NF Dobritsyn: attention is the direction and concentration of human mental activity. Direction is understood as the selective nature of activity, concentration - deepening in this activity.
LN Kuleshova: like memory, attention refers to end-to-end mental processes. Therefore, it is possible to represent it as a process (or sides of a process: for example, sensory, perceptual, intellectual attention), and as a state (for example, a state of concentration), and as personality traits (for example, mindfulness.
In contrast to memory, the regulating function of attention appears more clearly, which provides a basis for classifying its types depending on the levels of mental regulation. This classification provides for the division of attention into involuntary, voluntary and post-voluntary. If focus and concentration are involuntary, then talk about involuntary attention. Involuntary attention is due to both the physical characteristics of the stimulus (intensity, contrast, duration, suddenness, etc.), and the significance of the stimulus for a person. If the focus and focus of a person's attention are associated with a consciously set goal, then they speak of voluntary attention. Along with these two types of attention, a third is distinguished - post-voluntary. In this case, the conscious performance of a task is accompanied, as Dobritsyn says, by the absorption of the personality by this activity and does not require volitional efforts.
The main characteristics of attention include volume / selectivity / stability / concentration / distribution / switching.
Attention volume is the number of objects that can be clearly perceived in a relatively short period of time. Modern experiments have suggested that the attention span is six. Voluntary regulation of the amount of attention with disparate stimuli is limited. With the semantic organization of incentives, it is much higher. The limited scope of attention requires the subject to constantly highlight any objects in the sensory-perceptual zone, and unselected objects are used by him as a background. This choice of a variety of signals, only some of them is called attention selectivity. The quantitative parameter of the selectivity of attention is, for example, the speed at which the subject chooses a stimulus from many others, and the qualitative parameter is accuracy, i.e. the degree to which the selection results correspond to the initial stimulus material.
Stability of attention is the ability of the subject not to deviate from the direction of mental activity and to remain focused on the object of attention. Characteristics of stability of attention are the temporal parameters of the duration of the preservation of the orientation and concentration of mental activity without deviating from the initial quality level.
Concentration of attention also involves determining the ability of the subject to remain focused on the object of attention in the presence of interference. The concentration of attention is assessed by the intensity of the interference.
The distribution of attention indicates the ability of the subject to direct and focus attention on several independent variables at the same time. Characteristics of the distribution of attention: time indicators obtained as a result of comparing the duration of the correct execution of one task and the execution of the same task together with other (two or more) tasks.
Switching attention is the movement of its focus and focus from one object to another or from one type of activity to another. The characteristic of switching attention is the degree of difficulty in its implementation, measured by the speed of the subject's transition from one type of activity to another. It has been established that the speed of switching attention depends both on the stimulus material and on the nature of the subject's activity with it. In persons characterized by a mobile nervous system (rapid transition from excitation to inhibition and vice versa), switching attention is easier.
In turn, the direction of mental activity should be understood as its selective nature, that is, the selection from the environment of specific objects, phenomena that are significant for the subject, or the choice of a certain type of mental activity. The concept of focus also includes the preservation of activity for a certain period of time. It is not enough just to choose one or another activity in order to be attentive - one must keep this choice, keep it.
Another characteristic of attention is focus. Concentration primarily means more or less depth in activity. The more difficult the task, the greater the intensity and intensity of attention should be, that is, greater depth is required. In addition, focus is associated with distraction from all strangers. Direction and focus are closely related. One cannot exist without the other. However, despite the close connection between them, these concepts are not identical. Direction is associated with the transition from one activity to another, and concentration - with the depth of the activity.
Attention, like any mental process, is associated with certain physiological mechanisms. In general, the physiological basis for the isolation of individual stimuli and the course of processes in a certain direction is the excitation of some nerve centers and the inhibition of others. A stimulus acting on a person activates the brain. The activation of the brain is carried out primarily by the reticular formation. Irritation of the ascending part of the reticular formation causes the appearance of rapid electrical oscillations in the cerebral cortex, increases the mobility of nervous processes, and lowers the thresholds of sensitivity. In addition, the diffuse thalamic system, hypothalamic structures, etc. are involved in the activation of the brain.
Among the "triggering" mechanisms of the reticular formation, one should first of all note the orienting reflex. It is an innate reaction of the body to any change in the environment in humans and animals. However, attention cannot be explained by just one orienting reflex. The physiological mechanisms of attention are more complex.
Peripheral mechanisms include the adjustment of the sense organs. Listening to a weak sound, the person turns his head towards the sound and at the same time the corresponding muscle stretches the eardrum, increasing its sensitivity. When the sound is very strong, the tension on the tympanic membrane is weakened, which impairs the transmission of vibrations to the inner ear.
Attention - selective focus on a particular object, focus on it.
Since attention is understood only as direction, it cannot be considered as at least a little independent process. Since attention is present in any conscious activity, insofar as it acts as an integral side of cognitive processes, and, moreover, that side in which they act as an activity directed at an object; insofar as it does not have its own special content.
A change in attention is expressed in a change in the experience of the degree of clarity and distinctness of the content that is the subject of human activity. This is one of the essential manifestations of attention.
Attention finds expression in the relationship of a person to an object. Behind attention are always the interests and needs, attitudes and orientation of a person, his entire personality. This first of all causes a change in the attitude towards the object, expressed by attention - its awareness: the object becomes clearer and more distinct. The reasons for attention to a particular object are indicated by its properties and qualities taken in their relation to the subject. Outside of this connection, no real reasons indicating why something is heeded by a person, and something is not, cannot be established.
Physiological bases of attention.
It was found that selective attention is based on the general wakefulness of the cerebral cortex, an increase in the activity of its activity. The optimal level of excitability of the cortex makes the activation of attention selective. In the presence of foci of optimal excitement, a person constantly shows attention to something. If a person is inattentive in his activities, it means that his attention at this time is distracted or directed to something extraneous, not related to the type of his activity. The important role of the frontal regions of the brain in the selection of information is especially emphasized. With the help of neurophysiological studies, special neurons have been found in the brain, called "attention neurons." These are cells-detectors of novelty, which are observed on the entire surface of the cerebral cortex and even in internal structures. Depending on the presence of a conscious choice of direction and regulation, post-voluntary (or secondary involuntary), voluntary and involuntary are distinguished.
Involuntary attention (passive). A type of attention in which there is no conscious choice of direction and regulation. It is established and maintained regardless of the person's conscious intention. It is based on the unconscious attitudes of a person. As a rule, short-term, quickly turning into an arbitrary. The emergence of involuntary attention can be caused by a feature of the influencing stimulus, as well as due to the correspondence of these stimuli to past experience or the mental state of a person. Sometimes involuntary attention can be useful, both in work and in everyday life, it gives us the opportunity to timely identify the appearance of an irritant and take the necessary measures, and facilitates inclusion in habitual activity. But at the same time, involuntary attention can have a negative impact on the success of the performed activity, distracting us from the main thing in the problem being solved, reducing the productivity of work in general. For example, unusual noises, shouts, and flashes of light during work distract our attention and make it difficult to concentrate.
Arbitrary attention. The physiological mechanism of voluntary attention is the focus of optimal excitation in the cerebral cortex, supported by signals coming from the second signaling system. Hence, the role of the word of the parents or the teacher for the formation of the child's voluntary attention is obvious. The emergence of voluntary attention in a person is historically associated with the labor process, since it is impossible to carry out conscious and planned activity without controlling one's attention.
The psychological feature of voluntary attention is the accompanying experience of more or less volitional effort, tension, and prolonged maintenance of voluntary attention causes fatigue, often even more than physical stress. It is useful to alternate a strong concentration of attention with less strenuous work, by switching to lighter or more interesting types actions or arouse in a person a strong interest in a matter that requires intense attention. The person makes a significant effort of will, concentrates his attention, understands the content necessary for himself and then, without volitional tension, attentively follows the material being studied. His attention now becomes secondarily involuntary, or post-voluntary. It will greatly facilitate the process of assimilating knowledge, and prevent the development of fatigue. A type of attention in which there is a conscious choice of the object of attention, but there is no tension characteristic of voluntary attention. It is associated with the formation of a new attitude, associated more with actual activity than with the previous experience of a person (as opposed to involuntary).
Basic properties of attention
Concentration - keeping your attention on an object. Such retention means the selection of an "object" as a certain certainty, a figure, from the general background. Since the presence of attention means the connection of consciousness with a certain object, its concentration on it, on the one hand, and the clarity and distinctness of the consciousness of this object, on the other, so far as we can talk about the degree of this concentration, that is, about the concentration of attention, which, of course, will manifest itself in the degree of clarity and distinctness of this object. Since the level of clarity and distinctness is determined by the intensity of connection with the object, or side of the activity, the concentration of attention will express the intensity of this connection. Thus, concentration of attention is understood as the intensity of concentration of consciousness on an object.
Volume. Since a person can simultaneously clearly and distinctly be aware of several homogeneous objects, so far as we can talk about the amount of attention. Thus, the amount of attention is the number of homogeneous objects that can be perceived simultaneously and with the same clarity. By this property, attention can be either narrow or broad.
Stability. In contrast, lability is characterized by the duration during which concentration of attention remains at the same level. The most essential condition for the sustainability of attention is the ability to reveal new sides and connections in the object at which it is directed. Attention is stable where we can unfold the content given in perception or thinking, revealing in it new aspects in their interconnections and mutual transitions, where opportunities open up for further development, movement, transition to other sides, deepening into them.
Switchability. Conscious and meaningful, deliberate and purposeful, due to the setting of a new goal, a change in the direction of consciousness from one object to another. It is only on these conditions that one speaks of switchability. When these conditions are not met, they talk about distraction. Distinguish between complete and incomplete (complete and incomplete) switching of attention.
Distribution. The ability to keep several dissimilar objects in the spotlight.
Attention
Attention functions:
1) the function of selecting significant impacts that correspond to the needs of this activity;
2) the function of ignoring other insignificant competing influences;
3) the function of retention, preservation of the performed activity until the goal is achieved, that is, the regulation and control of the activity.
Kinds of attention:
Involuntary attention- involuntarily, spontaneously arising attention, caused by the action of a strong, contrasting or new, unexpected stimulus or significant and causing an emotional response stimulus.
Arbitrary attention- conscious focus on certain information, requires volitional efforts, tiresome after 20 minutes.
Post-spontaneous attention- it is evoked through entering the activity and the interest arising in connection with this, as a result, purposefulness is maintained for a long time, tension is relieved and the person does not get tired, although post-voluntary attention can last for hours.
Qualities or properties of attention:
concentration- the degree of focus on the object; volume - the number of objects that can be captured by attention at the same time;
switching- deliberate deliberate transfer of attention from one object to another;
distribution- the ability to keep several objects in the field of attention at the same time, to perform several types of activities;
sustainability- the duration of focusing on the object.
The regularity of the circulation of attention - every 6-10 seconds, the human brain is disconnected from receiving information for a fraction of a second, as a result, some part of the information may be lost. Research by BM Teplov and VD Nebylitsyn showed that the quality of attention depends on the properties of the human nervous system. It was found that for people with a weak nervous system, additional stimuli interfere with concentration, and for those with a strong nervous system, they even increase concentration.
However, the deficit of stimuli and information is an unfavorable factor. Studies have shown that when a person is isolated from stimuli from the environment and from their own body (sensory deprivation, when a person is placed in a soundproof chamber, wearing opaque glasses, placed in a warm bath to reduce skin sensitivity), then a normal, physically healthy person quite quickly begins to experience difficulties in controlling his thoughts, he loses orientation in space, in the structure of his own body, he begins to hallucinations and nightmares. When examining people after such isolation, they observed violations of the perception of color, shape, size, space, time, sometimes the constancy of perception was lost.
Attention is one of those cognitive processes of a person, in
regarding the nature and right to self-examination
which among psychologists there is still no agreement, despite the fact that his research has been going on for many centuries. Some scientists argue that as a special, independent process of attention does not exist, that it acts only as a side or moment of any other psychological process or human activity. Others believe that attention is a completely independent mental state of a person, a specific internal process that has its own characteristics that are not reducible to the characteristics of other cognitive processes. As a substantiation of their point of view, supporters of the latter opinion point out that in the human brain it is possible to find and distinguish a special kind of structures associated precisely with attention, anatomically and physiologically relatively autonomous from those that ensure the functioning of other cognitive processes. In particular, the role of the reticular formation in providing attention to the orienting reflex as its possible innate mechanism and, finally, to the dominant, investigated and described in connection with the attention of A. Ukhtomsky, was pointed out.
Really, in the system of psychological phenomena attention
occupies a special position. It is included in all other mental processes, acts as their necessary moment, and it is not possible to separate it from them, to isolate and study it in a “pure” form. We deal with the phenomena of attention only when the dynamics of cognitive processes and the features of various mental states of a person are considered. Whenever we try to highlight the "matter" of attention, distracting from the rest of the content of mental phenomena, it seems to disappear.
However, one cannot fail to see the peculiarities of attention, which run like a red thread through all other mental phenomena, where it manifests itself, not reducible to the moments of various types of activity in which a person is involved. This is the presence in it of some dynamic, observable and measurable characteristics, such as volume, concentration, switchability and a number of others, which are not directly related to cognitive processes such as sensations, perception, memory and thinking.
The correct solution to the problem under discussion is to try to combine and take into account both points of view, that is, to see in attention both the side of processes and phenomena, and something independent, independent of them. This means taking the point of view according to which attention, as a separate mental process, adjacent to others, does not exist, but is a completely special state that characterizes all these processes as a whole. This position is confirmed by the well-known anatomical and physiological data, the main of which are as follows:
1. The mechanism of the dominant as a physiological correlate of attention can be observed on the entire surface of the cerebral cortex, regardless of the projection zones of which specific analyzers are localized in them.
2. Reticular formation, the work of which is associated with the phenomenon
attention, is on the path of nerve impulses concerning
almost all cognitive processes (nonspecific pathways
afferent and efferent conduction of sensory information).
3. Neurons of attention - cells-detectors of novelty - can be found practically on the entire surface and in some internal structures of the brain.
4. At the same time, all three named anatomical and physiological factors in the central nervous system exist autonomously and independently of individual sensory analyzers, which suggests that attention is still a special phenomenon, irreducible to all others.
What is the essence of this process and, at the same time, the state of the human psyche? Let us consider this question first illustratively, and then in a more precise definition.
One of the most characteristic features of our spiritual life, wrote the famous American psychologist E. Titchener, is the fact that, being under a constant influx of more and more new impressions, we notice and notice only the smallest, insignificant part of them. Only this part of external impressions and internal sensations is highlighted by our attention, appears in the form of images, is fixed in memory, becomes the content of reflections.
Attention can be defined as a psychophysiological process, a state that characterizes the dynamic features of cognitive activity. They are expressed in its concentration on a relatively narrow area of external or internal reality, which at a given moment in time become conscious and concentrate on themselves the mental and physical forces of a person for a certain period of time . Attention- it is a process of conscious or unconscious (semi-conscious) selection of one information coming through the senses and ignoring the other.
The flow of information, the expansion of human contacts, the development of diverse forms of mass culture, the growth of the pace of life lead to an increase in the amount of knowledge necessary for life for a modern person. The ongoing changes in society have influenced the development of children who have actively joined the whirlpool of our turbulent life, and have put forward new requirements in general.
Preschool education has come to be regarded as the first step in the entire system of lifelong learning. The preschool institution is designed to create conditions for the intellectual, creative, emotional, physical development of the child and to prepare him for school. One of the preconditions for successful schooling is the development of voluntary, deliberate attention in preschool age.
The attention of a preschooler reflects his interests in relation to the surrounding objects and the actions performed with them. The child is focused on an object or action only as long as his interest in this object or action does not fade away. The appearance of a new subject causes a shift in attention, so children rarely do the same thing for a long time.
Attention itself is not a special cognitive process. it is inherent in any cognitive process (perception, thinking, memory) and acts as the ability to organize this process.
Attention is a mental state that characterizes the intensity of cognitive activity and is expressed in its concentration on a relatively narrow area (actions, object, phenomenon).
There are the following forms of display of attention:
Sensory (perceptual);
Intellectual (mental);
Motor (motor).
Activation of necessary and inhibition of unnecessary at the moment mental and physiological processes;
Retention, preservation of images of a certain subject content until the goal is achieved;
Regulation and control of the course of activities.
Attention is characterized by various qualities or properties. Attention has a complex functional structure formed by the interrelationships of its main properties.
The properties of attention are divided into primary and secondary. The primary ones include volume, stability, intensity, concentration, distribution of attention, while the secondary ones are fluctuations and switching of attention.
The amount of attention is the number of objects (or their elements) perceived simultaneously with sufficient clarity and distinctness. The more objects or their elements are perceived simultaneously, the greater the amount of attention and the more effective the activity will be.
To measure the amount of attention, special techniques and tests are used. With age, the scope of attention expands. An adult's attention span ranges from four to seven objects at a time. However, the amount of attention is an individual variable, and the classic indicator of the amount of attention in children is the number 3 + -2.
Stability of attention - its temporal characteristic - is the duration of the retention of attention to the same object or activity. Stability is maintained in practical activity with objects, in vigorous mental activity. Stable attention is maintained in work, which gives positive results, especially after overcoming difficulties, which causes positive emotions, a sense of satisfaction.
An indicator of the sustainability of attention is the high productivity of activity over a relatively long time. The stability of attention is characterized by its duration and the degree of concentration.
Experimental studies have shown that attention is subject to periodic voluntary fluctuations. The periods of such fluctuations are usually two to three seconds and go up to 12 seconds.
If attention is unstable, then the quality of work is sharply reduced. The following factors influence the stability of attention:
Complication of the object (complex objects cause complex active mental activity, which is associated with the duration of concentration);
Personality activity;
Emotional state (under the influence of strong stimuli, distraction of attention to foreign objects may occur);
Attitude to activity;
The pace of activity (for the stability of attention, it is important to ensure the optimal pace of work: if the pace is too low or too high, the nervous processes irradiate and capture unnecessary parts of the cerebral cortex), it becomes difficult to concentrate and switch attention.
Stability is closely related to the dynamic characteristics of attention, for example, with its fluctuations (punctuation). The dynamics of attention is manifested in shifts in stability over a long period of work, which is subdivided into the following stages of concentration:
Initial entry into work;
Achievement of concentration of attention, then its micro-fluctuations, overcome by volitional efforts;
Decreased concentration and performance with increased fatigue.
The intensity of attention is characterized by a relatively large expenditure of nervous energy when performing this type of activity. Attention in a particular activity can be manifested with different intensities. During any work, manifest with different intensities. During any work, moments of very intense attention alternate with moments of weakened attention. So, in a state of fatigue, a person is not capable of intense attention, cannot concentrate, which is accompanied by an increase in inhibitory processes in the cerebral cortex and the appearance of drowsiness as a special act of protective inhibition. Physiologically, the intensity of attention is due to an increased degree of excitatory processes in certain parts of the cerebral cortex, while other parts of it are inhibited.
Concentration is the degree of concentration. Focused attention is called attention directed to any one object or type of activity and not spreading to others. Concentration (focusing) of attention on some objects presupposes a simultaneous distraction from everything outsider. Concentration is a prerequisite for comprehending and capturing information coming to the brain, while the reflection becomes clearer and more distinct.
Focused attention is very intense, which is necessary to carry out important activities. The physiological basis of focused attention is the optimal intensity of excitatory processes in those areas of the cerebral cortex that are associated with this type of activity, with the simultaneous development of strong inhibitory processes in the rest of the cortex.
Focused attention is characterized by pronounced external signs: in an appropriate posture, facial expressions, expressive lively gaze, quick reaction, inhibition of all unnecessary movements. At the same time, external signs do not always correspond to the actual state of attention. So, for example, silence in the classroom, in the audience can indicate both a passion for the subject, and complete indifference to what is happening.
Distribution of attention is the ability of a person to keep a certain number of objects in the center of attention at the same time, i.e. it is the simultaneous attention to two or more objects while simultaneously performing actions with them or observing them. Distributed attention is a prerequisite for the successful execution of many activities that require the simultaneous execution of disparate operations.
Distribution of attention is a property of attention, which is associated with the possibility of simultaneously successfully performing (combining) two or more different types of activity (or several actions). When considering the distribution of attention, it must be borne in mind that:
The difficulty is the combination of two or more types of mental activity;
It is easier to combine motor and mental activity;
For the successful execution of two types of activity at the same time, one type of activity must be brought to automatism.
The ability to focus or, conversely, to distributed attention is formed in the process of practical activity through exercises and the accumulation of relevant skills.
Switching attention is a conscious and meaningful movement of attention from one object to another or from one activity to another in connection with the setting of a new task. In general, switchability of attention means the ability to quickly navigate in a difficult situation. Switching attention is always accompanied by some nervous tension, which is expressed in volitional effort. Switching attention is manifested in the deliberate transition of the subject from one type of activity to another, from one object to another, from one action to another.
Possible reasons for switching attention: requirements of the performed activity, inclusion in a new activity, fatigue.
Switching can be complete (complete) and incomplete (incomplete)
In the case when a person has moved on to another activity, and is not yet completely distracted from the first one. The ease and success of switching attention depends on:
From the relationship between previous and subsequent activities;
From the completeness of the previous activity, or its incompleteness;
From the attitude of the subject to a particular activity (the more interesting, the easier it is to switch, and vice versa);
From the individual characteristics of the subject (type of the nervous system, individual experience, etc.);
From the significance of the goal of the activity for a person, its clarity, precision.
Along with the switching of attention, its distraction stands out - an involuntary movement of attention from the main activity to objects that are not important for its successful implementation. It is difficult for a child to start a new job, especially if it does not cause positive emotions; therefore, it is not recommended to frequently change its content and types without a special need. However, with fatigue and monotonous activity, such a switch is useful and necessary.
Fluctuations of attention are expressed in the periodic change of objects to which it is drawn. Fluctuations of attention differ from changes in its stability. The change in stability is characterized by a periodic increase and decrease in the intensity of attention. Oscillations can occur even with the most focused and stable attention. The periodicity of fluctuations in attention is clearly manifested in experiments with a dual image.
A classic example is a double square, which is simultaneously two figures: 1) a truncated pyramid facing the viewer with its top; and 2) a long corridor with an exit at the end. If you look at this drawing, even with intense attention, then at certain intervals in front of us will be either a truncated pyramid or a long corridor. Such a change of objects is an example of the fluctuation of attention.
Attention is selective. Thanks to this, the activity has a certain direction. The focus, or selectivity, of attention is manifested in various forms. Initially, the choice of objects of attention is associated with the analysis of a huge flow of information continuously coming from the outside world. This tentative - research activity proceeds to a large extent at the subconscious level. Selectiveness of attention is manifested in vigilance, alertness, in anxious anticipation (involuntary selectivity). Conscious selection of some objects occurs in purposeful cognitive activity. In some cases, the selectivity of attention can be in the nature of a search, choice, control associated with a certain program (arbitrary selectivity). In other cases (like reading a book, listening to music, etc.) a clear program is not necessary.
The arbitrariness of attention develops along with the formation of its individual properties. There is also a third stage in the formation of attention - it consists in returning to involuntary attention. This type of attention is called "post-voluntary". The concept of post-voluntary attention was introduced by N. F. Dobrynin. Post-voluntary attention arises on the basis of voluntary attention and consists in focusing on an object due to its value (significance, interest) for a person.
Thus, three stages of attention development can be distinguished:
Primary attention caused by a variety of stimuli that have a strong effect on the nervous system;
Secondary attention - focusing on one object, despite the presence of others (differentiation);
Post-voluntary attention, when an object is held in attention without special effort.
The source of voluntary (intentional) attention is entirely determined by subjective factors. Arbitrary attention serves to achieve the goal set and accepted for execution. Depending on the nature of these conditions and on the system of activity in which acts of voluntary attention are included, the following varieties are distinguished.
The main function of voluntary attention is active regulation of the course of mental processes. Currently, voluntary attention is understood as an activity aimed at controlling behavior, maintaining a stable electoral activity.
Characteristics of voluntary (intentional) attention:
Purposefulness is determined by the tasks that a person sets for himself in a particular activity:
The organized nature of the activity - a person prepares to be attentive to one or another object, consciously directs his attention to it, organizes the mental processes necessary for this activity;
Sustainability - attention lasts more or less long time and depends on the tasks or work plan in which we express our intention.
The reasons for voluntary attention:
The interests of a person, prompting him to engage in this type of activity;
Awareness of duty and responsibilities that require the best possible performance of this type of activity.
In the initial phenomenological characterization of voluntary attention, the need for conscious efforts to focus attention in a certain direction was always emphasized, its pulsating nature and other features accessible to introspection were noted (W. James).
The transition to characterization of the psychological nature of voluntary attention begins with an attempt to understand its motivation. T. Ribot believed that the source of those "additional forces" that support the corresponding efforts are "natural engines that deviate from a direct goal and are used to achieve another goal." This implies an understanding of the genesis of voluntary attention as a change in the system of its motivation.
N.N. Lange noted such an important, internal difference of voluntary attention as the fact that the goal of the process is known in advance to the subject. In other words, he has, although incomplete and pale, preliminary knowledge about the object of attention.
A special place is also occupied by the considerations of many authors about the physiological mechanisms of the feeling of effort experienced by a person.
The study of the psychological mechanisms of voluntary attention proper can be dated to the works of L. S. Vygotsky. In the context of the ideas of the French sociological school about the culturally mediated nature of voluntary behavior, it was experimentally shown that the genesis of voluntary attention includes the conscious use of various stimuli-means that have a symbolic character.
Within the framework of P. Ya. Galperin's idea that attention is the activity of control, the mechanism of voluntary attention is considered as an abbreviated form of control over the action. This control is carried out on the basis of a predetermined plan and with the help of predetermined criteria and methods of their application.
These approaches to understanding the mechanisms of voluntary attention take us to a new plane of its analysis. Indeed, both the use of funds and the exercise of control presuppose the performance of a certain complex of external and internal actions or operations. It is advisable to analyze them in the context of the theory of activity or the so-called activity approach.
The initial components of the structure of activity - needs, motives, actions, operations - were studied very unevenly. A significant number of experimental works have been devoted to the problem of motives. At the same time, the main attention was paid to actions that constitute the processes of thinking (P. Ya. Galperin, Ya. A. Ponomarev).
Only in the mid-60s. there are single works aimed at analyzing the composition of those internal operations that must be performed to achieve a certain result. The first work in this direction was the study of NS Pantina, in which it was shown that such a seemingly simple process as collecting a children's pyramid according to a model can be built on the basis of different and rather complex sets of operations.
The development of attention in ontogenesis was analyzed by L.S. Vygotsky. He wrote that "the culture of attention development lies in the fact that with the help of an adult, a child learns a number of artificial stimuli - signs through which he further directs his own behavior and attention."
The process of age-related development of attention, according to A.N. Leontyev, is an improvement in attention with age under the influence of external stimuli. Such stimuli are surrounding objects, speech of adults, individual words. From the first days of a child's life, attention is largely directed with the help of stimulus words.
The development of attention in childhood goes through a number of successive stages:
1) the first weeks and months of a child's life are characterized by the appearance of an orientation reflex as an objective congenital sign of involuntary attention, concentration is low;
2) by the end of the first year of life, tentative research activity arises as a means of the future development of voluntary attention;
3) the beginning of the second year of life is characterized by the appearance of the rudiments of voluntary attention: under the influence of an adult, the child directs his gaze to the named object;
4) in the second and third years of life, the initial form of voluntary attention develops. The distribution of attention between two objects or actions is practically inaccessible to children under the age of three;
5) at 4.5-5 years old, the ability to direct attention appears under the influence of complex instructions from an adult;
6) at 5-6 years old, an elementary form of voluntary attention appears under the influence of self-instruction. Attention is most stable in vigorous activity, in games, manipulation of objects, while performing various actions;
7) at the age of 7, attention develops and improves, including volitional;
8) in older preschool age, the following changes occur:
The scope of attention is expanding;
The stability of attention increases;
Voluntary attention is formed.
The amount of attention depends to a large extent on the past experience and development of the child. An older preschooler is able to keep a small number of objects or phenomena in sight.
Studies conducted by T.V. Petukhova show that older preschoolers not only can engage in uninteresting work for a longer time (on the instructions of an adult), but are much less likely to be distracted by extraneous objects than younger preschoolers.
Throughout the preschool age, the child's attention becomes not only more stable, wider in volume, but also more effective. This is especially clearly manifested in the formation of a voluntary action in a child.
Throughout the preschool age, due to the complication of children's activities and their general mental development of children's activities and their general mental development, attention becomes more focused and stable. So, if younger preschoolers can play the same game for 25-30 minutes, then for 5-6 years the duration of the game increases to 1-1.5 hours. This is due to the fact that the game is gradually becoming more complex and interest in it is maintained by the constant introduction of new situations.
Voluntary attention is closely related to speech. In preschool age, voluntary attention is formed in connection with the general increase in the role of speech in the regulation of the child's behavior. The better the speech of a preschool child is, the higher the level of development of perception and the earlier voluntary attention is formed.
The physiological basis of involuntary attention is the orienting reflex. This form of attention predominates among preschoolers and is found in younger students at the beginning of their education. The reaction to everything new and bright is strong enough at a given age. The child cannot yet control his attention and is often at the mercy of external impressions. The attention of an older preschooler is closely related to thinking. Children cannot focus their attention on the unclear, incomprehensible, they are quickly distracted and start doing other things. It is necessary not only to make the difficult, incomprehensible, accessible and understandable, but also to develop volitional efforts, and with it voluntary attention.
With the development and improvement of mental activity, children increasingly become able to focus their attention on the main, basic, essential.
Although preschoolers begin to acquire voluntary attention, involuntary attention remains predominant throughout preschool age. It is difficult for children to concentrate on monotonous and unattractive activities for them, while in the process of playing or solving an emotionally colored productive task, they can remain involved in this activity for a long time and, accordingly, be attentive.
This feature is one of the reasons why correctional and developmental work can be based on classes that require constant tension of voluntary attention. The elements of the game used in the classroom, productive types of activity, frequent changes in forms of activity allow maintaining the attention of children at a sufficiently high level.
So, attention is understood as a mental state that characterizes the intensity of cognitive activity and is expressed in its concentration on a relatively narrow area (actions, object, phenomenon).
The main functions of attention are:
Purposeful organized selection of incoming information (the main selective function of attention);
Providing long-term concentration, activity on the same object;
Regulation and control of the course of activities.
Attention is characterized by various qualities or properties. The properties of attention are divided into primary and secondary. The primary ones include volume, stability, intensity, concentration, distribution of attention, while the secondary ones are fluctuations and switching of attention.
Attention has lower and higher forms. The former are represented by involuntary attention, the latter by voluntary.
Voluntary attention - focusing on one object, despite the presence of others (differentiation). The main function of voluntary attention is active regulation of the course of mental processes. Currently, voluntary attention is understood as an activity aimed at controlling behavior, maintaining a stable electoral activity. It has its own characteristics and causation.
The development of attention in childhood goes through a number of successive stages. In preschool age, an elementary form of voluntary attention arises under the influence of self-instruction. Attention is most stable in vigorous activity, in games, manipulation of objects, while performing various actions. The elements of the game used in the classroom, productive types of activity, and frequent changes in the forms of activity make it possible to develop children's voluntary attention.
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