"The immune system of the body" - Non-specific protective factors. Immunity. Specific mechanisms of immunity. Factors. specific immunity. thymus. critical period. Protective barrier. Antigen. Morbidity in children. footprint in human history. Infection. Central lymphoid organs. Increase the protective forces of the child's body. National calendar of preventive vaccinations. Vaccination. Serums. artificial immunity.
"Immune system" - Factors that weaken the immune system. Two main factors that have a major impact on the effectiveness of the immune system: 1. Human lifestyle 2. Environment. Express diagnostics of the efficiency of the immune system. Alcohol contributes to the formation of an immunodeficiency state: taking two glasses of alcohol reduces immunity to 1/3 of the hole for several days. Carbonated drinks reduce the efficiency of the immune system.
"The internal environment of the human body" - The composition of the internal environment of the body. Blood cells. The human circulatory system. Protein. The liquid part of the blood. Form elements. Colorless liquid. Call it in one word. Cells of the circulatory system. Hollow muscular organ. The name of the cells. Lymph movement. Hematopoietic organ. Blood plates. The internal environment of the body. Erythrocytes. Intellectual workout. Liquid connective tissue. Finish the logic chain.
"History of Anatomy" - The history of the development of anatomy, physiology and medicine. William Harvey. Burdenko Nikolay Nilovich. Pirogov Nikolay Ivanovich. Luigi Galvani. Pasteur. Aristotle. Mechnikov Ilya Ilyich. Botkin Sergei Petrovich. Paracelsus. Ukhtomsky Alexey Alekseevich. Ibn Sina. Claudius Galen. Lee Shi-zhen. Andreas Vesalius. Louis Pasteur. Hippocrates. Sechenov Ivan Mikhailovich Pavlov Ivan Petrovich
"Elements in the human body" - I am friends everywhere: In minerals and in water, Without me, you are like without hands, Without me, the fire went out! (Oxygen). And destroy it right away. Two will get you gas. (Water). Although my composer is complex It is impossible to live without me, I am an excellent solvent Thirst for the best intoxicator! Water. The content of "metals of life" in the human body. The content of organogen elements in the human body. The role of biogenic elements in the human body.
"Immunity" - Classes of immunoglobulins. Helper T cell activation. Cytokines. humoral immunity. Origin of cells. The mechanism of genetic control of the immune response. Immunoglobulin E. Immunoglobulin molecule. Elements of the immune system. Structure of the main loci. Immunoglobulin A. Foreign elements. The structure of antibodies. Genetic bases of immunity. The structure of the antigen-binding site. secretion of antibodies.
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What is the immune system?
The immune system is a set of organs, tissues and cells, the work of which is aimed directly at protecting the body from various diseases and at the extermination of foreign substances that have already entered the body. This system is an obstacle to infections (bacterial, viral, fungal). When the immune system fails, the likelihood of developing infections increases, this also leads to the development of autoimmune diseases, including multiple sclerosis.
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Organs included in the human immune system: lymph glands (nodes), tonsils, thymus gland (thymus), bone marrow, spleen and intestinal lymphoid formations (Peyer's patches). The main role is played by a complex circulation system, which consists of lymphatic ducts connecting the lymph nodes.
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The organs of the immune system produce immunocompetent cells (lymphocytes, plasmocytes), biologically active substances (antibodies) that recognize and destroy, neutralize cells that have entered the body or formed in it, and other foreign substances (antigens). The immune system includes all organs that are built from the reticular stroma and lymphoid tissue and carry out protective reactions of the body, create immunity, immunity to substances that have alien antigenic properties.
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Peripheral organs of the immune system
They are located in places of possible penetration of foreign substances into the body or on the ways of their movement in the body itself. 1. lymph nodes; 2. spleen; 3. lymphoepithelial formations of the digestive tract (tonsils, single and group lymphatic follicles); 4. perivascular lymphatic follicles
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The lymph nodes
A peripheral organ of the lymphatic system that acts as a biological filter through which lymph flows from organs and parts of the body. In the human body, there are many groups of lymph nodes called regional. They are located along the path of lymph through the lymphatic vessels from organs and tissues to the lymphatic ducts. They are found in well-protected places and in the area of the joints.
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tonsils
Tonsils: lingual and pharyngeal (unpaired), palatine and tubal (paired), located in the region of the root of the tongue, nasal part of the pharynx and pharynx. The tonsils form a kind of ring surrounding the entrance to the nasopharynx and oropharynx. The tonsils are built from diffuse lymphoid tissue, in which there are numerous lymphoid nodules.
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Lingual tonsil (tonsillalingualis)
Unpaired, located under the epithelium of the mucous membrane of the root of the tongue. The surface of the root of the tongue above the tonsil is bumpy. These tubercles correspond to underlying epithelium and lymphoid nodules. Between the tubercles, openings of large depressions open - crypts, into which the ducts of the mucous glands flow.
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Pharyngeal tonsil (tonsillapharyngealis)
Unpaired, located in the region of the arch and posterior pharyngeal wall, between the right and left pharyngeal pockets. In this place there are transversely and obliquely oriented thick folds of the mucous membrane, inside which there is lymphoid tissue of the pharyngeal tonsil, lymphoid nodules. Most lymphoid nodules have a breeding center.
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palatine tonsil (tonsilla palatina)
The steam room is located in the tonsil fossa, between the palatoglossal arch in front and the palatopharyngeal arch in the back. The medial surface of the tonsil, covered with stratified squamous epithelium, faces the pharynx. The lateral side of the tonsil is adjacent to the wall of the pharynx. In the thickness of the tonsil, along its crypts, there are numerous round-shaped lymphoid nodules, mainly with centers of reproduction. Around the lymphoid nodules is diffuse lymphoid tissue.
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The palatine tonsil on the frontal section. Palatine tonsil. Lymphoid nodules near the crypt of the tonsil.
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Tubal tonsil (tonsillatubaria)
The steam room is located in the region of the pharyngeal opening of the auditory tube, in the thickness of its mucous membrane. Consists of diffuse lymphoid tissue and a few lymphoid nodules.
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Vermiform appendix (appendix vermiformis)
It is located near the ileocecal junction, at the lower part of the caecum. In its walls it has numerous lymphoid nodules and internodular lymphoid tissue between them. There are group lymphatic follicles (Peyer's patches) - accumulations of lymphoid tissue located in the walls of the small intestine in the final section of the ileum.
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Lymphoid plaques have the appearance of flat oval or round formations. Slightly protruding into the intestinal lumen. The surface of lymphoid plaques is uneven, bumpy. They are located on the side opposite the mesenteric edge of the intestine. They are built from densely adjacent lymphoid nodules. The number of which in one plaque varies from 5-10 to 100-150 or more.
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Solitary lymphoid nodules nodulilymphoideisolitarii
They are present in the mucous membrane and submucosa of all tubular organs of the digestive, respiratory systems and genitourinary apparatus. Lymphoid nodules are located at different distances from each other and at different depths. Often the nodules lie so close to the epithelial cover that the mucous membrane rises above them in the form of small mounds. In the small intestine in childhood, the number of nodules varies from 1200 to 11000, in the large intestine - from 2000 to 9000, in the walls of the trachea - from 100 to 180, in the bladder - from 80 to 530. Diffuse lymphoid tissue is also present in the mucous membrane of all organs of the digestive, respiratory systems and genitourinary apparatus.
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Spleen
Performs the functions of immune control of blood. It is located on the path of blood flow from the aorta to the portal vein system, branching in the liver. The spleen is located in the abdominal cavity. The mass of the spleen in an adult is 153-192 g.
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The spleen has the shape of a flattened and elongated hemisphere. The spleen has a diaphragmatic and visceral surface. The convex diaphragmatic surface faces the diaphragm. The visceral surface is not smooth, it has a gate of the spleen, through which the artery and nerves enter the organ, and the vein exits. The spleen is covered on all sides by the peritoneum. Between the visceral surface of the spleen on the one hand, the stomach and diaphragm - on the other, sheets of the peritoneum are stretched, its ligaments - gastro-splenic St., diaphragmatic-splenic St.
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from the fibrous membrane, which is under the serous cover, the connective tissue trabeculae of the spleen depart into the organ. Between the trabeculae is the parenchyma, the pulp (pulp) of the spleen. Allocate a red pulp, located between the venous vessels - the sinuses of the spleen. The red pulp consists of loops of reticular tissue filled with erythrocytes, leukocytes, lymphocytes, and macrophages. The white pulp is formed by periarterial lymphoid muffs, lymphoid nodules, and macrophage-lymphoid muffs, consisting of lymphocytes and other lymphoid tissue cells that lie in loops of the reticular stroma.
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Periarterial lymphoid clutches
In the form of 2-4 layers of cells of the lymphoid series, the pulpal arteries are surrounded, starting from the place where they exit the trabeculae and up to the ellipsoids. Lymphoid nodules are formed in the thickness of the periarterial lymphoid muffs. The clutches contain reticular cells and fibers, macrophages and lymphocytes. When leaving the macrophage-lymphoid clutches, the ellipsoid arterioles are divided into terminal capillaries, which flow into the venous splenic sinuses located in the red pulp. Areas of red pulp are called splenic bands. Pulpal and then trabecular veins form from the splenic sinuses.
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The lymph nodes
Lymph nodes (nodilymphatici) are the most numerous organs of the immune system, lying on the paths of lymph flow from organs and tissues to the lymphatic ducts and lymphatic trunks that flow into the bloodstream in the lower parts of the neck. Lymph nodes are biological filters for tissue fluid and metabolic products contained in it (cell particles that died as a result of cell renewal, and other possible foreign substances of endogenous and exogenous origin). The lymph flowing through the sinuses of the lymph nodes is filtered through the loops of the reticular tissue. Lymphocytes, which are formed in the lymphoid tissue of these lymph nodes, enter the lymph.
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Lymph nodes are usually located in groups of two or more nodes. Sometimes the number of nodes in a group reaches several tens. Groups of lymph nodes are named according to the area of their location: inguinal, lumbar, cervical, axillary. Lymph nodes adjacent to the walls of the cavities are called parietal, parietal lymph nodes (nodilymphatici parietals). Nodes that are located near the internal organs are called visceral lymph nodes (nodilymphaticiviscerales). There are superficial lymph nodes, located under the skin, above the superficial fascia, and deep lymph nodes, lying deeper, under the fascia, usually near large arteries and veins. The shape of the lymph nodes is very different.
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Outside, each lymph node is covered with a connective tissue capsule, from which thin capsular trabeculae extend into the organ. At the point of exit from the lymph node of the lymphatic vessels there is a slight depression - the gate, in the area of \u200b\u200bwhich the capsule thickens, forms a portal thickening inside the node, portal trabeculae depart. The longest of them connect with capsular trabeculae. An artery and nerves enter the lymph node through the gate. Nerves and efferent lymphatic vessels emerge from the node. Inside the lymph node, between its trabeculae, there are reticular fibers and reticular cells that form a three-dimensional network with loops of various sizes and shapes. The cellular elements of the lymphoid tissue are located in the loop. The parenchyma of the lymph node is divided into cortex and medulla. The cortical substance is darker, occupies the peripheral parts of the node. The lighter medulla lies closer to the hilum of the lymph node.
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Diffuse lymphoid tissue is located around the lymphoid nodules, in which the internodular zone is isolated - the cortical plateau. Inward from the lymphoid nodules, at the border with the medulla, there is a strip of lymphoid tissue, called the pericortical substance. In this zone there are T-lymphocytes, as well as post-capillary venules lined with cubic endothelium. Through the walls of these venules, lymphocytes migrate into the bloodstream from the parenchyma of the lymph node and in the opposite direction. The medulla is formed by strands of lymphoid tissue - pulpy strands, which are washed from the internal sections of the cortical substance to the gate of the lymph node. Together with lymphoid nodules, the pulp cords form a B-dependent zone. The parenchyma of the lymph node is permeated with a dense network of narrow slits - the lymphatic sinuses, through which the lymph entering the node flows from the subcapsular sinus to the portal sinus. Along the capsular trabeculae lie the sinuses of the cortical substance, along the pulpy strands - the sinuses of the medulla, which reach the gates of the lymph node. Near the portal thickening, the sinuses of the medulla flow into the portal sinus located here. In the lumen of the sinuses is a soft mesh network formed by reticular fibers and cells. When lymph passes through the sinus system, foreign particles that have entered the lymphatic vessels from the tissues are retained in the loops of this network. Lymphocytes enter the lymph from the parenchyma of the lymph node.
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The structure of the lymph node
Network of reticular fibers, lymphocytes and macrophages in the sinus of a lymph node
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Immunity, immunity - the body's ability to resist infection resulting from the presence of an infection that occurs when antibodies and white blood cells are present in the blood.
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Innate acquired natural artificial immunity is distinguished; active - post-infectious (after infectious diseases); (flu)
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The immune system is a system that unites organs and tissues that protect the body from genetically alien bodies or substances that come from outside or are formed in the body. The organs of the immune system include a complex of interconnected organs. They are: central - they include the red bone marrow and the thymus gland (thymus) peripheral - they include the lymph nodes, lymphoid tissue of the walls of the respiratory and digestive systems (tonsils, single and group lymphoid nodules of the ileum, group lymphoid nodules of the appendix), spleen.
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Bone marrow, medulla ossium The red bone marrow consists of myeloid tissue containing, in particular, hematopoietic stem cells, which are the precursors of all blood cells. In newborns, the bone marrow that fills all the marrow cells is red. From the age of 4-5, in the diaphysis of tubular bones, the red bone marrow is replaced by adipose tissue and becomes yellow. In adults, the red bone marrow remains in the epiphyses of long bones, short and flat bones and has a mass of about 1.5 kg. With the blood flow, stem cells enter other organs of the immune system, where they undergo further differentiation
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Lymphocytes B-lymphocytes (15% of the total) T-lymphocytes (85% of the total) partly turn into immunological memory cells and spread throughout the body, have a long lifespan and are capable of reproduction. part, remaining in the lymphoid organs, turns into plasma cells. They produce and secrete humoral antibodies into the plasma. Consequently, the ability of the B-cell system to “remember” is due to an increase in the number of antigen-specific memory cells; one part of the formed daughter cells binds to the antigen and destroys it. Binding in the antigen-antibody complex occurs due to the presence of an embedded receptor protein on the membrane of T-lymphocytes. This reaction occurs with the participation of special T-helper cells. the other part of the daughter lymphocytes forms a group of immunological memory T-cells. These lymphocytes are long-lived and, having "remembered" the antigen from the first meeting, "recognize" it upon repeated contact.
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Classification of antibodies (5 classes) Immunoglobulins M, G, A, E, D (IgA, IgG, IgM, IgE, IgD) Class M immunoglobulins are the first to form in response to an antigen - these are macroglobulins - large molecular weight. They function in small quantities in the fetus. After birth, the synthesis of immunoglobulins G and A begins. They are more effective in fighting bacteria and their toxins. In large quantities, immunoglobulins A are found in the intestinal mucosa, saliva and other fluids. In the second year of life, immunoglobulin D and E appear and reach a maximum level by 10-15 years. The same sequence of production of different classes of antibodies is observed during human infection or immunization.
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The immune system consists of 3 components: A-system: Phagocytes capable of sticking to foreign proteins (monocytes); formed in the bone marrow, present in the blood and tissues. They absorb foreign agents - antigen, accumulate it and transmit a signal (antigenic stimulus) to the executive cells of the immune system.
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B-system B-lymphocytes are found in lymph nodes, Peyer's patches, peripheral blood. They receive a signal from the A-system and turn into plasma cells capable of synthesizing antibodies (immunoglobulins). This system provides humoral immunity, freeing the body from molecular substances (bacteria, viruses, their toxins, etc.)
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T - system Thymus lymphocytes; their maturation depends on the thymus gland. T-lymphocytes are found in the thymus, lymph nodes, spleen, and a little in the peripheral blood. After a stimulating signal, lymphoblasts mature (reproduction or proliferation) and become mature, acquire the ability to recognize a foreign agent and interact with it. The T-system, along with macrophages, provides the formation of cellular immunity, as well as transplant rejection reactions (transplantation immunity); provides antitumor resistance (prevents the occurrence of tumors in the body).
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Thymus gland, thymus. Topography. located in the upper mediastinum, in front of the pericardium, aortic arch, brachiocephalic and superior vena cava. From the sides, areas of lung tissue are adjacent to the gland, the front surface is in contact with the handle and the body of the sternum.
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The structure of the thymus. Consists of two parts - right and left. The lobes are covered with a connective tissue capsule extending deep into the branches dividing the glands into small lobules. Each lobule consists of a cortical (darker) and medulla (lighter) substance. Thymus cells are represented by lymphocytes - thymocytes. The elementary structural histological unit of the thymus is Clark's follicle, which is located in the cortex and includes epithelial cells (E), lymphocytes (L), and macrophages (M).
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Lymphoid tissue of the walls of the digestive and respiratory systems. 1. Tonsils, tonsillae are accumulations of lymphoid tissue, in which, against the background of diffusely located elements, there are dense accumulations of cells in the form of nodules (follicles). The tonsils are localized in the initial sections of the respiratory and digestive tubes (palatine tonsils, lingual and pharyngeal) and in the area of the mouth of the auditory tube (tubal tonsils). The tonsil complex forms a lymphoid ring or Pirogov-Waldeira ring. A. lingual tonsil, tonsilla lingualis (4) - located at the root of the tongue, under the epithelium of the mucous membrane. B. steam palatine tonsil, tonsilla palatine (3) - located in the depression between the palatoglossal and palatopharyngeal folds of the oral cavity - in the tonsil fossa. B. steam tubal tonsil, tonsilla tubaria (2) - lies in the mucous membrane of the nasal part of the pharynx, behind the mouth of the pharyngeal opening of the auditory tube. G. pharyngeal (adenoid) tonsil, tonsilla pharyngealis (1) - located in the upper part of the posterior pharyngeal wall and in the region of the pharyngeal arch.
O ORGANS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM ARE DIVIDED INTO CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL. THE CENTRAL (PRIMARY) ORGANS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM ARE BONE MARROW AND THYMUS. IN THE CENTRAL ORGANS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM THE IMMUNE SYSTEM CELLS ARE MATURATED AND DIFFERENTIATED FROM STEM CELLS. IN THE PERIPHERAL (SECONDARY) ORGANS LYMPHOID CELLS MATURE TO THE FINAL STAGE OF DIFFERENTIATION. THESE ARE THE SPLEEN, LYMPHONODES AND LYMPHOID TISSUE OF THE MUCOUS MEMBRANES.
CENTRAL ORGANS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM Bone marrow. All the formed elements of the blood are formed here. Hematopoietic tissue is represented by cylindrical accumulations around the arterioles. Forms cords that are separated from each other by venous sinuses. The latter flow into the central sinusoid. The cells in cords are arranged in islands. Stem cells are localized mainly in the peripheral part of the medullary canal. As they mature, they will move to the center, where they penetrate the sinusoids and then enter the blood. Myeloid cells in the bone marrow make up 60-65% of the cells. Lymphoid 10-15%. 60% of cells are immature cells. The rest are mature or newly entered the bone marrow. Every day, about 200 million cells migrate from the bone marrow to the periphery, which is 50% of their total number. In the human bone marrow, there is an intensive maturation of all types of cells, except for T-cells. The latter go through only the initial stages of differentiation (pro-T cells, which then migrate to the thymus). Plasma cells are also found here, making up to 2% of the total number of cells, and producing antibodies.
T IMUS. S SPECIALIZED EXCLUSIVELY ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF T-LYMPHOCYTES. AND HAS AN EPITHELIAL FRAMEWORK IN WHICH T-LYMPHOCYTES DEVELOP. IMMORATE T-LYMPHOCYTES DEVELOPING IN THE THYMUS ARE CALLED THYMOCYTES. C Mature T-LYMPHOCYTES ARE TRANSITOR CELLS COMING TO THE THYMUS IN THE FORM OF EARLY PRECURSORS FROM THE BONE MARROW (PRO-T-CELLS) AND AFTER MATURATION EMIGATE TO THE PERIPHERAL SECTION OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM. THREE MAIN EVENTS OCCURING IN THE PROCESS OF T-CELL MATURATION IN THE THYMUS: 1. THE APPEARANCE OF ANTIGEN-RECOGNITION T-CELL RECEPTORS IN MATURING THYMOCITES. 2. DIFFERENTIATION OF T-CELLS INTO SUBPOPULATIONS (CD4 AND CD8). 3. SELECTION (SELECTION) OF T-LYMPHOCYTE CLONES, ABLE TO RECOGNIZE ONLY FOREIGN ANTIGENS PROVIDED TO T-CELLS BY MOLECULES OF THE MAIN HISTOCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEX OF THE OWN BODY. TIMUS IN HUMANS CONSISTS OF TWO LOBE. EACH OF THEM IS LIMITED TO A CAPSULE FROM WHICH CONNECTIVE FABRIC PARTITIONS GO INSIDE. PARTITIONS DIVIDE THE PERIPHERAL PART OF THE ORGAN BARK INTO SPLICES. INTERNAL PART OF THE ORGAN IS CALLED BRAIN.
P ROTHYMOCYTES ENTER THE CORTICAL LAYER AND AS THEY MAVE MOVEMENT TO THE MEDULAR LAYER. WITH ROCK OF THYMOCYTE DEVELOPMENT INTO MATURE T-CELLS 20 DAYS. IMMature T-CELLS ENTER THE THYMUS WITHOUT T-CELL MARKERS ON THE MEMBRANE: CD3, CD4, CD8, T-CELL RECEPTOR. AT THE EARLY STAGES OF MATURATION ALL THE ABOVE MARKERS APPEAR ON THEIR MEMBRANE, THEN THE CELLS PRODUCE AND PASS TWO STAGES OF SELECTION. 1. POSITIVE SELECTION SELECTION FOR THE ABILITY TO RECOGNIZE OWN MOLECULES OF THE MAIN HISTOCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEX USING THE T-CELL RECEPTOR. CELLS UNABLE TO RECOGNIZE THE OWN MOLECULES OF THE MAIN HISTOCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEX DIE BY APOPTOZIS (PROGRAMMED CELL DEATH). SURVIVING THYMocytes LOSE ONE OF FOUR T-CELL MARKERS OR CD4 OR CD8 MOLECULE. AS A RESULT FROM THE SO-CALLED "DOUBLE POSITIVE" (CD4 CD8) THYMOCYTES BECOME SINGLE POSITIVE. ON THEIR MEMBRANES OR THE CD4 MOLECULE OR THE CD8 MOLECULE IS EXPRESSED. THEREFORE, DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE TWO MAJOR POPULATIONS OF T-CELLS OF CYTOTOXIC CD8 CELLS AND HELPER CD4 CELLS ARE PLACED. 2. NEGATIVE SELECTION SELECTION OF CELLS FOR THEIR ABILITY TO NOT RECOGNIZE THE BODY'S OWN ANTIGENS. AT THIS STAGE, POTENTIALLY AUTO-REACTIVE CELLS ARE ELEMENTED, ie, CELLS WHICH RECEPTOR IS ABLE TO RECOGNIZE OWN ORGANISM'S ANTIGENS. NEGATIVE SELECTION LAYS THE FOUNDATIONS FOR THE FORMATION OF TOLERANCE, ie, the non-response of the IMMUNE SYSTEM TO OWN ANTIGENS. AFTER TWO SELECTION STAGES, ONLY 2% OF THYMOCYTES SURVIVE. THE SURVIVED THYMocytes migrate to the medulla and then go out into the blood, turning into "naive" T-LYMPHOCYTES.
P ERIPHERIC LYMPHOID ORGANS Scattered throughout the body. The main function of peripheral lymphoid organs is the activation of naive T- and B-lymphocytes, followed by the formation of effector lymphocytes. There are encapsulated peripheral organs of the immune system (spleen and lymph nodes) and non-encapsulated lymphoid organs and tissues.
L LYMPH NODES MAKE THE BASIC MASS OF ORGANIZED LYMPHOID TISSUE. THEY ARE REGIONALLY LOCATED AND NAMED ACCORDING TO LOCALIZATION (AXXILLARY, INGUINAL, PAROTIS, ETC.). L LYMPH NODES PROTECT THE ORGANISM FROM ANTIGENS PENETRATING THROUGH THE SKIN AND MUCOUS MEMBRANES. H NATIVE ANTIGENS ARE TRANSPORTED TO REGIONAL LYMPHONODES BY LYMPHATIC VESSELS, OR WITH THE HELP OF SPECIALIZED ANTIGENPRESENTING CELLS, OR WITH A FLUIDS FLOW. IN THE LYMPHONODES, ANTIGENS ARE PRESENTED TO NAIVE T-LYMPHOCYTES BY PROFESSIONAL ANTIGENPRESENTING CELLS. THE RESULT OF THE INTERACTION OF T-CELLS AND ANTIGENPRESENTING CELLS IS THE TRANSFORMATION OF NAIVE T-LYMPHOCYTES INTO MATURE EFFECTOR CELLS CAPABLE OF PERFORMING PROTECTIVE FUNCTIONS. Imfosles have a cell cortical area (cortical zone), a t-cell paractic area (zone) and a central, medullary (brain) zone formed by cellular hoods containing T- and Lamphocytes, plasma cells and macrophages. CORCA AND PARACORTICAL AREAS ARE SEPARATED BY CONNECTIVE TISSUE TRABECULA INTO RADIAL SECTORS.
L IMFA COMES TO THE NODE BY SEVERAL Afferent (afferent) LYMPHATIC VESSELS THROUGH THE SUBCAPSULAR ZONE COVERING THE CORTICAL AREA. AND FROM THE LYMPH NODE LYMPH EXITS BY THE SINGLE EXHAUSTING (EFERENT) LYMPHATIC VESSEL IN THE AREA OF THE SO-CALLED GATES. THROUGH THE GATE, THE BLOOD COMES AND LEAVES INTO THE LYMPH NODE IN THE CORRESPONDING VESSELS. IN THE CORTICAL AREA ARE LYMPHOID FOLLICLES CONTAINING REPRODUCTION CENTERS, OR "GERMINE CENTERS", IN WHICH MATURATION OF B-CELLS THAT MEET THE ANTIGEN IS GOING ON.
THE PROCESS OF MATURATION IS CALLED AFFINE MATURATION. ON IS ACCOMPANIED WITH SOMATIC HYPERMUTATIONS OF VARIABLE GENES OF IMMUNOGLOBULINS, COMING WITH A FREQUENCY 10 TIMES EXCEEDING THE FREQUENCY OF SPONTANEOUS MUTATIONS. C OMATIC HYPERMUTATIONS LEAD TO INCREASED ANTIBODY AFFINITY WITH SUBSEQUENT REPRODUCTION AND CONVERSION OF B-CELLS INTO PLASMA ANTIBODY-PRODUCING CELLS. PLASMIC CELLS ARE THE FINAL STAGE OF B-LYMPHOCYTE MATURATION. T-LYMPHOCYTES ARE LOCALIZED IN THE PARACORTICAL AREA. E E IS CALLED T-DEPENDENT. THE T-DEPENDENT REGION CONTAINS MANY T-CELLS AND CELLS THAT HAVE MULTIPLE OUTROWS (DENDRITIC INTERDIGITAL CELLS). THESE CELLS ARE ANTIGEN PRESENTING CELLS ENTERED IN THE LYMPH NODE BY AFFERENT LYMPHATIC VESSELS AFTER ENCOUNTERING THE FOREIGN ANTIGEN ON THE PERIPHERY. N AIVE T-LYMPHOCYTES, IN TURN, ENTER THE LYMPHONODES WITH THE LYMPH FLOW AND THROUGH POST-CAPILLARY VENULES, HAVING AREAS OF THE SO-CALLED HIGH ENDOTHELIUM. IN THE T-CELL AREA, NAIVE T-LYMPHOCYTES ARE ACTIVATED WITH THE HELP OF ANTIGENPRESENTING DENDRITIC CELLS. ACTIVATION LEADS TO PROLIFERATION AND FORMATION OF CLONES OF EFFECTIVE T-LYMPHOCYTES, WHICH ARE ALSO CALLED REINFORCED T-CELLS. THE LAST ARE THE FINAL STAGE OF MATURATION AND DIFFERENTIATION OF T-LYMPHOCYTES. THEY LEAVE THE LYMPHONODES TO PERFORM THE EFFECTOR FUNCTIONS FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF WHICH HAVE BEEN PROGRAMMED BY ALL PREVIOUS DEVELOPMENT.
C SPLEEN IS A LARGE LYMPHOID ORGAN DIFFERING FROM THE LYMPHONODES IN THE PRESENCE OF A LARGE NUMBER OF ERYTHROCYTES. THE MAIN IMMUNOLOGICAL FUNCTION IS IN THE ACCUMULATION OF ANTIGENS BROUGHT WITH THE BLOOD AND IN THE ACTIVATION OF T- AND B-LYMPHOCYTES REACTING TO THE ANTIGEN BROUGHT IN THE BLOOD. THE SPLEEN IS TWO MAIN TYPES OF TISSUE: WHITE PULSE AND RED PULSE. WHITE PULP CONSISTS OF LYMPHOID TISSUE FORMING PERIARTERIOLAR LYMPHOID CLUTCHES AROUND THE ARTERIOLES. CLUTCHES HAVE T- AND B-CELL AREAS. A T-DEPENDENT AREA OF THE CLUTCH, SIMILAR TO THE T-DEPENDENT AREA OF THE LYMPHONODES, DIRECTLY SURROUNDS THE ARTERIOLE. B-CELL FOLLICLES COMPOSE THE B-CELL AREA AND ARE LOCATED CLOSE TO THE EDGE OF THE CLUTCH. THE FOLLICLES HAVE REPRODUCTION CENTERS LIKE THE GEM CENTERS OF THE LYMPHONODES. DENDRITIC CELLS AND MACROPHAGES PRESENTING ANTIGEN TO B-CELLS WITH SUBSEQUENT TRANSFORMATION OF THE LAST INTO PLASMA CELLS ARE LOCALIZED IN REPRODUCTION CENTERS. THE VISUALIZING PLASMA CELLS PASS BY THE VASCULAR LINTACHES TO THE RED PULSE. K RASNA PULPA MESH NETWORK FORMED BY VENOUS SINUSOIDS, CELL STRANDS AND FILLED WITH ERYTHROCYTES, PLATELETS, MACROPHAGES AND ALSO OTHER CELLS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM. K RASNYA PULPA IS A PLACE OF DEPOSIT OF ERYTHROCYTES AND PLATELETS. TO THE APILLARS WITH WHICH THE CENTRAL ARTERIOLES OF THE WHITE PULP END, OPEN FREELY IN BOTH THE WHITE PULP AND IN THE STRANDS OF THE RED PULP. TO THE BLOOD TALE, WHEN REACHING THE HEAVY RED PULP, THEY KEEP IN THEM. HERE, MACROPHAGES RECOGNIZE AND PHAGOCYTE OBLIGATORY RBCs AND PLATELETS. P-LASMATIC CELLS THAT HAVE MOVED INTO THE WHITE PULP PERFORM THE SYNTHESIS OF IMMUNOGLOBULINS. BLOOD CELLS NOT ABSORBED AND NOT DESTROYED BY PHAGOCYTES PASS THROUGH THE EPITHELIAL LAYING OF VENOUS SINUSOIDS AND RETURN TO THE BLOOD FLOW WITH PROTEINS AND OTHER PLASMA COMPONENTS.
UNENCAPSULATED LYMPHOID TISSUE Most of the unencapsulated lymphoid tissue is located in the mucous membranes. In addition, non-encapsulated lymphoid tissue is localized in the skin and other tissues. The lymphoid tissue of the mucous membranes protects only the mucous surfaces. This distinguishes it from the lymph nodes, which protect against antigens that penetrate both through the mucous membranes and through the skin. The main effector mechanism of local immunity at the level of the mucous membrane is the production and transport of secretory antibodies of the IgA class directly to the surface of the epithelium. Most often, foreign antigens enter the body through the mucous membranes. In this regard, antibodies of the IgA class are produced in the body in the greatest amount relative to antibodies of other isotypes (up to 3 g per day). The lymphoid tissue of the mucous membranes includes: Lymphoid organs and formations associated with the gastrointestinal tract (GALT gut-associated lymphoid tissues). Include lymphoid organs of the peripharyngeal ring (tonsils, adenoids), appendix, Peyer's patches, intraepithelial lymphocytes of the intestinal mucosa. Lymphoid tissue associated with the bronchi and bronchioles (BALT bronchial-associated lymphoid tissue), as well as intraepithelial lymphocytes of the mucous membrane of the respiratory tract. Lymphoid tissue of other mucous membranes (MALT mucosal associated lymphoid tissue), including the lymphoid tissue of the mucous membrane of the urogenital tract as the main component. The lymphoid tissue of the mucosa is localized most often in the basal plate of the mucous membranes (lamina propria) and in the submucosa. Peyer's patches, usually found in the lower part of the ileum, can serve as an example of mucosal lymphoid tissue. Each plaque is adjacent to a patch of gut epithelium called follicle-associated epithelium. This area contains the so-called M-cells. Through M-cells, bacteria and other foreign antigens enter the subepithelial layer from the intestinal lumen. ABOUT THE MAJOR MASS OF LYMPHOCYTES OF THE PAYER'S PATCH IS IN THE B-CELL FOLLICLE WITH THE GEM CENTER IN THE MIDDLE. T-CELL ZONES SURROUND THE FOLLICLE CLOSER TO THE LAYER OF EPITHELIAL CELLS. On the bottomhole functional load of peer plaques Activation of the Lamphocytes and their differentiation in plasmocytes, producing antibodies of classes I G A and I G E. To the rum of organized lymphoid tissue in the epithelial layer of the mucous membranes and in Lamina Propria there are also single disseminated t-lymphocytes. THEY CONTAIN BOTH ΑΒ T-CELL RECEPTORS AND ΓΔ T-CELL RECEPTORS. IN ADDITION TO THE LYMPHOID TISSUE OF THE MUCOUS SURFACES, THE COMPOSITION OF NON-ENCAPSULATED LYMPHOID TISSUE INCLUDES: SKIN-ASSOCIATED LYMPHOID TISSUE AND INTRAEPITHELIAL SKIN LYMPHOCYTES; LYMPH TRANSPORTING ALIEN ANTIGENS AND CELLS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM; PERIPHERAL BLOOD UNITING ALL ORGANS AND TISSUES AND PERFORMING A TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION FUNCTION; CUMULATIONS OF LYMPHOID CELLS AND SINGLE LYMPHOID CELLS OF OTHER ORGANS AND TISSUES. AN EXAMPLE IS LIVER LYMPHOCYTES. THE LIVER PERFORMS VERY IMPORTANT IMMUNOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS, ALTHOUGH IT IS NOT CONSIDERED AN ORGANIUM OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM IN THE Strict SENSE FOR AN ADULT ORGANISM. HOWEVER, ALMOST HALF OF THE TISSUE MACROPHAGES OF THE ORGANISM ARE LOCALIZED IN IT. THEY PHAGOCYTE AND DECELETE IMMUNE COMPLEXES WHICH BRING ERYTHROCYTES HERE ON THEIR SURFACE. ALSO, IT IS SUPPOSED THAT LYMPHOCYTES LOCALIZED IN THE LIVER AND IN THE SUBMUCOUS INTESTINE HAVE SUPPRESSOR FUNCTIONS AND PROVIDE PERMANENT MAINTENANCE OF IMMUNOLOGICAL TOLERANCE (NON-RESPONSIBILITY) TO FOOD.
Presentation-lecture on the topic IMMUNE SYSTEM, IMMUNE STRESS Student of group 211 Gorkova E. N. Lecturer Golubkova G. G.
Scheme of integrated relationships output origins Pathology Microbiology Psychology Topic: “Immunity, immune system, stress” Pharmacology of DM in therapy Biology of DM in surgery DM in pediatrics DM in obstetrics DM in neurology
The body's immune system recognizes, processes and eliminates foreign bodies and substances, unites organs and tissues that protect the body from diseases. Rice. 1 Central organs 1-red bone marrow (femoral epiphysis); 2 - thymus (thymus gland) Fig. 2 Peripheral organs Pirogov's 1-lymphepithelial ring (tonsils): a - pharyngeal, c - palatine, b - tubal, d - lingual; 2-spleen 3-lymph nodes; 4-worm-shaped process; 5 - lymphoid apparatus of the ileum: a-Peyer's patch, b-solitary follicles.
Organs of the immune system Central Red bone marrow Peripheral Thymus Spleen gland Lymph nodes Lymphoid accumulations in the intestine Vermiform appendix of the caecum Small intestine Lymphoid accumulations in the respiratory system Lymphoepithelial Pirogov's ring
Bone marrow (medulla ossium) Is the main organ of hematopoiesis, the total mass of bone marrow reaches 1.5 kg. Location: In newborns, it fills all the bone marrow cavities, after 4-5 years in the diaphysis of tubular bones, the red bone marrow is replaced by adipose tissue and acquires a yellow tint. In an adult, red bone marrow is stored in the epiphyses of long bones, short and flat bones. Structure: Red bone marrow is formed by myeloid tissue, which contains hematopoietic stem cells, the ancestors of all blood cells. Part of the stem cells enters the thymus gland, where they differentiate as T-lymphocytes, that is, thymus-dependent, they destroy obsolete or malignant cells, and also destroy foreign cells, that is, they provide cellular and tissue immunity. The rest of the stem cells differentiate as cells that take part in the humoral reactions of immunity, that is, B-lymphocytes, or burso-dependent, they are the ancestors of cells that produce antibodies, or immunoglobulins. Functions of the red bone marrow: 1. Hematopoietic 2. Immunological (differentiation of B-lymphocytes)
Thymus gland (thymus) This is the central organ of the immune system and the organ of the endocrine system. The mass of the organ during the period of maximum development (10-15 years) is 30-40 g, then the gland undergoes involution and is replaced by adipose tissue. Location: Anterior mediastinum. Structure: 1. Cortical substance in which immature T-lymphocytes differentiate (helpers, killers, suppressors, memory), then enter the peripheral organs of the immune system (lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils), where they provide the body's immune response. 2. The medulla, which produces the hormones thymosin and thymopoietin, which regulate the processes of growth, maturation and differentiation of T-cells and the functional activity of mature cells of the immune system. Functions of the thymus gland: 1. Immunological 1 - thyroid cartilage; 2 - thyroid (differentiation of T-lymphocytes). gland; 3 - trachea; 4 - right lung; 2. Endocrine (endocrine gland, 5 - left lung; 6 - aorta; 7 - thymus produces hormones: thymosin, thymopoietin). gland; 8 - pericardial bag
Spleen (splen) It is the largest organ of the immune system, the length of which reaches 12 cm, and the weight is 150-200 g. Location: In the left hypochondrium, it has a characteristic brownish-red hue, a flattened elongated shape and a soft texture. From above it is covered with a fibrous membrane, fused with the serous membrane (peritoneum), the location is intraperitoneal. Structure: 1. Surfaces - diaphragmatic and visceral. 2. Gates of the spleen - located in the center of the visceral surface - the place of penetration of blood vessels (splenic artery and vein) and nerves that feed and innervate the organ. 3. Spleen parenchyma - white pulp (pulp), consisting of lymphoid follicles of the spleen and red pulp, accounting for 75-85% of the total mass of the organ, is formed by venous sinuses, erythrocytes, lymphocytes and other cellular elements. Functions of the spleen: 1. Destruction of erythrocytes that have completed their life cycle. 2. Immunological (differentiation of B- and T-lymphocytes). 3. Blood depot. 1 - diaphragmatic surface; 2 - top edge; 3 - gate of the spleen; 4 - splenic artery; 5 - splenic vein; 6 - bottom edge; 7 - visceral surface 1 - fibrous membrane; 2 - trabecula of the spleen; 3 - lymphoid follicles of the spleen; 4 - venous sinuses; 5 - white pulp; 6 - red pulp
Lymph node The most numerous peripheral organs of the immune system (500 - 700) are located on the path of lymph flow from organs and tissues to the lymphatic ducts and trunks. Functions of the lymph node: 1. Protective barrier function (phagocytosis) 2. Immunological (maturation, differentiation and reproduction of T- and B-lymphocytes) Structure: 1 - afferent lymphatic vessel; 2 - efferent lymphatic vessels; 3 - cortex; 4 - artery; 5 - vein; 6 - capsule; 7 - medulla; 8 - gate of the lymph node; 9 - trabeculae; 10 - lymph node
Lymphoid accumulations In the respiratory system Tonsils - significant accumulations of lymphoid tissue: 1 - on the root of the tongue - lingual, 2 - between the anterior and posterior arches of the soft palate - palatine, 3 - on the posterior-upper wall of the nasopharynx - pharyngeal, 4 - in the region of the Eustachian tube - pipe. Lymphadenoid tissue, scattered in the region of the mucous membrane of the pharynx, forms, together with the tonsils, a protective barrier called Pirogov's pharyngeal lymphoepithelial ring. In the intestine In the intestinal mucosa - accumulations of lymphoepithelial tissue: Small intestine 1 - group lymphoid follicles (Peyer's patches) - ileum; 2 - single follicles (solitary) - jejunum; Large intestine 3 - lymphoid formations - the wall of the appendix (appendix).
Immunity is a set of protective properties of the body aimed at maintaining its biological integrity and individuality from external infection (bacteria, viruses, protozoa), from altered and dead cells. CLASSIFICATION OF IMMUNITY NATURAL: - CONGENITAL (from mother to fetus) - ACQUIRED (after illness) ARTIFICIAL: - ACTIVE (vaccines) - PASSIVE (sera) CELLULAR (phagocytosis) SPECIFIC (destruction of a specific pathogen) HUMORAL (immunoglobulins) NON-SPECIFIC (prevents all pathogens)
Ilya Mechnikov, the founder of the theory of cellular immunity He discovered the phenomenon of phagocytosis - the capture and destruction of microbes and other biological particles alien to the body by special cells. He noticed that if the foreign body was small enough, wandering cells, which he called phagocytes from the Greek phagein ("to eat"), could completely engulf the alien. It is this mechanism, Mechnikov believed, that is the main one in the immune system. It is phagocytes that rush into the attack, causing an inflammation reaction, for example, with an injection, a splinter, etc. Paul Ehrlich - the founder of the theory of humoral immunity Proved the opposite. The main role in protection against infections belongs not to cells, but to the antibodies discovered by them - specific molecules that are formed in the blood serum in response to the introduction of an aggressor. In 1891, Ehrlich called the antimicrobial substances of the blood the term "antibody" (in German antikorper), since bacteria at that time were called the term "korper" - microscopic bodies. Paul Ehrlich 1854 -1915 Interestingly, irreconcilable scientific rivals - I. Mechnikov and P. Ehrlich - shared in 1908 the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their work in the field of immunology.
Scheme of phagocytosis Phagocytosis. The process of phagocytosis consists of the following stages: 1. Chemotaxis - the movement of a phagocyte towards the object of phagocytosis. 2. Adhesion (attachment). 3. On the membrane of phagocytes, various receptors are placed to capture microorganisms. 4. Endocytosis (absorption). 5. Captured particles are immersed in the protoplasm and as a result a phagosome is formed with an object enclosed inside. 6. Lysosomes rush to the phagosome, then the membranes of the phagosome and lysosome merge into a phagolysosome. 7. Phagocytosed microorganisms are attacked by a complex of various microbicidal factors.
Milestones in the development of immunology 1796 1861 1882 1886 1890 1901 1908 E. Jenner The method of preventing smallpox L. Pasteur The principle of creating vaccines I. Mechnikov Phagocytic theory of immunity P. Ehrlich Humoral theory of immunity Behring, Kitazato Discovery of antibodies K. Landsteiner Discovery of blood groups and the structure of antigens Mechnikov , Erlich Nobel Prize for the immune theory 1913 Ch. Richet Discovery of anaphylaxis 1919 J. Bordet Discovery of the compliment 1964 F. Burnet 1972 1980 Clonal selection theory of immunity J. Edelshan Deciphering the structure of antibodies B. Benacerraf Discovery of histocompatibility
Stress from English. Stress - stress Stress is a non-specific (general) reaction of the stress of a living organism to any strong influence exerted on it. There are: anthropogenic, neuropsychic, thermal, light and other stresses, as well as positive (eustress) and negative forms (distress) of stress. The famous stress researcher, Canadian physiologist Hans Selye, published his first work on the general adaptation syndrome in 1936, but for a long time avoided the use of the term "stress", since it was used in many ways to refer to "neuropsychic" tension (fight or flight syndrome). It was not until 1946 that Selye began to systematically use the term "stress" for general adaptive stress. Selye drew attention to the fact that the onset of any infection is the same (fever, weakness, loss of appetite). In this generally known fact, he saw a special property - universality, non-specific response to any damage. Experiments on rats have shown that they give the same reaction both to poisoning and to heat or cold. Other researchers have found a similar reaction in people who received extensive burns.
Stages of stress Stage 1. Anxiety reaction. The body uses all its defenses. This state is typical for many people before an exam, a responsible meeting, an operation. At this stage, the sympathetic-adrenal, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal and renin-angiotensinaldosterone systems are activated in the human body. There is an increase in the production of adrenaline and norepinephrine, an increase in the adrenal cortex. Possible violations of cardiovascular activity - myocardial infarction, stroke, angina pectoris, hypertension. 2 stage. stage of adaptation. Actively counteracting stress and adapting to it, the body is in a tense, mobilized state. The body and the stressor coexist together in opposition. During this period, the adrenal cortex produces glucocorticoids especially intensively, which can lead to gastric and duodenal ulcers. Activation of the hypothalamus Activation of the Endocrine system of the Sympathetic NS Activation of catecholamines of the adrenal glands Glucocorticoids stage 3. stage of exhaustion. Constant stay in a stressful state and prolonged resistance to stress lead to the fact that gradually the body's reserves come to an end. Exhaustion develops. This stage is transitional to the development of disease processes and is characterized by a breakdown in the mechanisms of nervous and humoral regulation. The adrenal cortex is depleted (chronic adrenal insufficiency).
Diseases of adaptation Cardiovascular system: Myocardial infarction, stroke, coronary artery disease, hypertension. Digestive system: Gastric and duodenal ulcer Diseases of adaptation Skin: Dermatitis, eczema, psoriasis, urticaria Immune system: Respiratory system: Decreased immunity Bronchial asthma
Pain Diagram of the response to stress. Bleeding Psychotrauma Hyperthermia Hypothalamus Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system Liberins Glucocorticoids of the adrenal cortex Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system Activation of the sympathetic NS Cells of the adrenal gland JUGA CA Renin Vasopressin (ADH) Tropic hormones of the anterior pituitary gland ACTH Sympathicoadrenal system TSH Water retention Increased BCC Constricts blood vessels Al dos Thyroxin inactive Angiotensin II Increased blood pressure
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