An element is usually understood as the simplest indivisible part of a system. The concept of indivisibility is associated with the goal of considering an object as a system. Thus, an element is the limit of system division from the point of view of solving a specific problem.
The system can be divided into elements not immediately, but by successive division into subsystems, larger than the elements, but smaller than the system as a whole. The possibility of dividing the system into subsystems is associated with the isolation of a set of elements capable of performing relatively independent functions aimed at achieving the overall goal of the system. For a subsystem, a subgoal should be formulated, which is its system-forming factor.
If the task is not only to isolate the system from the environment and study its behavior, but also to understand its internal structure, then it is necessary to study the structure (from Latin structura - structure, arrangement, order) of the system. The structure of the system includes its elements, the links between them and the attributes of these links. In most cases, the concept of “structure” is usually associated with a graphical display, but this is not necessary. The structure can also be represented in the form of set-theoretic descriptions of matrices and graphs.
The concept of "relationship" expresses the necessary and sufficient relationships between elements. The connection attributes are:
■ direction;
■ character.
According to the direction, the connections are distinguished:
■ directed;
■ non-directional.
Directed links, in turn, are divided into:
■ straight lines;
■ reverse.
According to the strength of the manifestation, the connections are distinguished:
■ weak;
■ strong.
According to the nature of the connection, they are divided into:
■ subordination links;
■ spawning links.
Subordination relationships can be divided into:
■ linear;
■ functional.
Connections of generation characterize causal relationships.
Relationships between elements are characterized by a certain order, internal properties, orientation towards the functioning of the system. Such features of the system are called its organization.
Structural bonds are relatively independent of the elements and can act as an invariant in the transition from one system to another. This means that the patterns revealed in the study of systems representing objects of one nature can be used in the study of systems of another nature. Communication can also be represented and considered as a system that has its own elements and connections.
The concept of “structure” in the narrow sense of the word can be identified with the concept of system-forming relations, i.e. structure can be considered as a system-forming factor.
In a broad sense, structure is understood as the totality of relations between elements, and not just system-forming relations.
The method of isolating system-forming relations from the environment depends on what is at stake: the design of a system that does not yet exist or the analysis of a systemic representation of a known object, material or ideal. There are different types of structures. The most famous of them are shown in Fig. 3.2.
Network
Figure 3.2 Types of system structures
Classification of systems. General classification: abstract systems; specific systems; open systems; closed systems; dynamic systems; adaptive systems; hierarchical systems, their characteristics. Classification by features: by origin; according to the description of variables; according to the method of management; by operator type.
Consider some types of systems.
Abstract systems are systems, all elements of which are concepts.
Concrete systems are systems whose elements are physical objects. They are divided into natural (arising and existing without human intervention) and artificial (created by man).
Open systems are systems that exchange matter, energy and information with the environment.
Closed systems are systems that have no exchange with the external environment.
Purely open and closed systems do not exist.
Dynamical systems occupy one of the central places in the general theory of systems. Such a system is a structured object that has inputs and outputs, an object into which, at certain points in time, you can enter and from which you can output matter, energy, information. In some dynamic systems, processes proceed continuously in time, while in others they occur only at discrete moments of time. The latter are called discrete dynamical systems. In both cases, it is assumed that the behavior of the system can be analyzed in a certain time interval, which is directly defined by the term “dynamic”.
Adaptive systems are systems that operate under conditions of initial uncertainty and changing external conditions. The concept of adaptation was formed in physiology, where it is defined as a set of reactions that ensure the adaptation of the body to changes in internal and external conditions. In the theory of adaptation management, they call the process of accumulation and use of information in a system aimed at achieving an optimal state with initial immediacy and changing external conditions.
Hierarchical systems - systems, the elements of which are grouped by levels, vertically correlated with one another; in this case, the elements of the levels have branching outputs. Although the concept of "hierarchy" was constantly present in scientific and everyday life, a detailed theoretical study of hierarchical systems began relatively recently. Considering hierarchical systems, we will use the principle of opposition. As an object of opposition, we take systems with a linear structure (radial, centralized). Systems with centralized control are characterized by uniqueness, unidirectionality of control actions. Unlike them, hierarchical systems, systems of an arbitrary nature (technical, economic, biological, social, etc.) purposes have a multi-level and branched structure in functional, organizational or in any other way. Due to their universal nature and a number of advantages compared, for example, with linear structures, hierarchical systems are the subject of special attention in the theory and practice of management. The advantages of hierarchical systems should also include the freedom of local influences, the absence of the need to pass very large information flows through one control point, and increased reliability. When one element of a centralized system fails, the entire system fails; if one element in a hierarchical system fails, the probability of failure of the entire system is negligible. All hierarchical systems are characterized by:
■ consistent vertical arrangement of levels that make up the system (subsystem);
■ priority of actions of top-level subsystems (the right to intervene);
■ dependence of the actions of the top-level subsystem on the actual execution of its functions by the lower levels;
■ relative independence of subsystems, which makes it possible to combine centralized and decentralized management of a complex system.
Considering the conditionality of any classification, it should be noted that attempts at classification should in themselves have the properties of consistency, so classification can be considered a kind of modeling.
Systems are classified according to various criteria, for example:
■ by their origin (Fig. 3.3);
■ description of variables (Fig. 3.4);
There are many other classification methods, for example, according to the degree of resource provision of management, including energy, material, information resources.
In addition, systems can be divided into simple and complex, deterministic and probabilistic, linear and non-linear, etc.
Figure 3.3 Classification of systems by origin
Rice. 3.4. Classification of systems according to the description of variables
System Properties
Properties that characterize the essence of the system. The study of the properties of the system involves, first of all, the study of the relationship of parts and the whole. This means that:
1) the whole is primary, and the parts are secondary;
2) system-forming factors - these are the conditions for the interconnection of parts within one system;
3) parts form an inseparable whole so that the impact on any of them affects everything else;
4) each part has its specific purpose in terms of the goal towards which the activity of the whole is directed;
5) the nature of the parts and their functions are determined by the position of the parts as a whole, and their behavior is regulated by the relationship of the whole and its parts;
6) the whole behaves like a single entity, regardless of the degree of its complexity.
One of the most essential properties of systems that characterize their essence is emergence - the irreducibility of the properties of the system to the properties of its elements. Emergence is the presence of new qualities of the whole that are absent from its constituent parts. This means that the properties of the whole are not a simple sum of the properties of its constituent elements, although they depend on them. At the same time, the elements united in the system may lose the properties inherent in them outside the system, or acquire new ones.
One of the least studied properties of a system is equifinality. It characterizes the limiting capabilities of systems of a certain class of complexity. Bertalanffy, who proposed this term, defines equifinality in relation to an open system as “the ability of a system, in contrast to the equilibrium states in closed systems, completely determined by the initial conditions, to achieve a state independent of time and initial conditions, which is determined solely by the parameters of the system.” The need to introduce this concept arises starting from a certain level of system complexity. Equifinality is an internal predisposition to achieve some limiting state, which does not depend on external conditions. The idea of studying equifinality is to study the parameters that determine a certain limiting level of organization.
Properties characterizing the structure of systems. Analysis of system definitions allows us to highlight some of its main properties. They are that:
1) any system is a complex of interrelated elements;
2) the system forms a special unity with the external environment;
3) any system is an element of a higher order system;
4) the elements that make up the system, in turn, act as systems of a lower order.
These properties can be analyzed according to the scheme (Fig. 3.5), where: A - system; B and D are elements of system A; C is an element of system B. Element B, which serves as an element of system A, in turn, is a lower-level system that consists of its own elements, including, for example, element C. And if we consider element B as a system interacting with the external environment , then the latter in this case will be represented by system C (an element of system A). Therefore, the feature of unity with the external environment can be interpreted as the interaction of elements of the system of a higher order. Similar reasoning can be carried out for any element of any system.
Rice. 3.5 Illustration of system properties
Properties that characterize the functioning and development of systems. The most essential properties of this class are purposefulness (expediency), efficiency and complexity of systems. The goal is one of the basic concepts that characterize the functioning of systems of arbitrary nature. It is an ideal internal motivating motive for certain actions. Goal formation is an attribute of systems based on human activity. Such systems can change their tasks in conditions of constancy or changes in the external and internal environment. This is how they show their will.
The parameters of systems capable of goal setting are:
■ the probability of choosing a certain course of action in a certain environment;
■ the effectiveness of the course of action;
■ usefulness of the result.
The functioning of systems capable of goal-setting is determined by external supra-system criteria of efficiency and effectiveness as a measure of purposefulness. Efficiency is an external criterion in relation to the system and requires taking into account the properties of the system at a higher level, i.e. supersystems. Thus, the purpose of the system is related to the concept of efficiency.
Non-goal systems, i.e. systems that do not form goals are not characterized by efficiency.
There are two questions here:
1) the question of the purpose for systems of inanimate nature, technical, physical, etc.;
2) the question of the effectiveness of ergatic systems, i.e. systems, an element of which, along with technical components, is a person.
In connection with the questions raised, three cases should be distinguished:
1) the system really has a purpose;
2) the system bears the imprint of goal-setting human activity;
3) the system behaves as if it had a purpose.
In all these cases, the goal is directly related to the state of the system, although in the last two cases it cannot be considered as an internal motive for actions and cannot have any other interpretation than teleological, only expressed in terms of cybernetics.
In a physical system (for example, in the solar system), the achievement of a certain state (for example, a certain relative position of the planets) can be associated with the concept of a goal only in the context of predestination due to the physical laws of nature. Therefore, arguing that the system, once in a certain state, reaches a given goal, we believe that the goal exists a priori. At the same time, the goal, considered outside the volitional and intellectual activity of a person, only interprets the general interdisciplinary view of the problem of describing systems of an arbitrary nature. Therefore, the goal can be defined as the most preferred state in the future. This not only forms a unity in research methods, but also allows you to create a conceptual framework for the mathematical apparatus for this kind of research.
The goal-setting activity of man is connected with the fact that he distinguishes himself from nature. Purposeful functioning of machines always bears the imprint of purposeful human activity.
The significance of the dialectical community in the principles of goal-setting and physical causality especially increases when the system under study contains technical, economic and social components, as, for example, in a production system.
Let's return to the second question related to the inapplicability of the concept of "efficiency" to inanimate systems. If, as an example, we consider the means of technological equipment in a production system, then we can only talk about cost, performance, reliability, and other similar characteristics.
The effectiveness of the system is manifested when we take into account the goals of the people who create and use this technique in production. For example, the productivity of a particular automatic line may be high, but the products themselves, which are produced using this line, may not be in demand.
The contradictory properties of the concept of "efficiency" create certain difficulties in its understanding, interpretation and application. The contradiction lies in the fact that, on the one hand, efficiency is an attribute of the system, the same as the goal, and on the other hand, performance evaluation is based on the properties of the supersystem that forms the efficiency criteria. This contradiction is dialectical in nature and stimulates the development of ideas about the effectiveness of systems. Linking efficiency with the goal, it should be noted that the goal should be, in principle, achievable. The goal may not be achieved, but this does not contradict the possibility of its fundamental achievability. In addition to the main goal, the system has an ordered set of subgoals that form a hierarchical structure (a tree of goals). The subjects of goal-setting in this case are the subsystems and elements of the system.
The concept of a complex system. An important place in systems theory is occupied by clarifying what a complex system is and how it differs, for example, from a system with just a large number of elements (such systems can be called cumbersome systems).
There are various attempts to define the concept of a complex system:
1) in a complex system, the exchange of information occurs at the semantic, semantic level, and in simple systems, all information communications occur at the syntactic level;
2) in simple systems, the control process is based on target criteria. Complex systems are characterized by the possibility of behavior based not on a given structure of goals, but on a system of values;
3) for simple systems, deterministic behavior is characteristic, for complex - probabilistic;
4) a self-organizing system is complex, i.e. a system that develops in the direction of decreasing entropy without the intervention of higher-level systems;
5) only systems of living nature are complex.
The generalization of numerous approaches allows us to single out several basic concepts of the simplicity (complexity) of systems. These include:
■ logical concept of simplicity (complexity) of systems. Here measures of some properties of relations are defined, which are considered to simplify or complicate;
■ information-theoretical concept, which involves the identification of entropy with a measure of the complexity of systems;
■ algorithmic concept, according to which the complexity is determined by the characteristics of the algorithm required for the reconstruction of the object under study;
■ set-theoretic concept. Here, the complexity is linked to the power of the set of elements that make up the object under study;
■ a statistical concept relating complexity to the probability of the state of the system.
A common feature of all these concepts is the approach to the definition of complexity as a consequence of insufficient information for the desired quality of system management. In determining the level of complexity of the system, the role of the subject is decisive. Really existing objects have a self-sufficient systemicity, the category “complexity of the system” arises along with the appearance of the subject of research. A complex or simple system appears to the subject only insofar as he wants and can see it as such. For example, what a psychologist sees as a complex system may turn out to be an elementary object, a staff unit for an accountant, or what an economist considers a simple system, a physicist may consider as a very complex system.
Typology is a classification of objects according to common features. The need for a typology of the organization arises when the accumulation of research data and their presentation in the organization makes it necessary to form its unified picture.
Organization typology allows:
■ systematize the object, focus on the features, similarities and differences of organizations in various parameters (goals, structure, functions, etc.);
■ Establish a commonality of problems and typify them across organizations so that some organizations can use problem-solving techniques used in others;
■ characterize society from an organizational point of view, which can be used in the analysis of possible changes in the structure of society.
Consider the classification of organizations according to some of the most significant features.
Classification of organizations according to the principles of management.
According to the principles of management, the following types of organizations are distinguished:
■ uninodal (from Latin unnis (uni) - one);
■ multi-nodal (from lat. multum - a lot);
■ homogeneous (uniform);
■ heterogeneous (dissimilar).
The uninodal organization has a hierarchical structure: in it, at the top of the pyramid of power, there is an individual who has a decisive vote and is able to solve all the problems that arise at lower levels.
The multinodal organization is characterized by the absence of personalized authority; decisions are made by two or more autonomous responsible persons.
A homogeneous organization governs its members more than they govern it.
A heterogeneous organization is governed by its members more than it controls them.
Almost all real organizations have the features mentioned, but often one of the features predominates.
Classification of organizations by functional features. The classification of organizations by functional features is shown in fig. 3.6. Let's consider one of the levels represented by business, public (union), associative organizations and settlements.
Rice. 3.6. Classification of organizations according to functional signs
Business organizations are created both by individual entrepreneurs and larger social systems - the state, local authorities, etc. Participation in them gives income and wages. The basis of internal regulation is the administrative procedure, the principles of expediency, subordination.
Public (union) organizations are a generalization of the goals of individual participants. Regulation is ensured by the accepted norms (charter) and the principle of election. Membership in such organizations ensures the satisfaction of the political, social, cultural, creative and other interests of the participants.
Associative organizations are characterized by some autonomy from the environment, relative stability of the composition, a hierarchy of roles, a relatively stable distribution of participants according to the level of prestige, and the adoption of common decisions. Regulatory functions are carried out primarily by spontaneously formed collective norms and values. Associative organizations are built on the mutual satisfaction of interests, when the unification factor is not a common goal, but the goal of any subject, i.e. the goals of the subjects do not contradict each other.
Settlements are similar in essence to associative organizations, but the main factor that unites them is the territory.
Classification of organizations according to their social functions.
In addition to solving economic problems, any business organization performs public functions, i.e. her actions always have social consequences.
Figure 3.7 shows the structure of the social functions of business organizations, which are based on the satisfaction of human needs and the solution of integration problems.
Rice. 3.7. Classification of organizations for their supporting functions.
Classification of organizations according to the principles of goal setting.
On the basis of goal setting, there are several types of organizations that have real prototypes:
value-oriented organizations whose behavior is determined by a given system of values;
goal-setting organizations that have the ability to form for themselves the goals of activity and change them based on the results achieved, their own evolution and changes in the external environment;
purposeful organizations that have a single and unchanging main goal. Since the goal must be at least achievable in principle, such organizations are temporary;
goal-oriented organizations that act in accordance with clearly formulated and set by a higher-level system of goals that can change;
goal-oriented organizations that have goals that are not clearly formulated and set by a higher-level system, which, within certain limits, can be refined by them;
purposeful organizations operating to fulfill one of the secondary goals set by the supersystem, therefore their activity is of a one-time nature;
In modern management, attention to value-oriented organizations is increasing. It is customary to call the system of values the most stable category of human relations, which is formed throughout the previous experience of practical and theoretical activity. The value system is the basis of goal setting.
The representation of an organization as a system, as a kind of static object with an objectified structure, makes it possible to classify organizations according to various criteria, which, in turn, creates the prerequisites for their comprehensive study.
Any automatic system consists of separate interconnected structural elements that perform certain functions, which are commonly called elements or means of automation. From the point of view of the functional tasks performed by the elements in the system, they can be divided into perceiving, setting, comparing, transforming, executive and corrective.
Perceiving elements or primary transducers (sensors) measure the controlled quantities of technological processes and convert them from one physical form to another (for example, it converts the temperature difference into thermoEMF).
Setting elements of automation (setting elements) serve to set the required value of the controlled variable Xo. This value should correspond to its actual value. Examples of drivers: mechanical controllers, electrical controllers such as variable resistors, variable inductors and switches.
Comparing elements of automation the set value of the controlled variable X0 is compared with the actual value X. The error signal Δ X = Xo - X obtained at the output of the comparing element is transmitted either through the amplifier or directly to the actuating element.
Transforming elements carry out the necessary signal conversion and its amplification in magnetic, electronic, semiconductor and other amplifiers, when the signal power is insufficient for further use.
Executive elements create control actions on the control object. They change the amount of energy or matter supplied to or removed from the controlled object so that the controlled value corresponds to a given value.
Corrective elements serve to improve the quality of the management process.
In addition to the basic elements in automatic systems, there are also auxiliary, which include switching devices and protection elements, resistors, capacitors and signaling equipment.
All, regardless of their purpose, have a certain set of characteristics and parameters that determine their operational and technological features.
The main of the main characteristics is element static characteristic. It represents the dependence of the output value Xout on the input Xin in the steady state, i.e. Xout \u003d f (Xin). Depending on the influence of the sign of the input value, there are non-reversible (when the sign of the output value remains constant over the entire range of change) and reversible static characteristics (when a change in the sign of the input value leads to a change in the sign of the output value).
Dynamic response used to evaluate the operation of the element in dynamic mode, i.e., with rapid changes in the input value. It is set by the transient response, transfer function, frequency response. The transient response is the dependence of the output value Хout on time τ: Хout = f (τ) - with an abrupt change in the input signal Хin.
Transfer ratio can be determined by the static characteristic of the element. There are three types of transmission coefficients: static, dynamic (differential) and relative.
Static Gain K st is the ratio of the output value Xout to the input Xin, i.e. Kst \u003d Xout / Xin. The transfer coefficient is sometimes referred to as the transform coefficient. In relation to specific structural elements, the static transmission coefficient is also called the gain (in amplifiers), the reduction factor (in gearboxes), etc.
For elements with a non-linear characteristic, a dynamic (differential) transfer coefficient Kd is used, i.e. Kd =Δ xv /Δ Hvh.
Relative gain The cat is equal to the ratio of the relative change in the output value of the element ΔXout/Xout. n to the relative change in the input value ΔХin/Хin. n,
Cat \u003d (ΔXout / Xout. n) / ΔXin / Xin. n,
where Whoa. n and Khvh. n - nominal values of the output and input quantities. This coefficient is a dimensionless value and is convenient when comparing elements that are different in design and principle of operation.
Sensitivity threshold- the smallest value of the input quantity, at which there is a noticeable change in the output quantity. It is caused by the presence in the structures of friction elements without lubricants, gaps and backlashes in the joints.
A feature of automatic closed systems, which use the principle of control by deviation, is the presence of feedback. Let us consider the principle of feedback operation using the example of a temperature control system for an electric heating furnace. In order to maintain the temperature within the specified limits, the control action applied to the object, i.e. the voltage supplied to the heating elements, is formed taking into account the temperature value.
With the help of a primary temperature transducer, the output of the system is connected to its input. Such a connection, i.e., a channel through which information is transmitted in the opposite direction compared to the control action, is called feedback.
Feedback is positive and negative, rigid and flexible, main and additional.
positive feedback A connection is called when the signs of the feedback action and the master action coincide. Otherwise, the feedback is called negative.
Scheme of the simplest automatic control system: 1 - control object, 2 - main feedback link, 3 - comparison element, 4 - amplifier, 5 - actuator, 6 - feedback element, 7 - corrective element.
If the transmitted effect depends only on the value of the controlled parameter, i.e., does not depend on time, then such a connection is considered rigid. hard feedback operates in both steady state and transient modes. Flexible feedback is called a connection that operates only in the transitional mode. Flexible feedback is characterized by the transmission through it to the input of the first or second derivative of the change in the controlled variable with respect to time. With flexible feedback, an output signal exists only when the controlled variable changes with time.
Home Feedback connects the output of the control system to its input, i.e., connects the controlled value with the master device. The remaining feedbacks are considered additional or local. Additional feedback transmit an impact signal from the output of any link of the system to the input of any previous link. They are used to improve the properties and characteristics of individual elements.
The term "system" is defined using such terms as "connection" (or "relationship"), "element", "whole", "unity". In purely verbal formulations, one can still find agreement, but representatives of different sciences put such different meanings into these words that in fact their agreement is only visible: for some, “connection” is simply a geometric relationship of parts; for others ¾ dependence between parts or sides of the whole; some will call a geometric relationship "structure", others will reduce it to a "set" of elements.
Often theoretical definitions diverge from empirical material. For example, the famous English cyberneticist St. Beer calls the interconnection of the most diverse elements a system, and as an example he cites billiards, in which there are actually no interconnections, but only the functional unity of the whole. Therefore, it would probably be most correct to say that at present there are no satisfactory, sufficiently widely accepted concepts of system and structure.
The society for the development of a "general systems theory" could not offer such concepts either. G.H. Good and R.E. Macall, who analyze "large-scale" systems, refuse to make any attempt to pinpoint the boundaries that delineate the systems they consider. "As is usually the case in any area, ¾ they note, ¾ these borders run through wide undefined territories and the search for their exact position would cause great but fruitless disputes." And in fact, the position they express is the only one widely held among those who study specific systems and structures.
Based on modern works, various objects of reality can be considered systems: 1) material and ideal objects; 2) ideal models and designs built by people on their basis; 3) ideal models; 4) material objects built by people:
If we agree with Averyanov's statement that "systematicity is an attributive property of matter", then one should proceed from the first concept. When using the broadest approach, everything seems to be systemic. In this case, the system will be space, science, and a machine built on the basis of science. This approach leads to a simplification of the content of the system and reduces the scientific problem to the knowledge of the system of each object.
"Material systems consist of objects that exist objectively, ideal systems consist of ideal objects that exist only in consciousness" . There is an opinion that only the objective can be considered a system. "A system is, first of all, not a symbolic model of an object, but the object itself, taken in the process of development" .
The recognition of non-man-made objects of reality by systems in itself does little. The effect of consistency involves the construction of a system information symbolic model of a given object. Only after a certain subjectivization of the objective can the latter really become a "system" and can be used in practical activity.
"The question is not whether there is movement, but how to express it in the logic of concepts." Accordingly, not the recognition of the object of reality by the system, but how to express its systemic nature in concepts. Consistency in itself becomes systematic for people only after people master the method of system reproduction in the logic of the concepts of system objects.
There are concepts whose authors recognize only subjective phenomena as systemic. "The real object exists independently of us, objectively, and the system is a subjective construction" . In this case, before the advent of intelligent subjects, there were no systems. People themselves, as biological beings, are not systemic. Only the products of human labor can be systemic, systemicity is the style of an ideal reflection of the world. In this case, two concepts are possible. In one case, only the ideal is recognized as systemic, and in the other, only the material. Any ideal (non-materialized and materialized) can be considered as a system.
When choosing one of these approaches, many issues of its interpretation will be solved differently. In accordance with the first, everything real can be a system, and in accordance with the second approach, the system is a certain level of development of an ideal reflection of the ordered and material devices created on their basis.
Different approaches can be considered justified to some extent. In the current practice of determining terms, more cannot be achieved. Therefore, moving away from controversy on this issue, let us pay attention, first of all, to the subordination of the types of the human-created systemic world.
"... Until the end of the last century, natural science was predominantly a collecting science, a science of finished objects. In our century, it has become in essence an ordering science, a science of processes, the origin and development of these objects and the connection that connects these processes of nature into one great whole". Difficulties "only then begin when they begin to consider and organize the material ...".
Consideration of the orderliness of the material should be based on a systematic approach to it. In this case, one can trace the growth in the ordering of the material and its complexity during the transition to more developed levels of the material. Orderliness should be considered at each level of the material with a more specific subordination of objects. Here one can also observe an increase in complexity and ordering, although in some cases reverse processes also take place, i.e. growth of entropy based on destruction.
In general, the nature of the transitions between chaos and order can be of various kinds. The scientific understanding of these transitions presupposes the allocation of a hierarchical system of terminological expression of these transitions.
Considering nature from the point of view of order in it, one can distinguish a number of its types, parts. Parts of nature with the least order exist in a chaotic state, and with the maximum order they represent systems. The ordered arose out of the disordered. Chaos turns into order.
The trend of complication, increase in the organization of the system is denoted by the term negentropy. The tendency of disorganization, simplification of the system, destruction or death of systems has received the name of entropy.
Concerning the subordination of the elements of nature from the point of view of its orderliness, ambiguous judgments have been made. It is difficult to agree that entropy and chaos are growing in nature. The entropy decreases, i.e. the negentropy and orderliness grow. In our world, not destructive, but creative processes prevail. Therefore, entropy decreases and order increases. At the same time, it is quite possible to assume that in nature there is not a permanent tendency for the growth of order, but a cyclicity, when in some periods entropy prevails, in others negentropy tendencies. But there is no doubt that in order for entropy (ie, destructive, destructive) processes to take place, it is necessary that a reserve of order was created in the previous period, and the degree of order was higher. This can only be the result of an increase in order in the previous period of time, when an appropriate level (reserve) of organization must be created.
The degree of orderliness of everything material is growing, including growing at our material level, at least in our historical period and in "our corner of the universe." "Society (the highest form of development of the negentropic tendency of wildlife" .
Systematic ordering of the material can only be the result of expedient activity. However, in addition to such a strict, but not fully substantiated approach, the term system can also be used for material objects that have arisen spontaneously.
Chaos passes into order through a certain process, which can be divided into a number of states: a set, a set, a complex, an organism, a system, a cladogram.
A set is a collection that has a common specific property. When considering a set, attention is paid to this common element, which to some extent arranges this set;
A collection is a series of objects that make up a unity. It may just be a mechanical unit;
Complex - any part of reality, considered as an independent, integral object;
An organism is a certain kind of totality and multitude, inherent in living beings and characterized by unity, integrity;
The system is a product of the creative activity of people who have not sufficiently understood the very essence of systemicity;
The cladogram is a real, pragmatic system that underlies biology and is a universal method for explaining reality based on dialectical logic.
The system consists of heterogeneous elements. In the system, the components differ in functional features. The degree of development of the systemic nature of each object of reality is determined by the number of constituent elements (the more of them, the more developed the system), the degree of their functional difference, integration.
The emergence of consistency leads to an increase in orderliness and represents a qualitative leap in the growth of orderliness. However, the ordering at the system level continues to grow and may be different. At the same time, the degree of difference in the ordering of system objects is also different. Progress consists in the emergence of more and more ordered systems.
The ideal is not uniformly ordered. The progress of ways of ordering the ideal is characterized in the same way as any other developing phenomenon.
The system of ideal ordering methods consists of different elements, not equally developed. They should be viewed through the prism of the most developed way. The key points in the development of the integration process in the ideal have not been widely recognized, so their understanding should be given special attention.
Ordering is the initial integration of the ideal. In this case, there is at least some sort of ordering of the ideal, for example, the ordering of nails by size.
Cataloging is a more complex ordering system based on the ordering of object names, such as in a dictionary or library.
Grouping - ordering objects according to a certain attribute.
Typification can be represented as a more developed kind of ordering based on the formation of a set of forms.
Classification is a more advanced way of integration. There are more requirements for it than for typing.
Systematization is the most developed type of integration in comparison with ordering, typification and classification. Systematics is a classification based on the development of an object.
In the realm of reality, where its elements are not amenable to ordering on the basis of universal principles of systematization, one should give them a different ordering, even cataloging - a simple list of key issues.
Systematization is an element, first of all, of scientific life; systematization is an ideal way of manifesting the orderliness of the material. On this basis, the most developed part of the material arises - the reality systemically built by people. The material is initially ordered spontaneously. At a certain stage in the ordering of the material, it begins to be ideally reflected. At a certain stage in the development of the material and ideal, systematization becomes the main way of reflecting the ordering material and the existence of a certain part of it.
Ordering is not systematization. Systematization is not just ordering, but represents the ordering of the ideal for a more adequate reflection of the material and the construction of material systems. Systematization is not a property of the material itself, but a property of the ideal and the result of human activity. The orderliness of the material is more adequately reflected in the ideal when the latter becomes systemic. Usually people systematize not the material, but the ideal expression of the material. The philatelist organizes the stamps, placing them in a certain order. This represents the systematization of the material on the basis of the systematized ideal. Usually taxonomists rearrange relative to each other not material objects, but their ideal expression. Figuratively speaking, the system of animals is built on paper, and not in the form of a zoo, where the biospecies themselves are located relative to each other. The systematics of the ideal is the starting point for the conscious ordering of material objects.
The systematization of the material is a special case of systematization and can be understood as secondary to the systematization of the ideal expression of the material.
All objects of reality can be divided into several types: self-developing, self-increasing, self-organizing, self-governing.
The degree of order increases in the specified sequence. The first two forms of objects are generally pre-organic, and the next two are associated with life. At the same time, self-governing objects, in our opinion, are associated exclusively with superorganismal connections of a higher type, i.e. with human society.
Self-managed objects are diverse. They are based on the fact that their constituent elements are ideal systems that reflect reality. Self-managed objects cannot exist without ideal subsystems. The transition from self-organizing to self-managing objects is associated with the construction of ideal systems.
Systematization is a way of building, first of all, ideal systems. At the same time, it is believed that the systematization of the ideal is the starting point for the construction of material system objects (machines, devices, etc.).
When considering the systematization of the ideal, one should take into account the position of F. Engels, who noted that "empirical natural science has accumulated such a mass of positive material that in each individual area of \u200b\u200bresearch it has become downright irremovable the need to arrange this material systematically and in accordance with its internal connection" .
"So, systemicity as a principle of cognition forms only one of the facets of the process of theoretical study of reality."
3.1 Process approach to management.
3.2 A systematic approach to the study of management problems.
3.3 Situational approach in the management process.
4. Research of control systems and their design.
1. Vesnin V. R. Management: a textbook for universities / V. R. Vesnin. - 3rd ed., revised. and additional - M.: TK Velby. - 2006. - 504 p.
2. Meskon M. Kh. Fundamentals of management / M. Kh. Meskon, M. Albert, F. Hedouri; per. from English. - M.: Delo, 2005. - 720 p.
3. Fundamentals of management theory: a textbook for universities / ed. V. N. Parakhina, L. I. Ushvitsky. - M.: Finance and statistics. - 2004. - 560 p.
4. Roy O. M. Control theory: a tutorial / O. M. Roy. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2008. - 256 p.
5. Management theory: textbook for universities / ed. A. L. Gaponenko, A. P. Pankrukhina. - 2nd ed. - M. : Publishing House of the RAGS, 2005. - 558 p.
Management has the property consistency, therefore, we begin its study with an acquaintance with the basic provisions of systems theory.
Under system refers to a set of interconnected parts - components combined to achieve a common goal (the effect of the system) into a single whole, the interaction between which is characterized by orderliness and regularity in a specific period of time.
The main components of the system include: element of the system, relationships between elements, subsystem, structure of the system.
The first component of the system is element- the minimum integral part of the system, which is functionally capable of reflecting some general patterns of the system as a whole.
There are two types of elements: workers(the main function is to transform the input factors into a certain result) and protective.
Each system has a main backbone element(quality, attitude), which to one degree or another ensures the unity of all the others. If it is determined by the nature of the system, then it is called internal, otherwise - external. In social systems, this element can be either explicit or implicit.
For example, in the USSR, the CPSU and its constitutionally enshrined leadership role were the system-forming element. Failure to understand this circumstance led to the deprivation of the CPSU of this role without assigning it to another institution. As a result, not only the political and ideological system, but also the state itself collapsed.
As a result of the impact of the system-forming element, the remaining elements form overall quality, i.e., signs characteristic of each of them individually and the system as a whole.
The unity of the elements of the system arises as a result of the fact that between them are established connections, i.e., real interactions that are characterized by: type (they are sequential, convergent, divergent); by force; character (can be subordinate, equal, indifferent); character (unilateral or mutual); degree of constancy (episodic, regular, etc.).
That is, the second component of the system is the relationship between elements or connections. Relationships can be neutral when both elements do not undergo any structural or functional changes, or functional when one element, acting on another, leads to structural or functional changes in this element.
The third component of the system is subsystem, consisting of a number of system elements that can be combined according to similar functional manifestations. A system can have a different number of subsystems. It depends on the main functions of the subsystem: internal and external.
The fourth component of the system is system-theme structure- a certain structure, the mutual arrangement of elements and the connections existing between them, way of organizing whole made up of parts. Links, as well as a system-forming element, ensure the integrity of the system, its unity.
The nature of the relationship between the elements depends not only on the relative position of the latter, but also on their characteristics (for example, relations in the same size women's, men's and mixed teams will be different).
The structure is determined by the goals and functions of the system, but there is no moment of interaction in its characteristics.
In a broad sense, the structure can be viewed as a set of rules and regulations that regulate the operation of the system.
The structure of the system can be classified according to the following criteria:
By the number of hierarchy levels (single-level and multi-level);
According to the principles of subordination (centralization - decentralization);
For the intended purpose;
According to the functions performed;
According to the principles of breaking down elements into subsystems (such can be functional and object).
In general, the structure of the system is described by two main groups of characteristics:
Associated with hierarchy (number of subsystems, levels, connections; principles
breakdowns into subsystems; degree of centralization);
Reflecting the efficiency of functioning (reliability, survivability, speed, throughput, flexibility, variability, etc.).
The structure gives the system integrity and internal organization, within which the interaction of elements obeys certain laws. If such organization is minimal, the systems are called disordered, like a crowd on the street.
Since the elements and connections are not homogeneous within the same structural set of them, the system will have modifications. For example, the teams of two organizations with the same staffing will be completely different, since the people themselves and their personal relationships are different.
The system is characterized by a number of properties:
The system has borders, separating her from external environment. They can be "transparent", allowing the penetration of external impulses into it, and "opaque", tightly separating it from the rest of the world.
The system is inherent emergence, i.e., the appearance of qualitatively new properties that are absent or uncharacteristic of its elements. At the same time, elements combined into a system may lose their properties that are inherent to them outside the system. Thus, the properties of the whole are not equal to the sum of the properties of the parts, although they depend on them.
The system has feedback, which is understood as a certain reaction of it as a whole (individual elements) to each other's impulses and external influences. Feedback provides them with information about the real situation, compensates for the influence of interference. For example, in the system of relationships "leader - subordinate" the form of feedback may be a letter of resignation.
The system is characterized adaptability, those. the ability to maintain qualitative certainty in changing conditions. Adaptability is ensured by the simplicity of the structure, flexibility, redundancy of resources.
The system is characterized reduction, manifested in the fact that under certain conditions it behaves more simply than its individual elements. This is explained by the fact that such elements in the system impose restrictions on each other that do not allow them to independently choose their states. Therefore, the behavior of the system as a whole is subject not to particular, but to general laws, which are usually simpler in themselves.
The system can be destroyed over time under the influence of both the external environment and internal processes.
· The system can be controlled in order to ensure that it follows a given trajectory of development and functioning. There are the following ways to do this:
1) regulation and correction in case of unpredictable influences causing deviations;
2) change in system parameters based on prediction, applied
in case of impossibility to set a reference development trajectory for the entire period or significant deviations that do not allow returning to it;
3) a radical restructuring, if the goals are unattainable in principle
and we need to find a new system that can do this.
Let's take a look at what systems are.
By direction of connections between elements of the system are divided into centralized (all communications are carried out through one central element) and decentralized (direct contacts between elements predominate). An example of a centralized system is a ministry and its local bodies; decentralized - association.
Systems where the connection of elements goes only along one line are called partial, and for many full. A system where each element is connected along one line only with the previous and subsequent ones is called chain. Its example is the pipeline.
According to the composition of the elements systems are homogeneous(homogeneous) and heterogeneous(diverse). For example, according to age, a school class is usually a homogeneous system, and according to gender, it is heterogeneous.
Systems characterized by the predominance of internal links compared to external ones, where centripetal is greater than centrifugal, and common characteristics are inherent in individual elements, are called holistic. An example of an integral system today is the NATO bloc.
A system that is preserved as a whole when one or more elements change or disappear is called sustainable, such as any biological organism. If at the same time it is possible to restore the lost elements, then it is regenerative(for example, lizards).
Systems can be changing (dynamic) and immutable (static). The former include living organisms, the latter - most of the technical devices. Dynamic systems are subdivided into primary, initial, and secondary, already undergone certain changes.
If changes are carried out linearly, unidirectionally, there will be observed growth systems. Non-linear, multidirectional changes occurring with unequal intensity, as a result of which connections, the ratio of elements change, characterize the process of its development .
Incompleteness happens substrate(transformations occur in the elements themselves) and structural(their composition and ratio changes). If the system retains its characteristics when the substrate changes, it is called stationary. For example, the replacement of rolling stock gives the urban transport system a substratum incompleteness, while a change in routes and the number of cars on the line gives it a structural one. Since the possibility of the normal functioning of this system does not depend on which brands of vehicles are used, it is stationary.
A system consisting of a number of heterogeneous elements is called difficult. The complexity of the system is due to their large number, diversity, interconnectedness, uncertainty of behavior and reactions. Such systems are usually multi-level and hierarchical (the highest level controls the lower level and at the same time is itself subordinate to the higher one). The introduction of an additional element into them (even similar to the existing ones) generates new and changes existing relations within the system.
Systems are divided into mechanistic and organic.
mechanistic systems they have a constant set of unchanging elements, clear boundaries, unambiguous connections, they are not able to change and develop, they function under the influence of external impulses. In a mechanistic system, the connections between elements are external in nature, do not affect the internal essence of each of them. Therefore, the elements are less dependent on the system and retain their independent existence outside of it (the wheel of a watch can play the role of a spare part for a long time). But the loss of at least one element by such a system leads to a violation of the entire mechanism of functioning. The most obvious example of this is the same clock.
organic systems have opposite qualities. In them, the dependence of the part on the whole increases, and the whole on the part, on the contrary, decreases. For example, a person with the loss of many organs can continue his life. The deeper the connection of the elements of an organic system, the greater the role of the whole in relation to them. Such systems have properties that mechanistic ones do not have, for example, the ability to self-organize and self-reproduce.
The specific form of an organic system is social(society, company, team, etc.).
The system (in its most general form) can be characterized as something whole, consisting of interrelated and interdependent parts, the interaction of which generates new integrative qualities that are not inherent in individual components.
Any system has two main content characteristics.
First, integrity: the system is a set of concrete, with their inherent properties and the nature of the relationship of parts.
Secondly, divisibility: the system consists of subsystems that also have system properties, that is, they can be represented as systems of a lower level.
A management (management) system is a system in which management (management) functions are implemented.
The control system can be represented as an interaction of three elements. The first element is the subject of control. As the second element of control (management) or the control part of the system that has a managerial impact, the third element of the system is the control object.
Control subsystem is a set of management bodies of the enterprise, managed - a set of shops, sections, teams and jobs. The control and managed subsystems are interconnected by command flows and reverse information flows, reflecting the reaction of the managed subsystem to incoming commands.
The control subsystem includes a number of elements, the simultaneous operation of which allows you to effectively manage the enterprise.
These include:
Organization management (management functions and management structures);
Management methods (economic, administrative-legal, organizational, socio-psychological);
Control technology;
Control technique.
The object of management is an employee, a group of persons, a labor collective. The objects of management can also be: resources, processes, results, all types of human activity.
Organizations in the course of their activities use material, labor, financial, information, technological and other resources. Accordingly, as objects of control - resources can be:
- commodity stocks;
Financial resources;
Information array;
Organization staff.
In any organization, there are many processes, from the management process to the production process. The most important parts of the production process are the supply, production and marketing of products. In accordance with this, the following can act as objects of control - processes:
Manufacturing process;
Trade and technological process;
Marketing activity of the enterprise;
Logistics of the enterprise, etc.
The results (outputs of the system) include: profit, profitability, production and sales volumes, costs, product quality, etc. Accordingly, the following can serve as management objects - results:
- the quality of goods produced or services rendered;
Results of management or production activities;
labor productivity;
Production or management costs, etc.
An enterprise as an open system can be represented as follows:
The management system of a modern organization (enterprise) must meet the following basic requirements:
Have high flexibility;
Be adequate to a complex production technology that requires appropriate forms of control, organization and division of labor;
Promptly respond to changes in the factors of the external and internal environment of the enterprise, market conditions;
Take into account competition in the relevant market of goods (services);
Take into account the requirements for the quality of customer service and the fulfillment of contracts;
Ensure high efficiency of enterprise management;
Contribute to the development of the organization;
Ensure the implementation of scientific achievements and best practices;
Have the ability to self-regulate so that any deviations from the norm (in terms of cost, quality, timing, etc.) are quickly fixed (ideally, automatically) and countermeasures are immediately developed and taken to return the control system to its previous normal state.
Communication is an indispensable element of any control system. Communication can be defined as an important for the purposes of management, interaction, the channel of exchange between the subjects of matter, energy, information. The single act of communication is the impact.
Links can be direct, reverse, vertical, horizontal, etc.
Direct connection is the impact of the subject of management on the object in the form of management commands, decisions, recommendations, etc.
Feedback is information coming from the control object to the control subject. The existence of feedback means that the result of the functioning of the control object in a certain way affects the impacts that come to it. As a rule, feedback acts as an important regulator in the control system.
The given direct and feedback links are classified as vertical. In addition to them, there are also horizontal connections that make it possible to implement informal relations that contribute to the transfer of knowledge and skills, ensuring the coordination of actions of subjects of the same level to achieve the goals set by the management system.
Thus, management is a management system that ensures the effective functioning and development of an organization in a competitive environment.
5. Organization: concept, features, classification
Company - it is an independent economic entity created by an entrepreneur or an association of entrepreneurs to produce products, perform work and provide services in order to meet public needs and make a profit.
Enterprises specializing in the production of homogeneous products form the corresponding branches of material production: industry, agriculture, transport, construction, etc. They make up the structure of the industry, determine their profile and scope. In addition, enterprises and organizations form the territorial specialization of cities and regions in which they are located. Thus, enterprises and their teams are the main elements from which branch and territorial complexes are formed at the same time. Therefore, enterprises act as the main links of the national economic complex.
Currently, in domestic practice, the concept of "firm" is becoming more widespread. The latter is often used as a synonym for the enterprise, which contradicts its semantic purpose. So, if an enterprise plays the role of a direct commodity producer, then the firm is called upon to play the role of an entrepreneur creating or transforming an enterprise that provides financing for their activities. The very name of the company, its trademark, used when concluding business contracts for goods, their packaging, allows you to individualize a particular enterprise and the activity of the company, unlike other manufacturers of homogeneous products.
The economic role of the enterprise is to meet the needs of consumers and provide income to its employees, owner and suppliers.
Operating in a certain territory (city, district, region, republic), enterprises ensure its well-being, on which they themselves depend. The enterprise must organize its activities, focus on the person, that is, it also plays social role.
Consider the economic and social functions of the enterprise in three aspects:
The role of the company in relation to its customers,
The role of the company in relation to its employees,
The role of the enterprise in relation to the owner of the property of the enterprise.
Most of the company's products are intended for sale on the market to meet the needs of their clients. For this, it makes a profit, so the company needs a stable clientele. For its part, the consumer needs goods of a certain quality at affordable prices. A strong relationship is created between them, which can only exist and strengthen if both parties are satisfied with their ties. Only by serving customers, an enterprise can actually satisfy its needs and thereby realize profits. Thus, the role of the enterprise in relation to its customers is to serve them.
Enterprises, ultimately, ensure the harmonious development of the economy, focused on meeting the needs that are recognized as the most useful for the individual and society.
In relation to to their employees the company must provide them:
1) the necessary technical means to enable personnel to achieve the highest productivity,
2) the best working conditions, an environment in which employees work with pleasure,
3) appropriate wages,
4) employment protection.
The role of the enterprise in relation to the owner of the property comes down to making a profit necessary to:
1) to ensure the stability necessary for the enterprise itself and its staff,
2) not cause damage to its employees, as well as creditors, society in the event of a violation of the normal functioning of the enterprise,
3) ensure self-financing of the enterprise.
Enterprise goal:
1) satisfaction of social needs,
2) making a profit.
The following can be distinguished signs of the enterprise.
1. An enterprise is, first of all, organization- those. harmonious combination of material elements of production and labor force.
For the functioning of such an organization, a complex is required, including a land plot, buildings, structures, and equipment. In addition to the means of labor for production and economic activities, labor is also needed.
2. Any enterprise manufactures products or provides services. This product is used as:
consumable item,
Means of production in new production cycles.
The enterprise is obliged to produce high-quality products at optimal costs in order to better meet social needs and increase the well-being of the enterprise team.
3. The enterprise is legal entity, owning, managing or managing separate property and liable for its obligations with this property.
4. The enterprise carries out any types of activities that are provided for by its charter and not prohibited by the current legislation.
5. Enterprise:
Independently organizes production in accordance with its goals,
Independently chooses business partners,
Independently disposes of finished products,
Independently sells finished products through the most profitable channels and at affordable prices,
Independently manages their income.
6. Each enterprise, as an independent economic entity with the rights of a legal entity, finds all the means for its activities on market(money, goods, labor, information). In the market, the company sells its products. An enterprise can function stably only under the condition of normal uninterrupted interaction with the market environment. Market functions: informational, pricing.
7. The indispensable features of a modern enterprise should be dynamism, aspiration to the future. It must develop, produce and market new products, introduce new methods of production and its organization, distribution, find new markets for its products, develop new sources of raw materials and energy. The successful operation of an enterprise in the era of scientific and technological progress largely depends on the accuracy of forecasts - both short-term and long-term. The activities of the enterprise, its concerns should be turned to the future. The enterprise must know the future needs for its products and prepare in a timely manner to meet them. This increases the importance of conducting research, scientific market research, the use of forecasting methods, the implementation of training programs, retraining and advanced training of personnel.
Classification of enterprises. Organizational and legal forms of enterprises
Enterprises can be classified according to:
Sector of the economy;
Object of activity;
Organizational and legal form;
The goals of the activity;
Dimensions;
Type of production processes;
Degrees of specialization.
By sector of the economy distinguish enterprises in the primary, secondary and tertiary sectors.
Primary sector enterprises- directly exploit natural resources (for example, oil production) and provide raw materials for the manufacturing industry (for example, fish production).
Secondary sector enterprises- enterprises that convert raw materials into means of production and consumer goods (for example, NP and NCP).
Tertiary sector enterprises (service sector)– provide various services (e.g. transport, education, banks, medical facilities).
By object of activity distinguish enterprises: agriculture, transport, construction, trade, enterprises providing services, industrial.
According to the goals of the activity distinguish:
Enterprises pursuing, in addition to satisfying the needs of members of society, making a profit - commercial;
Enterprises that satisfy the personal or collective needs of members of society and do not set goals in making a profit - non-commercial.
By size distinguish: small, medium, large and extra large enterprises.
By type of production processes distinguish between enterprises mass, serial and single production.
By degree of specialization distinguish: specialized, diversified and combined.
In accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation, the following enterprises are created and carry out their production and economic activities, depending on the form of ownership: organizational and legal forms enterprises:
State;
Municipal;
customized;
Business partnerships;
Business companies;
consumer cooperatives;
institutions;
Public and religious organizations (associations);
Joint-stock companies (CJSC, OJSC);
Enterprises created on the basis of rent, etc.
According to Russian law company - an independent economic entity (legal entity), created to conduct economic activities, which is carried out in order to make a profit and meet public needs.
The enterprise acts as a legal entity, which is determined by a combination of features:
1. Isolation of their property;
2. Responsible for obligations with this property;
3. Availability of a bank account;
4. Acts on his own behalf.
The isolation of property is expressed by the presence of an independent balance sheet, which lists the property of the enterprise.
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Let us consider in more detail the classification of enterprises according to the organizational and legal form.
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