - mainly carbohydrate metabolism. Magnesium is the most important element for the heart and is especially necessary for people with heart and vascular disease.
Magnesium normalizes blood pressure and heart rate, prevents blood clots (thrombi) from sticking together. Magnesium is involved in the exchange of hormones secreted by the adrenal glands and giving us vigor.
When there is enough magnesium in the body, the peak release of hormones occurs early in the morning, thanks to which a person remains alert throughout the day. With magnesium deficiency, this peak occurs in the evening and is accompanied by a surge of delayed vigor and increased performance until midnight.
Micro and Macroelements are biological substances that play a vital role in the life of a living organism. Many diseases and other unfavorable human conditions are in one way or another associated with a lack of these biological substances. It is impossible to distinguish which element is primary and which is secondary, since each of them is important in its own way for our body (responsible for one or another function). Now I will try to tell you in detail about macronutrients (list the best food products, consumption standards, beneficial properties).
You must understand that our body cannot synthesize macronutrients on its own. Therefore, they must necessarily come from food, clean water, etc. A severe deficiency of one or another element entails physiological disorders, manifestations of one or another disease, etc.
List vital macronutrients which we can get from food: Ca, P, K, Na, S, Cl, Mg
Calcium (Ca)
Why do we need it:
- helps strengthen bones and teeth
- makes muscles more elastic
- normalizes heart function
- takes an important part in neuromuscular tissue conduction
- increases the body's resistance to various diseases
Symptoms of deficiency:
- rickets
- osteoporosis
- convulsions
- pain in bone and muscle tissues
- dull hair
- brittle nails
- inflammation of the gums
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Infants |
Children |
Women |
Husband. |
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|
Age |
0–1 |
2–5 / 6–11 |
12–70+ |
take it. |
feed. |
12–70+ |
|
Norm |
400 – 600 |
800 / 1000 |
1000 – 1200 |
1500 |
1500 |
1000 – 1200 |
Best sources of calcium: milk, cottage cheese, hard cheese, yogurt, kefir, sour cream, almonds, hazel, pistachios, sesame, beans, sunflower seeds, walnuts, canned food (sardines), crabs, shrimp, basil, parsley, white cabbage, broccoli, dill, dried apricots .
Phosphorus (P)
Why do we need it:
- plays an important role in cell building
- participates in the process of bone tissue formation
- has a positive effect on brain function
- improves the condition of bones, teeth and nails
- participates in the process of transforming glucose into energy
- has a positive effect on the functioning of the central nervous system and liver
Symptoms of deficiency:
- rickets
- periodontal disease
- growth dysfunction
- osteomalacia
- chronic fatigue
- muscle spasms
- loss of concentration
|
Infants |
Children |
Women |
Husband. |
|||
|
Age |
0–1 |
2–5 / 6–11 |
12–70+ |
take it. |
feed. |
12–70+ |
|
Norm |
100 – 275 |
460 / 1000 |
1000 |
1000 |
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Best sources of phosphorus: veal, beef, beans, beef (liver, brains, heart, kidneys, tongue), pork liver, peas, cereals (buckwheat, oatmeal, pearl barley, rice), rye and wheat bread, cottage cheese, cod, flounder, hard cheese, chicken egg, chicken, milk, kefir.
Potassium (TO)
Why do we need it:
- participates in maintaining acid-base balance
- the most important component of intracellular fluid
- participates in the processes of protein and glycogen synthesis
- participates in the processes of getting rid of toxins
- has a positive effect on the functioning of the central nervous system
- takes part in metabolic processes
Symptoms of deficiency:
- muscular dystrophy
- paralysis of muscle tissue
- heart rhythm is disturbed
- convulsions
- nausea and vomiting
|
Infants |
Children |
Women |
Husband. |
|||
|
Age |
0–1 |
2–5 / 6–11 |
12–70+ |
take it. |
feed. |
12–70+ |
|
Norm |
0.4 – 0.7 |
3 – 3.5 / 4.3 |
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Best sources of potassium: dried apricots, beans, seaweed, peas, prunes, raisins, almonds, hazelnuts, lentils, peanuts, potatoes, walnuts, halibut, tuna, trout, banana, orange, milk.
Sodium (Na)
Why do we need it:
- participates in maintaining acid-base balance
- the most important component of intercellular fluid
- participates in the transmission of nerve impulses
- participates in the processes of maintaining osmotic pressure
- retains water in tissues
Symptoms of deficiency:
- hypotension
- tachycardia
- convulsions
- violation of acid-base balance
- poor absorption of carbohydrates
|
Infants |
Children |
Women |
Husband. |
|||
|
Age |
0–1 |
2–5 / 6–11 |
12–70+ |
take it. |
feed. |
12–70+ |
|
Norm |
0.5 / 1 |
2 – 5 |
2 – 5 |
2 – 5 |
2 – 5 |
|
Best sources of sodium: table salt, soy sauce, red caviar, seaweed, mussels, lobster, flounder, anchovies, shrimp, sardines, chicken egg, crayfish, squid.
Sulfur (S)
Why do we need it:
- participates in energy production
- takes part in the process of blood clotting
- synthesizes collagen
- improves the functioning of the central nervous system
Symptoms of deficiency:
- joint pain
- tachycardia
- high blood pressure
- hair loss
- constipation
- protein and carbohydrate metabolism is disrupted
- irritability
|
Infants |
Children |
Women |
Husband. |
|||
|
Age |
0–1 |
2–5 / 6–11 |
12–70+ |
take it. |
feed. |
12–70+ |
|
Norm |
500 / 700 |
700 – 1200 |
1200 |
1200 |
700 – 1200 |
|
List
best sources for this macronutrient like sulfur: turkey, beef, pork, lamb, liver (beef, pork), rabbit, pike, sea bass, sardines, pink salmon, peas, flounder, catfish, chicken, chicken egg.
Chlorine (Cl)
Why do we need it:
- takes part in water metabolism
- produces hydrochloric acid in the stomach
- takes part in cleansing the liver of fat
Symptoms of deficiency:
- gastritis
- low acidity
- dry mouth
|
Infants |
Children |
Women |
Husband. |
|||
|
Age |
0–1 |
2–5 / 6–11 |
12–70+ |
take it. |
feed. |
12–70+ |
|
Norm |
0.5 / 1 |
2 – 5 |
2 – 5 |
2 – 5 |
2 – 5 |
|
Best sources of chlorine: mackerel, anchovies, catfish, crucian carp, capelin, pink salmon, flounder, hake, oysters, tuna, chicken egg, peas, rice, buckwheat.
Magnesium (Mg)
Why do we need it:
- participates in the process of bone tissue formation
- participates in the process of tooth formation
- important for the normal functioning of muscle tissue and the central nervous system
- has a positive effect on the immune system
- participates in the restoration and renewal of body tissues
- has a positive effect on heart rate and blood pressure
- takes part in the creation of estrogens
- takes part in the process of blood clotting
- integral component of intracellular fluid
- removes bad cholesterol
Symptoms of deficiency:
- apathy
- muscular dystrophy
- convulsions
- gastrointestinal diseases
- heart rhythm is disturbed
- irritability
- pressure drops
- numbness of hands
- pain in the head, neck and back
|
Infants |
Children |
Women |
Husband. |
|||
|
Age |
0–1 |
2–5 / 6–11 |
12–70+ |
take it. |
feed. |
12–70+ |
|
Norm |
100 / 200 |
400 – 500 |
400 – 500 |
|||
Best sources of magnesium: cashews, buckwheat, pine nuts, almonds, pistachios, peanuts, hazelnuts, seaweed, barley, oatmeal, millet, walnuts, peas, beans, bananas, prunes.
From this article you learned list the most important macronutrients. To get enough of certain elements, you need to try to eat as varied as possible. Just as you know, in addition to macroelements, there are also microelements, but we will talk about them in the next article.
Sincerely,
Video tutorial 2: Structure, properties and functions of organic compounds Concept of biopolymers
Lecture: Chemical composition of the cell. Macro- and microelements. The relationship between the structure and functions of inorganic and organic substances
Chemical composition of the cell
It has been discovered that the cells of living organisms constantly contain about 80 chemical elements in the form of insoluble compounds and ions. All of them are divided into 2 large groups according to their concentration:
macroelements, the content of which is not lower than 0.01%;
microelements – concentration, which is less than 0.01%.
In any cell, the content of microelements is less than 1%, and macroelements, respectively, are more than 99%.
Macronutrients:
Sodium, potassium and chlorine provide many biological processes - turgor (internal cellular pressure), the appearance of nerve electrical impulses.
Nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon. These are the main components of the cell.
Phosphorus and sulfur are important components of peptides (proteins) and nucleic acids.
Calcium is the basis of any skeletal formations - teeth, bones, shells, cell walls. Also involved in muscle contraction and blood clotting.
Magnesium is a component of chlorophyll. Participates in protein synthesis.
Iron is a component of hemoglobin, participates in photosynthesis, and determines the performance of enzymes.
Microelements Contained in very low concentrations, they are important for physiological processes:
Zinc is a component of insulin;
Copper – participates in photosynthesis and respiration;
Cobalt is a component of vitamin B12;
Iodine – participates in the regulation of metabolism. It is an important component of thyroid hormones;
Fluoride is a component of tooth enamel.
An imbalance in the concentration of micro and macroelements leads to metabolic disorders and the development of chronic diseases. Lack of calcium is the cause of rickets, iron is the cause of anemia, nitrogen is a deficiency of proteins, iodine is a decrease in the intensity of metabolic processes.
Let's consider the connection between organic and inorganic substances in the cell, their structure and functions.
Cells contain a huge number of micro and macromolecules belonging to different chemical classes.
Inorganic substances of the cell
Water. It makes up the largest percentage of the total mass of a living organism - 50-90% and takes part in almost all life processes:
thermoregulation;
capillary processes, since it is a universal polar solvent, affects the properties of interstitial fluid and metabolic rate. In relation to water, all chemical compounds are divided into hydrophilic (soluble) and lipophilic (soluble in fat).
The intensity of metabolism depends on its concentration in the cell - the more water, the faster the processes occur. The loss of 12% of water by the human body requires restoration under the supervision of a doctor; with a loss of 20%, death occurs.
Mineral salts. Contained in living systems in dissolved form (dissociated into ions) and undissolved. Dissolved salts are involved in:
transfer of substances across the membrane. Metal cations provide a “potassium-sodium pump”, changing the osmotic pressure of the cell. Because of this, water with substances dissolved in it rushes into the cell or leaves it, carrying away unnecessary ones;
the formation of nerve impulses of an electrochemical nature;
muscle contraction;
blood clotting;
are part of proteins;
phosphate ion – a component of nucleic acids and ATP;
carbonate ion – maintains Ph in the cytoplasm.
Insoluble salts in the form of whole molecules form the structures of shells, shells, bones, and teeth.
Organic cell matter
General feature of organic substances– presence of a carbon skeletal chain. These are biopolymers and small molecules of simple structure.
The main classes found in living organisms:
Carbohydrates. Cells contain various types of them - simple sugars and insoluble polymers (cellulose). In percentage terms, their share in the dry matter of plants is up to 80%, of animals - 20%. They play an important role in the life support of cells:
Fructose and glucose (monosaccharides) are quickly absorbed by the body, are included in metabolism, and are a source of energy.
Ribose and deoxyribose (monosaccharides) are one of the three main components of DNA and RNA.
Lactose (belongs to disaccharides) is synthesized by the animal body and is part of mammalian milk.
Sucrose (disaccharide) is a source of energy produced in plants.
Maltose (disaccharide) – ensures seed germination.
Also, simple sugars perform other functions: signaling, protective, transport.
Polymer carbohydrates are water-soluble glycogen, as well as insoluble cellulose, chitin, and starch. They play an important role in metabolism, perform structural, storage, and protective functions.
Lipids or fats. They are insoluble in water, but mix well with each other and dissolve in non-polar liquids (those that do not contain oxygen, for example - kerosene or cyclic hydrocarbons are non-polar solvents). Lipids are necessary in the body to provide it with energy - their oxidation produces energy and water. Fats are very energy efficient - with the help of 39 kJ per gram released during oxidation, you can lift a load weighing 4 tons to a height of 1 m. Also, fat provides a protective and thermal insulation function - in animals, its thick layer helps retain heat in the cold season. Fat-like substances protect the feathers of waterfowl from getting wet, provide a healthy shiny appearance and elasticity to the hair of animals, and perform a covering function on plant leaves. Some hormones have a lipid structure. Fats form the basis of the structure of membranes.
Proteins or proteins
are heteropolymers of biogenic structure. They consist of amino acids, the structural units of which are: amino group, radical, and carboxyl group. The properties of amino acids and their differences from each other are determined by radicals. Due to their amphoteric properties, they can form bonds with each other. A protein can consist of several or hundreds of amino acids. In total, the structure of proteins includes 20 amino acids; their combinations determine the variety of forms and properties of proteins. About a dozen amino acids are considered essential - they are not synthesized in the animal body and their supply is ensured through plant foods. In the gastrointestinal tract, proteins are broken down into individual monomers, which are used to synthesize their own proteins.
Structural features of proteins:
primary structure – amino acid chain;
secondary - a chain twisted into a spiral, where hydrogen bonds are formed between the turns;
tertiary - a spiral or several of them, folded into a globule and connected by weak bonds;
Quaternary does not exist in all proteins. These are several globules connected by non-covalent bonds.
The strength of the structures can be impaired and then restored, with the protein temporarily losing its characteristic properties and biological activity. Only the destruction of the primary structure is irreversible.
Proteins perform many functions in the cell:
acceleration of chemical reactions
(enzymatic or catalytic function, each of them responsible for a specific single reaction);
transport – transfer of ions, oxygen, fatty acids through cell membranes;
protective– blood proteins such as fibrin and fibrinogen, present in the blood plasma in an inactive form, form blood clots at the site of wounds under the influence of oxygen. Antibodies provide immunity.
structural– peptides are part of or are the basis of cell membranes, tendons and other connective tissues, hair, wool, hooves and nails, wings and outer integument. Actin and myosin provide muscle contractile activity;
regulatory– hormone proteins provide humoral regulation;
energy – during a lack of nutrients, the body begins to break down its own proteins, disrupting the process of its own vital activity. That is why after a long period of hunger the body cannot always recover without medical help.
Nucleic acids. There are 2 of them - DNA and RNA. There are several types of RNA: messenger, transport, and ribosomal. Discovered by the Swiss F. Fischer at the end of the 19th century.
DNA is deoxyribonucleic acid. Contained in the nucleus, plastids and mitochondria. Structurally, it is a linear polymer that forms a double helix from complementary chains of nucleotides. The idea of its spatial structure was created in 1953 by the Americans D. Watson and F. Crick.
Its monomeric units are nucleotides, which have a fundamentally common structure of:
phosphate groups;
deoxyribose;
nitrogenous base (belonging to the group of purines - adenine, guanine, pyrimidines - thymine and cytosine.)
In the structure of a polymer molecule, nucleotides are combined in pairs and complementarily, which is due to a different number of hydrogen bonds: adenine + thymine - two, guanine + cytosine - three hydrogen bonds.
The order of nucleotides encodes the structural sequences of amino acids in protein molecules. A mutation is a change in the order of nucleotides, since protein molecules of a different structure will be encoded.
RNA is ribonucleic acid. The structural features of its difference from DNA are:
instead of thymine nucleotide - uracil;
ribose instead of deoxyribose.
Transfer RNA is a polymer chain that is folded in a plane in the shape of a clover leaf; its main function is the delivery of amino acids to ribosomes.
Messenger (messenger) RNA is constantly formed in the nucleus, complementary to any section of DNA. This is a structural matrix; based on its structure, a protein molecule will be assembled on the ribosome. Of the total content of RNA molecules, this type makes up 5%.
Ribosomal- responsible for the process of composing a protein molecule. Synthesized in the nucleolus. There is 85% of it in the cage.
ATP – adenosine triphosphoric acid. This is a nucleotide containing:
3 phosphoric acid residues;
As a result of cascading chemical processes, respiration is synthesized in mitochondria. The main function is energy; one chemical bond in it contains almost as much energy as is obtained from the oxidation of 1 g of fat.
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