Caucasus - a mighty mountain range stretching from west to east from the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov to the Caspian. In the southern spurs and valleys settled down Georgia and Azerbaijan , v the western part of its slopes descend to the Black Sea coast of Russia. The peoples that will be discussed in this article live in the mountains and foothills of the northern slopes. Administratively the territory of the North Caucasus is divided among seven republics : Adygea, Karachay-Cherkessia, Kabardino-Balkaria, North Ossetia-Alania, Ingushetia, Chechnya and Dagestan.

Appearance many indigenous people of the Caucasus is homogeneous. These are fair-skinned, mostly dark-eyed and dark-haired people with sharp features, with a large (“humped”) nose, and narrow lips. Highlanders are usually taller than plains dwellers. Among the Adygei blond hair and eyes are common (perhaps as a result of mixing with the peoples of Eastern Europe), and in the inhabitants of the coastal regions of Dagestan and Azerbaijan one feels an admixture, on the one hand, of Iranian blood (narrow faces), and on the other hand, of Central Asian blood (small noses).

It is not for nothing that the Caucasus is called Babylon - almost 40 languages ​​are "mixed" here. Scientists identify Western, Eastern and South Caucasian languages . In West Caucasian, or Abkhazian-Adyghe, they say Abkhazians, Abaza, Shapsugs (they live northwest of Sochi), Adyghes, Circassians, Kabardians . East Caucasian languages include Nakh and Dagestan.To the Nakh refer Ingush and Chechen a Dagestan are divided into several subgroups. The largest of them - Avar-Ando-Tsez. but Avar- the language of not only the Avars themselves. V Northern Dagestan lives 15 minor nations , each of which inhabits only a few neighboring villages located in isolated high mountain valleys. These peoples speak different languages, and Avar for them is the language of interethnic communication , it is taught in schools. In South Dagestan sound Lezgi languages . Lezgins live not only in Dagestan, but also in the neighboring regions of Azerbaijan . While the Soviet Union was a single state, such a division was not very noticeable, but now, when the state border has passed between close relatives, friends, acquaintances, the people are experiencing it painfully. Lezgi languages ​​are spoken : Tabasarans, Aguls, Rutuls, Tsakhurs and some others . In Central Dagestan dominated Dargin (in particular, it is spoken in the famous village of Kubachi) and Lak languages .

Turkic peoples also live in the North Caucasus - Kumyks, Nogais, Balkars and Karachays . There are mountain Jews-tats (in D Aghestan, Azerbaijan, Kabardino-Balkaria ). Their language tatian , refers to Iranian group of the Indo-European family . To the Iranian group belongs Ossetian .

Until October 1917 almost all the languages ​​of the North Caucasus were unwritten. In the 20s. for the languages ​​of most of the Caucasian peoples, except for the smallest ones, alphabets were developed on the Latin basis; A large number of books, newspapers and magazines were published. In the 30s. the Latin alphabet was replaced by Russian-based alphabets, but they turned out to be less adapted to the transmission of Caucasian speech sounds. Nowadays, books, newspapers, and magazines are published in local languages, but more people still read literature in Russian.

In total, in the Caucasus, not counting the settlers (Slavs, Germans, Greeks, etc.), there are more than 50 large and small indigenous peoples. Russians also live here, mainly in cities, but partly in villages and Cossack villages: in Dagestan, Chechnya and Ingushetia, this is 10-15% of the total population, in Ossetia and Kabardino-Balkaria - up to 30%, in Karachay-Cherkessia and Adygea - up to 40-50%.

By religion, most of the indigenous peoples of the Caucasus -Muslims . but Ossetians are mostly Orthodox , a Mountain Jews profess Judaism . Traditional Islam has long coexisted with pre-Muslim, pagan traditions and customs. At the end of the XX century. in some regions of the Caucasus, mainly in Chechnya and Dagestan, the ideas of Wahhabism became popular. This current, which arose on the Arabian Peninsula, requires strict observance of Islamic norms of life, the rejection of music, dances, and opposes the participation of women in public life.

CAUCASIAN TREAT

Traditional occupations of the peoples of the Caucasus - arable farming and transhumance . Many Karachay, Ossetian, Ingush, Dagestan villages specialize in growing certain types of vegetables - cabbage, tomato, onion, garlic, carrot, etc . In the mountainous regions of Karachay-Cherkessia and Kabardino-Balkaria, transhumance sheep and goat breeding predominate; sweaters, hats, shawls, etc. are knitted from the wool and down of sheep and goats.

The nutrition of different peoples of the Caucasus is very similar. Its basis is cereals, dairy products, meat. The latter is 90% lamb, only Ossetians eat pork. Cattle are rarely slaughtered. True, everywhere, especially on the plains, a lot of birds are bred - chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese. The Adyghe and Kabardians know how to cook poultry well and in a variety of ways. The famous Caucasian kebabs are not cooked very often - lamb is either boiled or stewed. The ram is slaughtered and butchered according to strict rules. While the meat is fresh, different types of boiled sausages are made from the intestines, stomach, offal, which cannot be stored for a long time. Part of the meat is dried and dried for storage in reserve.

Vegetable dishes are not typical for the North Caucasian cuisine, but vegetables are constantly eaten - fresh, pickled and pickled; they are also used as a filling for pies. In the Caucasus, they love hot dairy dishes - they dilute cheese crumbs and flour in melted sour cream, they drink a chilled fermented milk product - ayran. The well-known kefir is an invention of the Caucasian highlanders; it is fermented with special fungi in wineskins. Among Karachays, this dairy product is called " gypy-airan ".

In a traditional feast, bread is often replaced with other types of flour and cereal dishes. First of all, this various cereals . In the Western Caucasus , for example, with any dishes much more often than bread, they eat cool millet or corn porridge .In the Eastern Caucasus (Chechnya, Dagestan) the most popular flour dish - khinkal (pieces of dough are boiled in meat broth or just in water, and eaten with sauce). Both porridge and khinkal require less fuel for cooking than baking bread, and therefore are common where firewood is in short supply. On the highlands , for shepherds, where there is very little fuel, the main food is oatmeal - fried to brown coarse flour, which is kneaded with meat broth, syrup, butter, milk, in extreme cases, just with water. Balls are molded from the resulting dough, and they are eaten with tea, broth, ayran. Of great everyday and ritual significance in the Caucasian cuisine are all kinds of pies - with meat, with potatoes, with beet tops and, of course, with cheese .Ossetians , for example, such a pie is called " phydia n". On the festive table, there must be three "walbaha"(cheese pies), and arrange them so that they are visible from the sky to St. George, whom the Ossetians especially revere.

In autumn, housewives prepare jams, juices, syrups . Previously, sugar in the manufacture of sweets was replaced with honey, molasses or boiled grape juice. Traditional Caucasian sweetness - halva. It is made from toasted flour or cereal balls fried in oil, adding butter and honey (or sugar syrup). In Dagestan they prepare a kind of liquid halva - urbech. Toasted seeds of hemp, flax, sunflower or apricot kernels are rubbed with vegetable oil diluted in honey or sugar syrup.

Fine grape wine is made in the North Caucasus .Ossetians long time ago brew barley beer ; among the Adyghes, Kabardians, Circassians and Turkic peoples replaces him booze, or mahsym a, - a kind of light beer made from millet. A stronger buza is obtained by adding honey.

Unlike their Christian neighbors - Russians, Georgians, Armenians, Greeks - mountain peoples of the Caucasus don't eat mushrooms gather wild berries, wild pears, nuts . Hunting, a favorite activity of the highlanders, has now lost its importance, since large sections of the mountains are occupied by nature reserves, and many animals, such as bison, are included in the International Red Book. There are a lot of wild boars in the forests, but they are rarely hunted, because Muslims do not eat pork.

CAUCASUS VILLAGES

Since ancient times, the inhabitants of many villages, in addition to agriculture, were engaged in crafts . Balkars famous as skillful masons; laks manufacture and repair of metal products, and at fairs - original centers of public life - often performed residents of the village of Tsovkra (Dagestan), who mastered the art of tightrope walkers. Folk crafts of the North Caucasus known far beyond its borders: painted ceramics and patterned carpets from the Lak village of Balkhar, wooden items with metal notches from the Avar village of Untsukul, silver jewelry from the village of Kubachi. In many villages from Karachay-Cherkessia to Northern Dagestan , are engaged wool felting - cloaks, felt carpets are made . Burke a- a necessary part of the mountain and Cossack cavalry equipment. It protects from bad weather not only while riding - under a good cloak you can hide from bad weather, like in a small tent; it is absolutely irreplaceable for shepherds. In the villages of South Dagestan, especially among the Lezgins , make magnificent pile carpets highly valued all over the world.

Ancient Caucasian villages are extremely picturesque . Stone houses with flat roofs and open galleries with carved pillars are molded close to each other along the narrow streets. Often such a house is surrounded by defensive walls, and a tower with narrow loopholes rises next to it - earlier, the whole family hid in such towers during enemy raids. Nowadays, the towers are abandoned as unnecessary and are gradually being destroyed, so that the picturesqueness gradually disappears, and new houses are built of concrete or brick, with glazed verandas, often two or even three stories high.

These houses are not so original, but they are comfortable, and their furnishings sometimes do not differ. from the city - a modern kitchen, plumbing, heating (although a toilet and even a washbasin are often located in the yard). New houses often serve only for receiving guests, and the family lives either on the ground floor or in an old house turned into a kind of living kitchen. In some places you can still see the ruins of ancient fortresses, walls and fortifications. In a number of places, cemeteries with old, well-preserved grave crypts have been preserved.

HOLIDAY IN THE MOUNTAIN VILLAGE

High in the mountains lies the Jezek village of Shaitli. At the beginning of February, when the days are getting longer and for the first time in winter, the sun's rays touch the slopes of Mount Hora, which rises above the village, to Shaitli celebrate the holiday igby ". This name comes from the word "ig" - this is the name of the Jezes baked with a ring of bread, similar to a bagel, with a diameter of 20-30 cm. For the Igbi holiday, such breads are baked in all homes, and young people prepare cardboard and leather masks, masquerade costumes.

The morning of the holiday is coming. A squad of “wolves” takes to the streets - guys dressed in sheepskin coats turned inside out with fur, with wolf masks on their faces and wooden swords. Their leader carries a pennant made of a strip of fur, and the two strongest men carry a long pole. "Wolves" go around the village and collect tribute from each yard - holiday bread; they are strung on a pole. There are other mummers in the squad: "goblin" in costumes made of moss and pine branches, "bears", "skeletons" and even modern characters, such as "policemen", "tourists". The mummers play funny siennas, bully the audience, they can even throw them into the snow, but no one is offended. Then a "Quidili" appears on the square, which symbolizes the past year, the passing winter. The guy depicting this character is dressed in a long hoodie made of skins. A pole sticks out of a slit in the hoodie, and on it is a “Quidili” head with a terrible mouth and horns. The actor imperceptibly from the audience controls the mouth with the help of ropes. "Quidili" climbs onto a "tribune" made of snow and ice and makes a speech. He wishes good luck to all good people in the new year, and then turns to the events of the past year. He names those who committed bad deeds, idled, hooligans, and the "wolves" grab the "guilty" and drag them to the river. More often they are let go halfway, only covered in snow, but some people can be dipped into the water, though only their feet. On the contrary, those who distinguished themselves by good deeds are “quited”, congratulating them and giving them a donut each from a pole.

As soon as the "Quidili" leaves the podium, the mummers pounce on him and drag him onto the bridge across the river. There the leader of the "wolves" "kills" him with a sword. A guy under a hoodie playing "quiddly" opens a hidden bottle of paint, and "blood" pours profusely on the ice. The "killed" is put on a stretcher and solemnly carried away. In a secluded place, the mummers undress, share the remaining bagels among themselves and join the merry people, but without masks and costumes.

TRADITIONAL COSTUME K A B R D I N T E V I C E R K E S O V

Adygs (Kabardians and Circassians) for a long time were considered trendsetters in the North Caucasus, and therefore their traditional costume had a noticeable influence on the clothes of neighboring peoples.

Male costume of Kabardians and Circassians developed at a time when men spent a significant part of their lives in military campaigns. The rider could not do without long cloak : she replaced his house and bed on the way, protected him from cold and heat, rain and snow. Another type of warm clothing - sheepskin coats, they were worn by shepherds and elderly men.

Also served as outerwear. Circassian . She was sewn from cloth, most often black, brown or gray, sometimes white. Before the abolition of serfdom, only princes and nobles had the right to wear white Circassians and cloaks. On both sides of the chest on a Circassian coat they sewed pockets for wooden gas tubes, in which they kept charges for guns . Noble Kabardians, in order to prove their dashing, often wore a tattered Circassian coat.

Under a Circassian coat, over an undershirt, they put on beshmet - caftan with a high stand-up collar, long and narrow sleeves. Representatives of the upper classes sewed beshmets from cotton, silk or thin woolen fabric, the peasants - from home cloth. Beshmet for the peasants was home and work clothes, and the Circassian was festive.

Headdress considered the most important element of men's clothing. It was worn not only for protection from cold and heat, but also for "honor". usually worn fur hat with cloth bottom ; in hot weather wide-brimmed felt hat . In bad weather, they threw over the hat cloth hood . Ceremonial hoods were decorated galloons and gold embroidery .

Princes and nobles wore red morocco shoes, decorated with galloons and gold , and the peasants - coarse shoes made of rawhide. It is no coincidence that in folk songs the struggle of peasants with feudal lords is called the struggle of "rawhide shoes with morocco shoes."

Traditional women's costume of Kabardians and Circassians reflected social differences. The underwear was long silk or cotton shirt in red or orange . They put on a shirt short caftan trimmed with galloon, with massive silver clasps and. In cut, he looked like a man's beshmet. Over the caftan long dress . He had a slit in front, in which one could see the undershirt and caftan decorations. The costume was complemented belt with silver buckle . Red dresses were allowed to be worn only by women of noble origin..

Elderly wore wadded quilted caftan , a young , according to local custom, not supposed to have warm outerwear. Only a woolen shawl covered them from the cold.

Hats changed depending on the age of the woman. Girl went in a scarf or bareheaded . When it was possible to marry her, she put on "golden cap" and wore until the birth of her first child .The hat was decorated with gold and silver galloon ; the bottom was made of cloth or velvet, and the top was crowned with a silver knob. After the birth of a child, a woman changed her hat for a dark scarf. ; above he was usually covered with a shawl to cover his hair . Shoes were sewn from leather and morocco, festive ones were always red.

CAUCASIAN TABLE ETIQUETTE

The peoples of the Caucasus have always attached great importance to the observance of table traditions. The basic prescriptions of traditional etiquette have survived to this day. Writing was supposed to be moderate. Not only gluttony was condemned, but also "polyeating". One of the writers of everyday life of the peoples of the Caucasus noted that the Ossetians are content with such an amount of food, "with which a European can hardly exist for any long time." This was especially true for alcoholic beverages. For example, among the Circassians it was considered dishonorable to get drunk at a party. Drinking alcohol was once a sacred act. "They drink with great solemnity and reverence ... always with their heads bare as a sign of the highest humility," an Italian traveler of the 15th century reported about the Circassians. G. Interiano.

Caucasian feast - a kind of performance, where the behavior of everyone is described in detail: men and women, older and younger, hosts and guests. As a rule, even if the meal was held in the home circle, men and women did not sit at the same table together . The men ate first, followed by the women and children. However, on holidays they were allowed to eat at the same time, but in different rooms or at different tables. Seniors and juniors also did not sit at the same table, and if they sat down, then in the established order - the elders at the "upper", the younger at the "lower" end of the table. In the old days, for example, among the Kabardians, the younger ones only stood at the walls and served the elders; they were called like that - "supporters of the walls" or "standing over their heads."

The manager of the feast was not the owner, but the eldest of those present - "master of ceremonies". This Adyghe-Abkhazian word has become widespread, and now it can be heard outside the Caucasus. He made toasts, gave the floor; assistants relied on the toastmaster at large tables. In general, it is difficult to say what was done more at the Caucasian table: they ate or made toasts. The toasts were pompous. The qualities and merits of the person they spoke about were extolled to the skies. The solemn meal was always interrupted by songs and dances.

When they received a respected and dear guest, they necessarily made a sacrifice: they slaughtered either a cow, or a ram, or a chicken. Such "shedding of blood" was a sign of respect. Scientists see in it an echo of the pagan identification of the guest with God. No wonder the Circassians have a saying "The guest is God's messenger." For Russians, it sounds even more definite: "A guest in the house - God in the house."

Both in the solemn and in the ordinary feast, great importance was attached to the distribution of meat. The best, honorable pieces relied on the guests and the elders. At Abkhazians the main guest was presented with a shoulder blade or thigh, the oldest - half a head; at Kabardians the best pieces were considered the right half of the head and the right shoulder blade, as well as the brisket and navel of the bird; at Balkarian - right scapula, femur, joints of the hind limbs. Others received their shares in order of seniority. The animal carcass was supposed to be divided into 64 pieces.

If the host noticed that his guest, out of decency or embarrassment, stopped eating, he offered him one more share of honor. Refusal was considered indecent, no matter how full he was. The host never stopped eating before the guests.

Table etiquette provided standard invitation and refusal formulas. This is how they sounded, for example, among the Ossetians. They never answered: "I'm full", "I ate". You should have said, "Thank you, I'm not shy, I've treated myself well." Eating all the food served on the table was also considered indecent. The dishes that remained untouched were called by the Ossetians "the share of the one who cleans the table." The famous explorer of the North Caucasus V.F. Muller said that in the poor houses of Ossetians, table etiquette is observed more strictly than in the gilded palaces of the European nobility.

At the feast, they never forgot about God. The meal began with a prayer to the Almighty, and every toast, every well-wishes (to the host, home, toastmaster, those present) - with the pronunciation of his name. The Abkhazians were asked that the Lord bless the person in question; among the Circassians at the festival, say, about the construction of a new house, they said: "May God make this place happy," etc.; Abkhazians often used such a feast wish: "May both God and people bless you" or simply: "May people bless you."

Women in the men's feast, according to tradition, did not participate. They could only serve the feasters in the guest room - "kunatskaya". Among some peoples (mountain Georgians, Abkhazians, etc.), the mistress of the house sometimes still went out to the guests, but only to proclaim a toast in their honor and immediately leave.

THE FESTIVAL OF THE RETURN OF THE PLOWERS

The most important event in the life of a farmer is plowing and sowing. Among the peoples of the Caucasus, the beginning and completion of these works were accompanied by magical rituals: according to popular beliefs, they were supposed to contribute to a bountiful harvest.

Adygs went to the field at the same time - the whole village or, if the village was big, by the street. They elected a "senior plowman", determined a place for the camp, built huts. Here they installed banner" plowmen - a five-seven-meter pole with a piece of yellow matter attached to it. The yellow color symbolized the ripened ears, the length of the pole - the size of the future harvest. Therefore, they tried to make the "banner" as long as possible. He was vigilantly guarded - so that the plowmen from other camps would not steal. Those who lost the "banner" were threatened with crop failure, while the thieves, on the contrary, had more grain.

The first furrow was laid by the most successful grain grower. Before that, arable land, bulls, a plow were doused with water or booze (an intoxicating drink made from cereals). Lili buzu also on the first inverted layer of the earth. The plowmen tore off each other's hats and threw them on the ground so that the plow plowed them. It was believed that the more caps in the first furrow, the better.

The entire period of spring work plowmen lived in the camp. They worked from dawn to dusk, but nevertheless there was time for funny jokes and games. So, having secretly visited the village, the guys stole a hat from a girl from a noble family. A few days later, she was solemnly returned, and the family of the "injured" arranged feasts and dances for the whole village. In response to the theft of a hat, peasants who did not go to the field stole a plow belt from the camp. To “rescue the belt”, food and drinks were brought to the house where it was hidden as a ransom. It should be added that a number of prohibitions are associated with the plow. For example, it was impossible to sit on it. The "guilty" was beaten with nettles or tied to the wheel of an arba that had fallen on its side and turned around. If a "stranger" sat on a plow, not from his own camp, they demanded a ransom from him.

The famous game shaming the cooks." They chose a "commission", and she checked the work of the cooks. If she found omissions, relatives had to bring treats to the field.

Especially solemnly the Circassians celebrated the end of the sowing. Women prepared buza and various dishes in advance. Carpenters for shooting competitions made a special target - a tavern ("kabak" in some Turkic languages ​​- a type of pumpkin). The target looked like a gate, only smaller. Wooden figures of animals and birds were hung on the crossbar, and each figure denoted a certain prize. The girls worked on the mask and clothes for the azhegafe ("dancing goat"). Azhegafe was the main character of the holiday. His role was played by a witty, cheerful person. He put on a mask, an inside-out fur coat, tied his tail and a long beard, crowned his head with goat horns, armed himself with a wooden saber and a dagger.

Solemnly, on decorated carts, plowmen returned to the village . A "banner" flaunted on the front arba, and a target was fixed on the last one. Horsemen followed the procession and fired at the tavern at full gallop. To make it harder to hit the figures, the target was specially swung.

Throughout the journey from the field to the village, azhegafe entertained the people. Even the most daring jokes got away with it. The servants of Islam, considering the liberties of azhegafe as blasphemy, cursed him and never participated in the holiday. However, this character was so loved by the Circassians that they did not pay attention to the prohibition of the priests.

Before reaching the village, the procession stopped. The plowmen laid out a platform for a joint meal and games, with a plow they made a deep furrow around it. At this time, azhegafe went around the houses, collecting treats. He was accompanied by his "wife", whose role was played by a man dressed in women's clothes. They acted out funny scenes: for example, azhegafe fell dead, and for his "resurrections, treats were demanded from the owner of the house, etc.

The holiday lasted several days and was accompanied by plentiful refreshments, dancing and fun. On the final day, they arranged horse races and horse riding.

In the 40s. 20th century the holiday of the return of the plowmen disappeared from the life of the Circassians . But one of my favorite characters - agegafe - and now can often be found at weddings and other celebrations.

HANZEGUACHE

Can the most ordinary shovel become a princess? It turns out that this also happens.

The Circassians have a rite of calling rain, called "khanieguashe" . "Khanie" - in Adyghe "shovel", "gua-she" - "princess", "mistress". The ceremony was usually performed on Friday. Young women would gather and use a wooden shovel to win the grain to work for the Princess: they attached a crossbar to the handle, dressed the shovel in women's clothes, covered it with a scarf, and girded it. The "neck" was decorated with a "necklace" - a sooty chain, on which a cauldron is hung over the hearth. They tried to take her in a house where there were cases of death from a lightning strike. If the owners objected, the chain was sometimes even stolen.

Women, always barefoot, took a scarecrow by the "hands" and with the song "God, in Your name we lead Hanieguashe, send us rain" went around all the yards of the village. The hostesses took out treats or money and poured water over the women, saying: "God, accept favorably." Those who made stingy offerings to Hanieguasha were condemned by the neighbors.

Gradually, the procession increased: it was joined by women and children from the yards where Hanieguashe was "brought in". Sometimes they carried with them milk strainers and fresh cheese. They had a magical meaning: as easily as milk passes through a strainer, it should rain from the clouds; cheese symbolized moisture-saturated soil.

Having bypassed the village, the women carried the scarecrow to the river and set it on the bank. It was time for the ritual baths. Participants of the ceremony pushed each other into the river and poured water over them. They especially tried to pour over young married women who had small children.

The Black Sea Shapsugs then threw the scarecrow into the water, and after three days they pulled it out and broke it. The Kabardians, on the other hand, brought the scarecrow to the center of the village, invited musicians and danced around Chanieguashe until dark. The celebrations ended with seven buckets of water dousing the scarecrow. Sometimes, instead of it, a dressed-up frog was carried through the streets, which was then thrown into the river.

After sunset, a feast began, at which they ate the treats collected in the village. Magical significance in the rite had universal fun and laughter.

The image of Khanieguashe goes back to one of the characters in the mythology of the Circassians - the mistress of the Psyhoguashe rivers. She was asked to send down rain. Since Hanieguashe personified the pagan goddess of waters, the day of the week when she "visited" the village was considered sacred. According to popular notions, an unseemly act committed on this day was a particularly grave sin.

The vagaries of the weather are not subject to man; drought, like many years ago, visits the fields of farmers from time to time. And then Khanieguashe walks through the Adyghe villages, giving hope for a quick and plentiful rain, amusing old and small. Of course, at the end of the XX century. this rite is perceived more as entertainment, and mainly children participate in it. Adults, not even believing that it is possible to make rain in this way, give them sweets and money with pleasure.

ATALYCHESTVO

If a modern person were asked where children should be brought up, he would answer with bewilderment: "Where, if not at home?" Meanwhile, in antiquity and the early Middle Ages, it was widespread the custom when a child immediately after birth was given to be raised in a strange family . This custom was recorded among the Scythians, ancient Celts, Germans, Slavs, Turks, Mongols and some other peoples. It existed in the Caucasus until the beginning of the 20th century. all mountain peoples from Abkhazia to Dagestan. Caucasian scholars call it the Turkic word "atalyism" (from "atalyk" - "like a father").

As soon as a son or daughter was born in a respected family, applicants for the position of atalyk hurried to offer their services. The more noble and richer the family was, the more people were willing. To get ahead of everyone, a newborn was sometimes stolen. It was believed that an atalyk should not have more than one pupil or pupil. The breadwinner was his wife (atalychka) or her relative. Sometimes, over time, the child moved from one atalyk to another.

Adopted children were raised in much the same way as relatives. The difference was in one thing: the atalyk (and his whole family) paid much more attention to the adopted child, he was better fed and clothed. When the boy was taught to ride, and then horseback riding, to wield a dagger, a pistol, a gun, to hunt, they looked after him more carefully than their own sons. If there were military skirmishes with neighbors, the atalyk took the teenager with him and covered him up with his own body. The girl was introduced to women's housework, taught to embroider, initiated into the intricacies of complex Caucasian etiquette, and instilled accepted ideas about women's honor and pride. An exam was coming up in the parental home, and the young man had to show what he had learned in public. Young men usually returned to their father and mother, having reached the age of majority (at 16 years old) or by the time of marriage (at 18 years old); girls are usually earlier.

All the time while the child lived with the atalyk, he did not see his parents. Therefore, he returned to his native home, as if to a strange family. Years passed before he got used to his father and mother, brothers and sisters. But closeness with the atalyk's family was maintained throughout life, and, according to custom, it was equated to blood.

Returning the pupil, atalyk gave him clothes, weapons, a horse . But he himself and his wife received even more generous gifts from the pupil's father: several heads of cattle, sometimes even land. A close relationship was established between the two families, the so-called artificial relationship, no less strong than blood.

Kinship by atalism was established between people of equal social status. - princes, nobles, rich peasants; sometimes between neighboring peoples (Abkhazians and Mingrelians, Kabardians and Ossetians, etc.). Princely families entered into dynastic unions in this way. In other cases, the superior feudal lord transferred the child to be brought up by a subordinate or a wealthy peasant - a less prosperous one. The father of the pupil not only gave gifts to the atalyk, but also supported him, protected him from enemies, etc. In this way, he expanded the circle of dependent people. Atalik parted with part of his independence, but acquired a patron. It is no coincidence that among the Abkhazians and Circassians adults could become "pupils". In order for milk kinship to be considered recognized, the "pupil" touched his lips to the breast of the atalyk's wife. The Chechens and Ingush, who did not know a pronounced social stratification, did not develop the custom of atalism.

At the beginning of the 20th century, scientists proposed 14 explanations for the origin of atalism. Now any serious explanations two left. According to M. O. Kosven, a prominent Russian Caucasian scholar, atalychestvo - the remnant of the avunculate (from lat. avunculus - "mother's brother"). This custom was known in antiquity. As a relic, it has been preserved among some modern peoples (especially in Central Africa). Avunculate established the closest connection between the child and the uncle on the mother’s side: according to the rules, it was the uncle who raised the child. However, supporters of this hypothesis cannot answer a simple question: why did not the mother's brother, but a stranger, become the atalyk? Another explanation seems more convincing. Education in general and Caucasian atalyism in particular was recorded no earlier than at the time of the decomposition of the primitive communal system and the emergence of classes. Old kinship ties were already torn, but there were no new ones yet. People, in order to acquire supporters, protectors, patrons, etc., established artificial kinship. One of its types was atalism.

"SENIOR" AND "JUNIOR" IN THE CAUCASUS

Politeness and restraint are highly valued in the Caucasus. No wonder the Adyghe proverb says: "Do not strive for a place of honor - if you deserve it, you will get it." Especially Adyghes, Circassians, Kabardians are known for their strict morals . They attach great importance to their appearance: even in hot weather, a jacket and a hat are indispensable details of clothing. You need to walk sedately, talk slowly, quietly. Standing and sitting are supposed to be decorous, you can’t lean against the wall, cross your legs, all the more carelessly fall apart in a chair. If a person passes by, older in age, albeit a complete stranger, you need to stand up and bow.

Hospitality and respect for elders - the cornerstones of Caucasian ethics. The guest is surrounded by vigilant attention: they will allocate the best room in the house, they will not leave one for a minute - all the time until the guest goes to bed, either the owner himself, or his brother, or another close relative will be with him. The host usually dines with the guest, perhaps older relatives or friends will join, but the hostess and other women will not sit at the table, they will only serve. The younger members of the family may not show up at all, and even making them sit down at the table with the Elders is completely unthinkable. They sit down at the table in the accepted order: at the head is the toastmaster, that is, the manager of the feast (the owner of the house or the eldest among those gathered), to the right of him is the guest of honor, then in seniority.

When two people walk down the street, the youngest usually walks to the left of the oldest. . If a third person joins them, let's say middle-aged, the younger one moves to the right and a little back, and the newly approached one takes his place on the left. In the same order they sit down in an airplane or car. This rule dates back to the Middle Ages, when people went armed, with a shield on their left hand, and the younger was obliged to protect the elder from a possible ambush attack.

The period of time from the 18th century. before the beginning of the 19th century. is very important in the history of the peoples of the North Caucasus. It was an era filled with major events and violent cataclysms, which dramatically changed the further course of the history of this region of the Russian state.

The North Caucasus in the 18th century was still divided into a significant number of independent or semi-independent political entities. A large number of such formations were located on the territory of Dagestan. The feudal estates of Dagestan were not ethnically homogeneous.

They had a fairly developed system of administrative control. The management of the possessions of Zasulak Kumykia, Endereevsky, Aksaevsky and Kostekovsky shamkhalates was carried out by princes (biys). In each of the possessions there was a council of princes, headed by a senior prince. Under the senior princes there was a squad. To deal with litigation, the council appointed judges who tried criminal cases according to adat. All civil cases according to Sharia were dealt with by representatives of the local Muslim clergy. For the execution of various kinds of orders, there were beguals at the council of princes. Shamkhal was the supreme ruler in the Tarkovsky domain. However, to resolve important issues, he convened a meeting of the most influential feudal lords who lived in his possessions. Separate branches of government were in charge of "viziers". Local government was in the hands of village elders. The court was administered by representatives of the Muslim clergy - qadis, who were guided in deciding cases by Sharia. Police duties were performed by turgaks, and partly by chaushs, whose duties included bringing to the attention of the population the decisions of the shamkhal and his officials. The armed forces of the shamkhal consisted of detachments of nukers, who carried out constant military, administrative and police service. In wartime, the shamkhal mobilized the entire adult male population capable of carrying weapons.

Within the shamkhalate, separate feudal destinies, biylikdoms, still remained. There were four such destinies in the 18th century: Buynaksky, Erpelinsky, Karabudakhkentsky, Bamatulinsky. The owner of Buynak was considered the heir of Shamkhal and bore the title of Crimean Shah. The Kaitag utsmiy enjoyed great political influence in Dagestan. His possessions were divided into two parts: Upper Kaitag (mountainous part) and Lower Kaitag (low Caspian part of Utsmiystvo).

In administrative terms, the Utsmiystvo was divided into mahals and bekstvos. Each mahal, in essence, was an independent union of communities. Magals were located in the Upper Kaitag. There were only eight of them. In the Lower Kaitag, communal relations were no longer preserved, all the land here belonged to the beks, in whose hands the entire administrative administration was, while in the Upper Kaitag the lands were in the hands of the community and its representatives managed administrative affairs.

Tabasaran was governed quite peculiarly, where there were two independent feudal possessions; Maysum was at the head of one of them, and qadiy was at the head of the other. In turn, each of these possessions was divided into two parts: the so-called Rayat and Uzden. In Rayyat Tabasaran, all power was in the hands of the beks. In the Uzda villages, the administration was carried out by foremen - kevkhs together with the local Muslim clergy. The administrative apparatus, which was under the direct control of the maysum and qadi, was very simple. It consisted of nukers, who in peacetime performed police functions, and in wartime they formed the Maisum or Qadi squad. In addition to this relatively small number of service people, there were no officials in Tabasaran.

More difficult was the administration of the Kazikumukh Khanate, which in the 18th century was one of the largest feudal possessions in Dagestan. Administratively, the khanate was divided into 10 districts. The viziers were the khan's assistants in management. Police functions were performed by the nukers, who consisted mainly of the Khan's slaves. They made it up and his military squad. The direct management of the villages was in the hands of the elders, the qadis. The territories attached to the khanate were ruled either by the relatives of the khan, or by the most distinguished beks.

In the 18th century, the Avar khans acquired great importance in Dagestan. Occupying a central position in mountainous Dagestan, they exerted great pressure on the neighboring "free societies", due to which they significantly expanded their territory.

In the 18th century, most of the Avar, Dargin and Lezgin unions of rural communities fell to one degree or another under the rule of neighboring Kumyk, Avar and Kazikumukh rulers. Others maintained their independence, often nominally and briefly.

In "free societies" management was in the hands of village foremen. In a number of communities, the position was already hereditary. Elders could also be elected, however, as a rule, from among the richest and most influential persons. Judicial power in these areas was in the hands of the clergy, which gave him the opportunity to acquire great political influence and enrich himself at the expense of the litigants. Some "free societies" of Dagestan united into large political unions, which in their meaning were not inferior to feudal estates (Akusha-Dargo). The union was managed by a qadi, in whose hands the spiritual, secular and military power was concentrated. In terms of significance, he was the most influential ruler of Dagestan.

The political system of Chechnya and Ingushetia in the 18th century was characterized by extreme fragmentation and the presence of many independent societies (mountainous Ichkeria, Michik, Tsontaroy, Kachkalyk society, Maysta, Mereji, Galashka, Duban, etc.).

Disunity most of all reigned in the mountainous zone, where unions or associations (tukhkums, jamaats, etc.) were the form of unification of taips. These are the territorial associations of Cheberloy, Shatoi-Shubuty, Nokhchimakhkoy, Fyappi, etc. There were taipas that were not part of the tukhkum and lived independently: Maistoi, Sadoi, Peshkhoi, and others. All this determined the extreme fragmentation of the population and served as a serious obstacle to internally overcoming the primordial political fragmentation.

Coming to the surface, the Chechens and Ingush as a whole retained the traditional form of senior management, which, in the conditions of mixed multi-type communities, acquired the character of councils of "elected old people", allegedly based on the opinion of "councils of all old people and young people."

However, on the plains, the predominant part of the Vainakh migrants from the mountains fell into the sphere of possession of the Kumyk and Kabardian princes, but their power over them was relative. This was due to the unsteady political climate of the early feudal formations, with an intensified internal political struggle in them, the consequences of which had a detrimental effect on the status of foreign princes.

In connection with the sharp intensification of ethno-political and economic processes, caused by resettlement to the plain, since the middle of the 18th century, tendencies towards political consolidation of some parts of the Vainakh population have been noticeable. The forms and methods of this were different.

It was in the 18th century, judging by the available data, that the role of mekhkels ("councils of the country"), meetings of the foremen-Muslim tops of different societies, increased in order to develop a common policy. It is significant that the places of common Ingush, Karabulak and Chechen gatherings are now being transferred to the plains.

By the beginning of the 70s of the 18th century, some political unity of the Ingush was taking shape. Its basis was the desire to protect itself from the intrigues of neighboring feudal lords.

But in the characteristic conditions of Chechnya and Ingushetia, there were no prerequisites for creating any kind of strong political associations. Centripetal forces were weak, and stable centrifugal aspirations predetermined the political fragmentation of Chechnya and Ingushetia in the historical arena of the 18th century.

This situation was typical for the rest of the territory of the North Caucasus. It was due to the general level of socio-economic development of the country, which had not yet created the conditions for the formation of centralized feudal states. Moreover, in areas where the development of feudal relations made the greatest progress, isolation manifested itself with particular acuteness and brought misfortune to the masses of the people due to continuous feudal strife. So it was, for example, among the Circassians. Even in Kabarda, where feudal relations were most developed, there was no centralization of political power. The custom of choosing a senior prince, preserved in the 18th century, could not prevent princely strife and unite this Adyghe region into a single whole. Kabarda in the first half of the 18th century was divided between five princely families, each of which had its own independent possession, headed by its own senior prince. In the second half of the 18th century, the number of destinies increased to six. Thus, the feudal fragmentation of Kabarda continued, although the whole of Kabarda was still in the power of the princes, whose ancestor was Inal. This family relationship of the Kabardian princes found its expression in the eldest prince of all Kabarda, elected by them for life. However, the power of this prince was largely nominal, and the senior princes of individual destinies often did not take it into account.

Feudal civil strife in Bolshaya Kabarda led to the fact that here in the second decade of the 18th century two feudal groups were formed, which were at enmity with each other throughout the century. In Russian sources, these groups were called the Baksan and Kashkatau parties. The Baksan party included the princes Atazhukins and Misostovs, the Kashkataus party included the princes Dzhambulatovs (later the Kaitukins and Bekmurzins). The feudal lords of both groups waged a fierce struggle for power, for lands and subjects. Usually the advantage in this area was on the side of the Baksan party as the stronger one. Often, during their civil strife, the Kabardian princes turned to neighboring feudal lords and the Crimean Khan for help, which made their clashes even more bloody and devastating.

The types of political organizations among the peoples of the North Caucasus depended on the level of socio-economic development and the nature of social relations. The most developed feudal relations and their corresponding political organizations were in Dagestan.

At the beginning of the 19th century, there were more than 10 fiefs and several dozen unions of rural communities. On the northeastern plain of Dagestan, in the so-called Zasulak Kumykia, there were possessions of Endereevskoe, Aksaevskoe, Kostekovskoe. Each of them had a private bailiff and a senior prince. At the head of all three administrative units was the chief Kumyk bailiff. South of the river Sulak to the river Orsai-bulak, there was the Shamkhalate of Tarkov with appanages (beyliks) of Buynak, Karabudakhkent, Erpelinsky, Bamatulinsky, Kazanischensky.

The central and significant part of Southern Dagestan at the beginning of the 19th century was occupied by the Kura-Kazikumukh Khanate. In 1812, the Caucasian administration in South Dagestan formed the Kyura Khanate, which united the territory of the Kyura plane, Kurakh, Koshan, Agul and Richinsky rural communities. In 1839, by the will of the Caucasian administration, two khanates were formed - Kyura and Kazikukhum.

At the very beginning of the 19th century, the Avar Khanate finally became part of Russia. Administratively, Avaria was divided into beyliks - beyliks (Shamkhalism of Tarkov), mahals - utsmiystvo Kaitag, Tabasaran, etc. In addition, there were four military districts: Kuval, Kid, Kiel, Karalal. The closest assistants to the rulers of Dagestan were viziers. As heads of the Muslim clergy, the qadis played an important role in the domains. Spiritual and secular power was concentrated only in the hands of one of the rulers of the Tabasaran qadi. The executors of the will of the rulers were nukers - vigilantes. Local public authority was exercised by foremen: chukhbi, adil-zabi (guardians of order) - in Avaria, kunachu - in the Kazikumukh Khanate, cards - in Utsmiystvo, etc. Police functions were performed by mangushi, uh, chaush - in Avaria, turgaks - in Utsmiystvo, nukers - in Kazikumukh, Tabasaran and other places.



What was in the North Caucasus before the Caucasian wars? How did they live there before joining the Russian Empire? What is the history of the Caucasus from antiquity to the 19th century?

The North Caucasus has an ancient and intricate history. This region has always been a crossroads of civilizations, on which many peoples and conquerors left their mark. The work of historians is complicated by a meager set of written monuments. Interestingly, the name "Caucasus" is already found among ancient Greek historians, and the very first mention of the region is in the 2nd century BC. e. on a clay tablet of the ancient Hittites living in Asia Minor.

BC

People began to actively populate the North Caucasus about 500 thousand years ago. Five thousand years ago, there were two centers of culture in the Caucasus: the Maikop, which included the Western and Central Caucasus, and the Kuro-Araks, which united Dagestan, Chechnya, Ingushetia and North Ossetia. The first was characterized by weapons made of bronze, jewelry made of gold and materials from Central Asia. The second was characterized by a high level of agriculture.

The geneticist Nikolai Vavilov considered Dagestan to be the oldest place for the cultivation of cereals. Four thousand years ago, a dolmen culture spread on the eastern coast of the Black Sea, which is associated with the mythical Assyrian king Nin. In the XI-VIII centuries BC. e North Ossetia was occupied by a unique Koban culture, whose items are of interest to European collectors in the same way as the gold of Ancient Egypt.

It is with the North Caucasus that some historians connect the emergence of the Cimmerian tribes, who raided the Middle East. Then they were replaced by the Scythians, then the Sarmatians, who lived next to the farmers and pastoralists of the Sinds, Zikhs, Meots, Kerkets, and Achaeans. At the beginning of the VI century. BC e. on the Taman Peninsula, the Bosporan state arose from the Greek colonies, which became a vassal of the Roman Empire. According to the geographer Strabo, the central regions of the North Caucasus at the turn of the eras were inhabited by Gargarei, who are considered the ancestors of the Vainakh peoples: Chechens and Ingush.

First millennium AD

In the 70s. e. The Sarmatian tribe of the Alans switched to agriculture. For the first time the name "Alania" is mentioned in the II century AD. e. The state finally took shape in the VI century, thanks to the roads of the Great Silk Road. Wealthy caravans went through the country.

At the same time, the territory of modern Dagestan up to Derbent came under the influence of Caucasian Albania, which appeared on the Caspian coast. At the beginning of the 5th century, Albania was conquered by the Persian kings of the Sassanids. Already in those days, the lands of Dagestan were inhabited by Tavaspors - the possible ancestors of the Tabasarans and the Legs - the ancestors of the Laks.

From the 4th to the 6th centuries, the North Caucasus was subjected to invasions by barbarian tribes. First, the Huns passed through it, later - the Avars and Turkots. Seeking salvation, the peoples moved to the mountains. Part of the Alans, together with the Huns, moved to Europe, and some of them, with the German vandals, reached Tunisia.

Khazaria

In the 7th century, new shocks awaited the region. By this time, a multi-confessional Khazar Khaganate had formed, which extended its influence over vast territories from the Aral Sea (a former drainless salt lake in Central Asia on the border of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan) to the Middle Volga region, from the Dnieper to Transcaucasia.

The Khazars pressed the Azov Bulgars, subjugated the Alans. In turn, the Arabs invaded the North Caucasus from the south. The first invasions took place in the 7th century and were repulsed, but already in 737 the commander Mervan with 150,000 troops defeated the Khazars and subjugated the lands of Dagestan and Alania. After 23 years, the Arabs were driven out of the lands, but Derbent became part of the Arab Caliphate called Bab al-Abwab and became the center of the Islamization of peoples.

From the beginning of the 9th century, Khazaria began to weaken, but Christian Alania reached its peak: its territory included lands from the Laba River to Chechnya and Dagestan. The country maintained ties with Byzantium and with the principalities of Dagestan.

Invasion after invasion

By the beginning of the 10th century, the Tmutarakan principality appeared on Taman, which soon fell under the raids of the Polovtsians. The Adyghes and even the Alans suffered from the Polovtsy, who entered into an alliance with the Polovtsy at the beginning of the 12th century, when Alania was in decline. In the 11th century, the Seljuk Turks invaded Derbent. In the XIII century, the region experienced repeated invasions of the Tatar-Mongol. They defeated the Circassians, defeated Alania and devastated Dagestan. Dagestan also suffered from the predatory campaigns of the Khorezmshah Jalal ad-Din. As a result of the wars, many peoples left their places and moved in all directions: to the mountains, to the Central Caucasus and even to Hungary.

And the region fell under the yoke of the Horde. At the beginning of the XIV century, the top of the Golden Horde adopted Islam, which continued to spread among the peoples of the Caucasus. There was still no peace. Derbent and Shirvan were in the hands of the descendants of Genghis Khan, and only in 1385 the Horde Khan Tokhtamysh managed to resubordinate these lands to himself. In 1395, Tamerlane invaded the Caucasus. He wiped cities off the face of the earth, exterminated the population and penetrated where even the Mongols did not reach.

Adygs under the Khan's yoke

The Circassians began to come to the lands deserted after the invasion of Tamerlane. They subjugated the local peoples. Abaza moved from the Black Sea region. In the north of Dagestan, the Tarkov Shamkhalate was formed, inhabited by Kumyks. In the 15th century, the Ottoman Empire entered into an alliance with the Crimean Khanate. After the predatory raids, the Black Sea coast became part of the empire, and the plains of the left bank of the Kuban went to the Crimea. Until the 18th century, the Adygs sent an annual tribute to the Crimean Khan in 200 girls and 100 boys.

In the 16th century, the Muscovite state drew attention to the region. Russian colonists appeared in the Kuban and the Terek. Adygs and Kabardians several times asked Ivan the Terrible to protect them from the Crimeans and accept them as subjects. In order to intermarry with the Russians, the senior prince of Kabarda, Temryuk Idarov, gave Grozny his daughter as a wife. So the principalities of Kabarda became subjects of Russia.

The course is for rapprochement

Over the following years, the rapprochement between Moscow and the North Caucasus continued against the background of the growing influence of Islam. New principalities fell into the sphere of Moscow's interests. But in the 18th century, after an unsuccessful war with Turkey, Russia was forced to recognize Greater and Lesser Kabarda as independent buffer states. The Black Sea coast was under the rule of the Turks until 1829. Trade in slaves of Caucasian and Slavic origin flourished in the ports.
Russia entered the era of palace coups and lost influence in the North Caucasus until the reign of Catherine II, who decided to pursue an offensive policy in the region. After the victory of the Russians over the Turks in the war of 1787-1792, Crimea fell under the influence of Russia. Catherine moved part of the Don Cossacks to the Kuban and arranged fortification lines, near which the cities of Stavropol and Georgievsk appeared.

View in full size

Vainakhs (Chechens), Ingush and Ossetians by the 18th century

If traces of social stratification were found in the lands of Dagestan, Kabarda, Trans-Kuban, then in the territory of modern Chechnya and Ingushetia, these processes practically did not take place. Ancestral settlement area Vainakhs at first occupied an extremely limited space, only the mountainous part of modern Chechnya, the so-called “ black mountains" or Ichkeria.

Being exclusively at the tribal stage of development, not possessing great material wealth, the ancestors of the Vainakhs had practically no influence on the history of the region in the Middle Ages. So, during the period of the Tatar-Turkish and Iranian aggression, Dagestan, Kabarda and Trans-Kuban, that is, the most developed regions, became the objects of expansion.

The ancestors of the Vainakhs, due to their small number and weakness, practically did not appear in these events. Only from the end of the 17th century did they begin to move out of the mountains and gorges onto a plane between the Sunzha and Terek rivers. Their occupations were reduced to cattle breeding, hunting and various trades. Even having settled on the plain, the Chechens did not engage in agriculture for a long time, eating cottage cheese and cheese instead of bread. It is clear why other Vainakh societies began to call them “raw eaters” (Nakhchi - cheese).

Having occupied the plains between Sunzha and Terek, the Chechens initially became dependent on stronger neighbors: in the west - to Kabardian pshi, in the east - to Kumyk biys and Avar nutsalam. Each of the peoples began to call them in their own way: Kabardians - shashan, after the name of one of the Chechen villages; Kumyks are michigshi, that is, people living on the Migich River.

In the 17-18 centuries, the ancestors of the Vainakhs did not have a common designation and were called either by their ancestors or by the area they occupied. The Chechens had divisions: Sharoevtsy, from the village of Sharoi; Shatoevtsy, from the village of Shatoy. The Ingush have the names Galgaevtsy, Nazraevtsy, Ingush.

The highland lands of the Chechens and Ingush were exposed rather late, in the 17th century, and before that pagan beliefs dominated, although some Vainakhs accepted Christianity from Georgia. Islam penetrated into Chechnya from Dagestan and took root for a long time, because even in the 18th century it was only superficial.

The neighbors of the Vainakhs in the west were Ossetians, descendants , crushed . Representatives of this people in the Middle Ages occupied the hard-to-reach mountain gorges of the Central Caucasus. Christianity has spread among them since the existence of the Alanian state. however, in the 16-17 centuries, under the influence of the Kabardians, part Ossetian Digorians accepted Islam.

Like other Caucasian peoples, Ossetians did not have a common name by the 18th century and were named after large societies: Alagirians, Tagaurians, Kurtatinians and Digorians. However, unlike the Vainakhs and the free societies of Trans-Kuban and Dagestan, the Ossetians had social differentiation. They held the highest rank aldars and badelats, who made up an insignificant part of the population, but owned land and livestock. Peasants were dependent on them ( adalshkhaty and farsaglagi) carrying various duties. Domestic slaves were in the most oppressed position ( kumayagi and kavdasar). However, the bulk of the Ossetian peasantry were personally free community members. faroagly.

The population of the steppe Ciscaucasia: Kalmyks, Turkmens

In the 17th century, the ethnic situation in the steppe part of the North Caucasus changed somewhat. In the late 30s of the 17th century, the western part of the Caspian lowland was occupied by a new nomadic people Kalmyks. Coming from the steppes of Central Asia, the Kalmyks were related in language to the Mongols and Buryats and professed Buddhism. They had their own feudal stratification from Asia. Upper layers - khans, noyons, zaisangs. The Buddhist clergy were in a privileged position, lans. The Kalmyk nomad camps covered vast territories of the steppe Ciscaucasia, which included the Stavropol Upland, the Kuban steppes and the lower reaches of the Terek.

Around 1653 another mass migration of nomads takes place. Part of the Turkmens, nomadic in the steppes and deserts of the South-Eastern Caspian region, peninsula Mangyshlak, to get rid of harassment Khanate of Khiva, passes into the North Caucasian steppes and occupies the eastern regions of the modern Stavropol Territory. At the new place of residence, the Turkmens did not have a clear social division and the elders began to play the main role, aksakals and Muslim clergy, mules.

Socio-economic relations of the Caucasian highlanders before joining the Russian Empire

By the 17th century, that is, by the time the North Caucasus was firmly incorporated into the Russian Empire, most of the indigenous peoples were at a transitional stage from tribal to class society. The weak development of social differentiation was the result of a number of reasons.

Due to the fact that the plains for a long time were the scene of constant invasions and clashes, it entrenched itself in the mountains. So in Dagestan, two-thirds of the population lived in the mountains, one-third on the plains. While the entire territory of Dagestan is two-thirds suitable for agriculture, transhumance (yaylag) cattle breeding has become the dominant occupation in the mountains. Agriculture acted as an additional source, but the highlanders never had enough of their own bread. All material accumulations depended on the efficiency of cattle breeding.

The exclusive occupation of cattle breeding contributed to the immutability of patriarchal relations. Pastures, meadows and fields have always been collectively owned by the entire Muslim community jamaat.

All the free societies of the Caucasus had a militarized character, to which they were prompted by constant defense from enemies and their own raiding expansion. This is evidenced by linguistic data, for example, the name of one of the Dargin societies sounded like “ akushala x ureba“, where akushala is the name of the village, and ureba is the army or militia. The Avars added “bo” for this, the Lezgins added “pair”.

The basis of any free society was the clan, a group of related families connected by a common origin. The Chechens teip, among the Adygs - sigh. The elder acted as the leader of the clan, thaamada, and the supreme power - to the council of the elders of the clan. All important decisions were made by the council of elders, first of all, decisions on vengeance, conly.

Such an organization was convenient for the implementation of raiding expansion, in the face of difficulties with the surplus and main product. Raids were carried out both on neighbors and on neighboring countries and peoples. Among democratic tribes, a military leader was elected for this. In more advanced societies, the nobles led the raids. The raiding system developed among the highlanders of the North Caucasus long before the appearance of the Russian presence. Raids brought prisoners, livestock and property. They tried to get a ransom for the prisoners. All this made it possible to compensate for the economic shortcomings of the highlanders.

©site
created on the basis of personal student records of lectures and seminars

All Caucasian wars of Russia. The most complete encyclopedia Runov Valentin Alexandrovich

Caucasian region at the beginning of the 18th century

The Caucasus, or, as it was customary to call this region in past centuries, the “Caucasian Territory”, in the 18th century, geographically was a space located between the Black, Azov and Caspian Seas. It is crossed diagonally by the Greater Caucasus mountain range starting at the Black Sea and ending at the Caspian Sea. Mountain spurs occupy more than 2/3 of the territory of the Caucasus region. Elbrus (5642 m), Dykh-Tau (Dykhtau - 5203 m) and Kazbek (5033 m) were considered the main peaks of the Caucasus Mountains in the 18th–19th centuries, today another peak, Shkhara, also having a height of 5203 m, has added to their list. Geographically, the Caucasus consists of Ciscaucasia, the Greater Caucasus and Transcaucasia.

Both the nature of the terrain and the climatic conditions within the Caucasian region are extremely diverse. It was these features that most directly affected the formation and ethnographic life of the peoples living in the Caucasus.

The diversity of climate, nature, ethnography and the historical development of the region formed the basis for its division into natural components in the 18th and 19th centuries. These are the Transcaucasus, the Northern part of the Caucasian region (Caucasus) and Dagestan.

For a more correct and objective understanding of the events in the Caucasus in past centuries, it is important to represent the characteristic features of the population of this region, the most important of which are: the heterogeneity and diversity of the population; the diversity of ethnographic life, various forms of social organization and socio-cultural development, the diversity of beliefs. There are several reasons for this phenomenon.

One of them was that the Caucasus, located between North-Western Asia and South-Eastern Europe, was geographically located on the routes (two main routes of movement - northern or steppe and southern or Asia Minor) of the movement of peoples from Central Asia (Great Migration of Peoples) .

Another reason is that many states, neighboring the Caucasus, during their heyday tried to spread and assert their dominion in this region. Thus, the Greeks, Romans, Byzantines and Turks acted from the west, Persians, Arabians from the south, Mongols and Russians from the north. As a result, the inhabitants of the plains and accessible parts of the Caucasus Mountains constantly mixed with new peoples and changed their rulers. Recalcitrant tribes retreated to hard-to-reach mountainous regions and defended their independence for centuries. Militant mountain tribes were formed from them. Some of these tribes united with each other due to common interests, while many retained their identity, and finally, some tribes, due to different historical fates, became divided and lost all connection with each other. For this reason, in the mountainous regions it was possible to observe the phenomenon when the inhabitants of the two nearest villages differed significantly both in appearance, and in language, and in manners, and in customs.

The following reason is closely connected with this reason - the tribes, driven into the mountains, settled in isolated gorges and gradually lost their interconnection with each other. The division into separate societies was explained by the severity and wildness of nature, its inaccessibility and the isolation of mountain valleys. This seclusion and isolation are obviously one of the main reasons why people from the same tribe live different lives, have unequal customs and habits, and even speak dialects that are often difficult to understand by neighbors of the same tribe.

In accordance with ethnographic studies conducted by 19th-century scientists Shagren, Shifner, Brosse, Rosen, and others, the population of the Caucasus was divided into three categories. The first included the Indo-European race: Armenians, Georgians, Mingrelians, Gurians, Svanets, Kurds, Ossetians and Talyshians. To the second - the Turkic race: Kumyks, Nogais, Karachays and other mountaineer communities occupying the middle of the northern slope of the Caucasus Range, as well as all the Transcaucasian Tatars. And finally, the third included tribes of unknown races: Adyghe (Circassians), Nakhche (Chechens), Ubykhs, Abkhazians and Lezgins. The Indo-European race made up the majority of the population of Transcaucasia. These were Georgians and Imeretians of the same tribe, Mingrelians, Gurians, as well as Armenians and Tatars. Georgians and Armenians were at a higher level of social development in comparison with other peoples and tribes of the Caucasus. They, despite all the persecution from the neighboring strong Muslim states, were able to preserve their nationality and religion (Christianity), and the Georgians, in addition, their identity. Mountain tribes lived in the mountainous regions of Kakhetia: Svanets, Tushins, Pshavs and Khevsurs.

Transcaucasian Tatars made up the bulk of the population in the khanates subject to Persia. All of them professed the Muslim faith. In addition, Kurtins (Kurds) and Abkhazians lived in Transcaucasia. The first were a militant nomadic tribe, partly occupying the territory bordering with Persia and Turkey. The Abkhazians are a small tribe, representing a separate possession on the Black Sea coast north of Mingrelia and bordering on the Circassian tribes.

The population of the northern part of the Caucasus region had an even wider spectrum. Both slopes of the Main Caucasian Range west of Elbrus were occupied by mountain peoples. The most numerous people were the Circassians (in their language it means island) or, as they were usually called, the Circassians. The Circassians were distinguished by their beautiful appearance, good mental abilities and indomitable courage. The social structure of the Circassians, like most other highlanders, can most likely be attributed to democratic forms of coexistence. Although at the heart of Circassian society there were aristocratic elements, but their privileged estates did not enjoy any special rights.

Khevsurian warriors of the second half of the 19th century.

The people of the Circassians (Circassians) were represented by numerous tribes. The most significant of them were the Abadzekhs, who occupied the entire northern slope of the Main Range, between the upper reaches of the Laba and Supe rivers, as well as the Shapsugs and Natukhais. The latter lived to the west, along both slopes of the ridge up to the mouth of the Kuban. The rest of the Circassian tribes, who occupied both the northern slopes and the southern ones, along the eastern coast of the Black Sea were insignificant. Among them were Bzhedukhs, Khamisheevtsy, Chercheneevs, Khatukhaevs, Temirgoevs, Egerukhavs, Makhoshevs, Barakeis, Besleneevs, Bagovtsy, Shakhgireevs, Abazins, Karachays, Ubykhs, Vardanes, Dzhigets, and others.

In addition, the Kabardians, who lived east of Elbrus and occupied the foothills of the middle part of the northern slope of the Main Caucasian Range, could also be attributed to the Circassians. In their customs and social structure, they were in many ways similar to the Circassians. But, having made significant progress on the path of civilization, the Kabardians differed from the first in softer morals. It should also be noted that they were the first of the tribes of the northern slope of the Caucasus Range, which entered into friendly relations with Russia.

The territory of Kabarda was geographically divided by the bed of the Ardon River into the Greater and the Lesser. The tribes of the Bezenyevs, Chegemians, Khulams, and Balkars lived in Bolshaya Kabarda. Small Kabarda was inhabited by the Nazran tribes, Karabulakhs and others.

The Circassians, like the Kabardians, professed the Muslim faith, but between them at that time there were still traces of Christianity, and among the Circassians, traces of paganism.

Ossetians lived to the east and south of Kabarda (they called themselves irons). They inhabited the upper ledges of the northern slope of the Caucasus Range, as well as part of the foothills between the Malka and Terek rivers. In addition, part of the Ossetians also lived along the southern slopes of the Caucasus Range, to the west of the direction where the Georgian Military Highway was subsequently laid. This people was few and poor. The main societies of the Ossetians were: Digorians, Alagirs, Kurtatins and Tagaurs. Most of them professed Christianity, although there were those who recognized Islam.

Chechens or Nakhchi lived in the basin of the Sunzha, Argun and upper reaches of the Aksai River, as well as on the northern slopes of the Andi Range. The social structure of this people was quite democratic. In the Chechen society since ancient times there was a teip (teip - tribal-territorial community) and a territorial system of social organization. Such an organization gave it a strict hierarchy and strong internal ties. At the same time, such a social structure determined the peculiarities of relations with other nationalities.

The fundamental function of the teip was the protection of the land, as well as compliance with the rules of land use, this was the most important factor in its consolidation. The land was in the collective use of the teip and was not divided between its members into separate sections. Management was carried out by elected elders on the basis of spiritual laws and ancient customs. Such a social organization of the Chechens largely explained the unparalleled stamina of their long-term struggle against various external enemies, including the Russian Empire.

The Chechens of the plains and foothill regions provided for their needs at the expense of natural resources and agriculture. The highlanders, in addition, were distinguished by their passion for raids with the aim of robbing the lowland farmers and capturing people for their subsequent sale into slavery. They practiced Islam. However, religion has never been assigned a key role in the Chechen population. Chechens traditionally were not distinguished by religious fanaticism; they put freedom and independence at the forefront.

The space to the east of the Chechens between the mouths of the Terek and the Sulak was inhabited by the Kumyks. Kumyks in their appearance and language (Tatar) were very different from the highlanders, but at the same time, in customs, the degree of social development they had much in common. The social structure of the Kumyks was largely determined by their division into eight main classes. The princes were the highest class. The last two estates, Chagars and Kuls, were in full or partial dependence on their owners.

The Kumyks, as well as the Kabardians, were among the first to enter into friendly relations with Russia. They considered themselves submissive to the Russian government from the time of Peter the Great. Just like most of the tribes of the highlanders, they preached the Mohammedan faith.

However, it should be noted that, despite the close proximity of two strong Muslim states, Safavid Persia and the Ottoman Empire, many mountain tribes by the beginning of the 18th century were not Muslims in the strict sense of the word. They, professing Islam, at the same time had various other beliefs, performed rituals, some of which were traces of Christianity, others traces of paganism. This was especially true for the Circassian tribes. In many places, the highlanders worshiped wooden crosses, brought gifts to them, and celebrated the most important Christian holidays. Traces of paganism were expressed among the highlanders by special respect for some reserved groves, in which touching a tree with an ax was considered sacrilege, as well as some special rites observed at weddings and funerals.

In general, the peoples who lived in the northern part of the Caucasus region, constituting the remnants of various peoples who separated from their roots in different historical periods and with very different degrees of social development, in their social structure, and in their customs and customs, were of great diversity. As for their internal and political structure, and above all the mountain peoples, it was an interesting example of the existence of a society without any political and administrative authorities.

However, this did not mean the equality of all classes. Most of the Circassians, Kabardians, Kumyks and Ossetians have long had privileged classes of princes, nobles and free people. Equality of estates to one degree or another existed only among the Chechens and some other less significant tribes. At the same time, the rights of the upper classes extended only to the lower classes. For example, the Circassians have three lower classes: ob (people who depended on the patron), pshiteli (subordinate plowman) and yasyr (slave). At the same time, all public affairs were decided at popular meetings, where all free people had the right to vote. Decisions were implemented through persons elected at the same meetings who were temporarily given power for this purpose.

With all the diversity of life of the Caucasian highlanders, it should be noted that the main foundations for the existence of their societies were: family relations; blood feud (blood feud); ownership; the right of every free person to have and use weapons; respect for elders; hospitality; tribal unions with a mutual obligation to protect each other and responsibility to other tribal unions for the behavior of each.

The father of the family was sovereign over his wife and minor children. Their freedom and life was in his power. But if he killed or sold his wife without guilt, then he was retaliated by her relatives.

The right and duty of revenge was also one of the basic laws in all mountain societies. Not to avenge blood or insult among the highlanders was considered a highly dishonorable matter. Payment was allowed for blood, but only with the consent of the offended party. Payment was allowed in people, livestock, weapons and other property. At the same time, payments could be so significant that one guilty person was not able to give them away, and it was distributed over the entire family.

The right of private property extended to livestock, houses, cultivated fields, etc. Empty fields, pastures and forests did not constitute private property, but were divided between families.

The right to carry and use weapons at will belonged to every free person. The lower classes could use weapons only at the order of their master or for his protection. Respect for elders among the highlanders was developed to such an extent that even an adult could not start a conversation with an old man until he spoke to him, and could not sit down with him without an invitation. The hospitality of the mountain tribes obliged them to give shelter even to the enemy, if he was a guest in the house. The duty of all members of the union was to protect the safety of the guest while he was on their land, not sparing his life.

In a tribal union, the duty of each member of the union was that he had to take part in all matters relating to common interests, in a collision with other unions, to appear at a common request or on alarm with a weapon. In turn, the society of the tribal union patronized each of the people belonging to it, protected its own and avenged each.

To resolve disputes and quarrels, both between members of one union and between members of foreign unions, the Circassians used the court of mediators, called the adat court. To do this, the parties elected trusted people, as a rule, from the elderly, who enjoyed special respect among the people. With the spread of Islam, the all-Muslim spiritual court according to Sharia, performed by the mullahs, began to be applied.

As for the well-being of the mountain tribes that lived in the northern part of the Caucasus, it should be noted that the majority of the people had only the means to meet the most necessary needs. The reason was primarily in their manners and customs. An active, tireless warrior in military operations, at the same time, the highlander was reluctant to perform any other work. This was one of the strongest features of their national character. At the same time, in case of emergency, the highlanders were also engaged in righteous work. The arrangement of terraces for crops on rocky, barely accessible mountains, numerous irrigation canals drawn over considerable distances, serve as the best proof of this.

Being satisfied with a little, not giving up work when it is absolutely necessary, willingly indulging in raids and predatory attacks, the highlander usually spent the rest of the time in idleness. Domestic and even field work was predominantly the responsibility of women.

The richest part of the population of the northern part of the Caucasus Range were the inhabitants of Kabarda, some nomadic tribes and inhabitants of the Kumyk possessions. A number of Circassian tribes were not inferior to the above-mentioned peoples in their prosperity. The exception was the tribes of the Black Sea coast, which, with a decrease in human trafficking, were in a materially constrained position. A similar situation was typical for the mountain communities that occupied the rocky upper ledges of the Main Range, as well as the majority of the population of Chechnya.

The militancy of the people's character, which prevented the highlanders from developing their well-being, the passion to seek adventure, lay at the basis of their small raids. Attacks in small parties from 3 to 10 people, as a rule, were not planned in advance. Usually, in their free time, which the highlanders had enough of in their way of life, they gathered at the mosque or in the middle of the village. During the conversation, one of them suggested going on a raid. At the same time, a treat was required from the initiator of the idea, but for this he was appointed senior and received most of the booty. Larger detachments were usually assembled under the command of well-known riders, and numerous formations were convened by decision of the people's assemblies.

These are, in the most general terms, the ethnogeography, social structure, life and customs of the mountain peoples who lived in the northern part of the Caucasus Range.

Differences in the properties of the terrain of inland (upland) and coastal Dagestan significantly affected the composition and way of life of its population. The main mass of the population of inner Dagestan (the territory located between Chechnya, the Caspian khanates and Georgia) were the Lezgin peoples and Avars. Both of these peoples spoke the same language, both were distinguished by their strong physique. Both were characterized by a gloomy disposition and high resistance to hardship.

At the same time, there was some difference in their social structure and social development. The Avars were famous for their prowess and great military abilities. They have long established a social system in the form of a khanate. The social structure of the Lezgins was predominantly democratic and represented separate free societies. The main ones were: Salatavs, Gumbets (or Bakmols), Adians, Koisubs (or Khindatl), Kazi-Kumykhs, Andalali, Karakh, Antsukhs, Kapucha, Ankratal Union with their societies, Dido, Ilankhevi, Unkratal, Boguls, Technutsal, Karata , buni, and other less significant societies.

Assault on a mountain village

The Caspian territory of Dagestan was inhabited by Kumyks, Tatars and partly by Lezgins and Persians. Their social structure was based on khanates, shamkhalates, umtsy (possessions), founded by conquerors who penetrated here. The northernmost of them was the Tarkov shamkhalate, to the south of it were the possessions of the umtiya Karakaytag, the khanates of Mehtuli, Kumukh, Tabasaran, Derbent, Kyura and Quba.

All free societies consisted of free men and slaves. In possessions and khanates, in addition, there was also a class of nobles, or beks. Free societies, like the Chechen ones, had a democratic structure, but represented closer alliances. Each society had its main aul and was subordinate to a qadi or foreman elected by the people. The circle of power of these persons was not clearly defined and largely depended on excellent influence.

Islam has been developing and strengthening in Dagestan since the time of the Arabs and had an incomparably greater influence here than in other Caucasian tribes. The entire population of Dagestan mainly lived in large auls, for the construction of which the places most convenient for defense were usually chosen. Many of the Dagestan auls were surrounded on all sides by sheer cliffs and, as a rule, only one narrow path led to the village. Inside the village, the houses formed narrow and crooked streets. The water pipelines used to deliver water to the village and to irrigate the gardens were sometimes laid over long distances and arranged with great skill and labor.

Coastal Dagestan in matters of welfare and improvement, with the exception of Tabasaran and Karakaitakh, was at a higher level of development than its inland regions. The Derbent and Baku khanates were famous for their trade. At the same time, in the mountainous regions of Dagestan, people lived quite poorly.

Thus, the area, social structure, life and customs of the population of Dagestan differed to a large extent from similar issues in the northern part of the Caucasus Range.

Between the territories inhabited by the main peoples of the Caucasus, as if small specks, lands were inserted where small peoples lived. Sometimes they made up the population of one village. Residents of the villages of Kuban and Rutults and many others can serve as an example. They all spoke their own languages, had their own traditions and customs.

The presented brief review of the life and customs of the Caucasian highlanders shows the inconsistency of the opinions that developed in those years about the "wild" mountain tribes. Of course, none of the mountain societies can be compared with the position and social development of the society of the civilized countries of that historical period. However, provisions such as property rights, attitudes towards elders, forms of government in the form of popular assemblies deserve respect. At the same time, the militancy of character, predatory raids, the law of blood vengeance, unbridled freedom largely formed the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe "wild" highlanders.

With the approach of the southern borders of the Russian Empire to the Caucasus region in the 18th century, the diversity of its ethnographic life was not sufficiently studied and was not taken into account when solving military administrative issues, and in some cases was simply ignored. At the same time, the customs and customs of the peoples living in the Caucasus have evolved over the centuries and are the basis of their way of life. Their incorrect interpretation led to the adoption of unreasonable, ill-considered decisions, and actions without taking them into account led to the emergence of conflict situations and unjustified military losses.

The military-administrative bodies of the empire already at the beginning of the 18th century faced problems associated with various forms of social structure of the diverse population of the region. These forms ranged from primitive fiefs to societies without any political or administrative authority. In this regard, all issues, ranging from negotiations of various levels and nature, the solution of the most common everyday issues up to the use of military force, required new, non-traditional approaches. Russia was not quite ready for such a development of events.

The situation was complicated in many respects by large differences in the socio-cultural development of people both within the tribes and in the whole region, the involvement of its population in various religions and beliefs.

In the matter of the geopolitical attitude and influence of the great powers on the Caucasus region, the following should be noted. The geographical position of the Caucasus predetermined the desire of many of them at different historical stages to spread and assert their influence in the political, trade, economic, military and religious spheres of activity. In this regard, they sought to seize the territories of the region, or at least exercise their patronage in various forms, from alliance to protectorate. So, back in the VIII century, the Arabs established themselves in the coastal Dagestan, formed the Avar Khanate here.

After the Arabs, the Mongols, Persians and Turks dominated this territory. The last two peoples, during the two centuries of the 16th and 17th centuries, continuously challenged each other for power over Dagestan and over Transcaucasia. As a result of this confrontation, by the end of the 17th - beginning of the 18th centuries, Turkish possessions spread from the eastern Black Sea coast to the lands of the mountain peoples (Circassians), Abkhazians. In Transcaucasia, the rule of the Turks extended to the provinces of Georgia, and continued almost until the middle of the 18th century. Persian possessions in Transcaucasia extended up to the southern and southeastern borders of Georgia and to the Caspian khanates of Dagestan.

By the beginning of the 18th century, the northern part of the Caucasus region was in the zone of influence of the Crimean Khanate, a vassal of Turkey, as well as numerous nomadic peoples - Nogais, Kalmyks and Karanogays. Russian presence and influence in the Caucasus at that time was minimal. In the northeastern part of the Caucasus region, under Ivan the Terrible, the Terek town was founded, and the free Cossacks (descendants of the Grebensky Cossacks) by decree of Peter the Great were relocated from the Sunzha River to the northern banks of the Terek in five villages: Novogladkovskaya, Shchedrinskaya, Starogladkovskaya, Kudryukovskaya and Chervlenskaya . The Russian Empire was separated from the Caucasus by a vast steppe zone, in which the steppe tribes roamed. The southern borders of the empire were located to the north of these camps and were determined by the borders of the Astrakhan province and the lands of the Don army.

Thus, the main rivals of the Russian Empire, Safavid Persia and the Ottoman Empire, seeking to establish themselves in the Caucasus region and thereby solve their interests, were in a more favorable position by the beginning of the 18th century. At the same time, the attitude towards them on the part of the population of the Caucasus region was by this time mostly negative, and towards Russia more favorable.

This text is an introductory piece. From the book of the Special Services of the Russian Empire [Unique Encyclopedia] author

Appendix 6 An example of a reconnaissance mission that Russian diplomats received in the second half of the 18th century

From the book of Batushkin's army. Gatchina troops of Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich author author unknown

Organization of military-technical intelligence in the Russian Empire at the beginning of the last century By the beginning of the last century, Russian military intelligence officers and diplomats were busy extracting completely different information. The military is interested in mobilization plans and the degree

From the book Who will enter us with a sword, will die by the sword author Mavrodin Vladimir Vasilievich

Chapter 29 Military intelligence in the 19th - early 20th centuries

From the book From the history of the Pacific Fleet author Shugaley Igor Fedorovich

"Amusing" troops in Russia in the second half of the 18th century "Amusing" troops in Russia are associated, first of all, with the name of Peter I and associates of his childhood amusements - Preobrazhensky and Semenovtsy, who later became the oldest regiments of the Russian Imperial Guard. their role

From the book Special Forces Combat Training author Ardashev Alexey Nikolaevich

Chapter three. The struggle against the intervention of Polish and Swedish feudal lords at the beginning of the 17th century

From the book All Caucasian Wars of Russia. The most complete encyclopedia author Runov Valentin Alexandrovich

1.1. THE ROLE OF THE RUSSIAN NAVY IN THE PROTECTION OF THE NATURAL RESOURCES OF THE FAR EAST FROM THE END OF THE 18TH TO THE BEGINNING OF THE 20TH CENTURY

From the book Don Cossacks in the wars of the early XX century author Ryzhkova Natalya Vasilievna

From the book Intelligence Sudoplatov. Off-front sabotage work of the NKVD-NKGB in 1941-1945. author Kolpakidi Alexander Ivanovich

1.4. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE RUSSIAN FLEET'S COASTAL OBSERVATION SYSTEM IN THE PACIFIC OCEAN IN THE BEGINNING OF THE 20TH CENTURY Among the elements that make up the fleet's infrastructure, a special place is occupied by the system of monitoring the situation in the theater of military operations. The US Navy currently has

From the book Pages of the Heroic Chronicle author Pashkov Alexander Mikhailovich

From the book Canary and Bullfinch. From the history of the Russian army author Kiselev Alexander

The Caucasian region in 1816 The Caucasian region, which was constantly torn apart by internal strife, periodically captured by Turkish, Persian and Russian troops, was constantly changing. Some state formations arose and others disappeared, rulers were constantly changing

From the book Basic Special Forces Training [Extreme Survival] author Ardashev Alexey Nikolaevich

Chapter 1. STATE OF THE COSSACK TROOPS AT THE BEGINNING OF THE XX CENTURY the entire male population of the Russian Empire served military service on the basis of the law on compulsory military service, which was issued in the form of the Charter of 1874 on universal military service. Charter

From the author's book

Chapter 8. Krasnodar Territory On September 24, 1941, the head of the UNKVD for the Krasnodar Territory sent Directive No. 4/132 to the head of the SPO UNKVD, which ordered to begin "advance preparation for partisan methods of fighting on the territory of the region in the event of its occupation

From the author's book

Border Territory Comrade General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU, comrade. L. I. Brezhnev at a meeting of the workers of the city of Vladivostok in 1966 in connection with the presentation of the Order of Lenin to the Primorsky Territory.

From the author's book

How useful it is to play soldiers and launch boats (beginning of the 18th century) Boys love to play war, soldiers. So the military reforms of Peter the Great began with a game, with royal fun. In the village of Preobrazhensky near Moscow, from local boys for young Peter, a

From the author's book

How the Russian army and navy created the Russian Empire (XVIII - early XIX century) “Why are you starting a war song, like a flute, dear bullfinch?” G.R. Derzhavin If everyone in the country is dressed in military uniform, then I will be able to govern the state. (Unknown colonel. Army

From the author's book

XVIII-XIX centuries I would like to note the uniqueness of Russia. Russia has always had its own special forces in the number of units ready for full-scale combat operations, and these troops in wartime carried out reconnaissance, ambushes, raids, sabotage, and in large battles