Greater India- a historical region that was significantly influenced by Indian culture and Hinduism, especially in the period from the 5th to the 15th centuries. Greater India extended far beyond the Indian subcontinent: from Afghanistan to the islands of Southeast Asia and the Far East, from Ceylon to the foothills of the Himalayas and Tibet. Greater India is associated with the spread of Hinduism in Southeast Asia, as well as (which occurred in the first centuries AD) the expansion of Buddhism beyond the Indian subcontinent to Central Asia and China along the Great Silk Road.
Wanglang
Wanglang (Vietnamese) Văn Lang, ty-nom 文郎)- the first Viet state on the territory of modern Vietnam, founded in 2524 BC. e. (according to other sources, this was in the 7th century BC) and existed until 258 BC. e. The country was ruled by the Hong-bang dynasty. The inhabitants of Van Lang were called Laquiet.
Very little is known about Vanlang: the Hung Vuong rulers and the state itself were mentioned in Qin and Tang sources.
The founder of Van Lang was King Hung Lan, who declared himself the third Hung Vuong, the throne was hereditary. The Hung Vuongs were both military commanders-in-chief and spiritual leaders.
Khmer Empire
Khmer Empire or Kambujadesa(the term is also used Angkor Cambodia or Angkor Kingdom listen)) is a Khmer feudal state that existed in the 13th century in the territory of modern Cambodia, Vietnam, Thailand and Laos, centered at Angkor.
It reached its peak in the 12th century. During this period, the empire included the modern territories of Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand and Laos.
The state was formed as a result of the decomposition of tribal relations among the Khmer tribes that inhabited the interior of Indochina. The unification of the disparate Khmer principalities was facilitated by the favorable location of Angkor from a development point of view Agriculture and protection from external enemies. The influence of Indian civilization, which spread from the coastal regions deep into the peninsula, also played a certain role in the formation of state structures.
Jayavarman II (-) is officially considered the founder of the Kambujadeshi dynasty of kings, but in fact the unification of the country took place under Indravarman I (-) and Yashovarman I (-). In the 11th-12th centuries, the country reached its greatest prosperity and became one of the most powerful states in Southeast Asia. Kings Suryavarman I (-) and Udayadityavarman II (-) built a large irrigation network, fed from an artificial lake with an area of 16 km² - Western Barai.
Under Suryavarman II, the country wages devastating wars against the neighboring Mon states in the Menama Valley and also against the state of Tyampa. The territory of Kambujadeshi reaches largest sizes. A monument of Cambodian architecture is being erected near the capital - the Angkor Wat temple. Since the middle of the 12th century, Kambujadesha, exhausted by continuous wars and the enormous scale of construction, gradually fell into decay. During the 2nd half of the 13th century, it was constantly pressed out from the west by Thai tribes. TO XIV century Kambujadesh's empire ceases to exist. 
Srivijaya
Srivijaya(Also Srivijaya, Srivijaya) (Chinese 三佛齐, 室利佛逝 -) - an ancient Malay kingdom centered on the island of Sumatra, which also extended to the islands of the Malay Archipelago and the coast of Southeast Asia. It originates from various sources from BC. e. The state ceased to exist around . The name in Sanskrit means brilliant victory.
IN Srivijaya Vajrayana Buddhism flourished, and culture and trade were developed. Buddhist universities were very authoritative.
At its height, Srivijaya controlled the island of Sumatra, the western part of the island of Java, part of the island of Kalimantan, the Malay Peninsula and part of modern Thailand.
For modern Western historical science, Srivijaya was discovered only in , when French historians were able to identify the Sanskrit name Sri Vijaya with the Islamic name Sribuza and with the Chinese San-fo-qi.
The capital of the state was the city of Palembang on the island of Sumatra, most likely the ancient capital was located in the place where the modern city is located, this is evidenced by the discovery of a large statue of Ganesha, there are assumptions about the location of various buildings and objects, and the holy mountain of Sri Vijaya most likely corresponds to the mountain Bukit Seguntang. The ruling dynasty became the Shailendra dynasty, presumably of Javanese origin.
The state was founded before, presumably on the site of the Kantoli state (Kan-t’o-li). Chinese sources mention a hundred years later about two kingdoms in Sumatra - Jambi and Palembang, while Jambi was quite powerful and maintained relations with China. Jambi was occupied by Srivijaya, as the Buddhist pilgrim I Ching writes about.
The advantageous position of Palembang in a convenient harbor on trade routes led to the flourishing of the kingdom; trade in fabrics went through Palembang, precious stones, ivory, silver, camphor, precious woods, spices, elephants and incense. The ships passed through the Malacca and Sunda Straits, exchanging goods from India, China and Arabia. The Strait of Malacca was also called the maritime silk road.
Malacca Sultanate
European colonization
On 24 August 1511, the Portuguese captured Malacca. The city became a Portuguese stronghold in Southeast Asia.
Immediately after the capture, the Portuguese began building a powerful fortress, called A "Famosa ("famous"). For this purpose, captive residents of the city and 1,500 slaves of the Sultan, who automatically became slaves of Manuel I, were used. Stone was broken from mosques, tombs and other city buildings.
A new administration was created. At the head of the city was the “captain of the fortress,” who reported directly to the Viceroy of India. It was replaced every three to four years. The deputy of the “Captain of the Fortress” was the “Captain of the Port”. In addition, a city council was created. The chief judge and secretary of the council were appointed by the viceroy, and six councilors in charge of city finances, legal proceedings, etc. were elected by local Portuguese. Leaders of the local Catholic clergy also served on the city council. The Portuguese retained part of the old administration. The local Malays and other non-Christians were subordinate to her, and she supervised the non-Portuguese courts.
All ships passing through the Strait of Malacca were required to call at Malacca and pay a toll. Those who tried to pass by were intercepted and drowned by Portuguese patrols.
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An excerpt characterizing the History of Southeast Asia
Having received, awakened from sleep, a cold and commanding note from Kutuzov, Rastopchin felt the more irritated, the more guilty he felt. In Moscow there remained everything that had been entrusted to him, everything that was government property that he was supposed to take out. It was not possible to take everything out.“Who is to blame for this, who allowed this to happen? - he thought. - Of course, not me. I had everything ready, I held Moscow like this! And this is what they have brought it to! Scoundrels, traitors! - he thought, not clearly defining who these scoundrels and traitors were, but feeling the need to hate these traitors who were to blame for the false and ridiculous situation in which he found himself.
All that night Count Rastopchin gave orders, for which people came to him from all sides of Moscow. Those close to him had never seen the count so gloomy and irritated.
“Your Excellency, they came from the patrimonial department, from the director for orders... From the consistory, from the Senate, from the university, from the orphanage, the vicar sent... asks... What do you order about the fire brigade? The warden from the prison... the warden from the yellow house..." - they reported to the count all night, without stopping.
To all these questions the count gave short and angry answers, showing that his orders were no longer needed, that all the work he had carefully prepared had now been ruined by someone, and that this someone would bear full responsibility for everything that would happen now.
“Well, tell this idiot,” he answered a request from the patrimonial department, “so that he remains guarding his papers.” Why are you asking nonsense about the fire brigade? If there are horses, let them go to Vladimir. Don't leave it to the French.
- Your Excellency, the warden from the insane asylum has arrived, as you order?
- How will I order? Let everyone go, that’s all... And let the crazy people out in the city. When our armies are commanded by crazy people, that’s what God ordered.
When asked about the convicts who were sitting in the pit, the count angrily shouted at the caretaker:
- Well, should I give you two battalions of a convoy that doesn’t exist? Let them in, and that’s it!
– Your Excellency, there are political ones: Meshkov, Vereshchagin.
- Vereshchagin! Is he not hanged yet? - shouted Rastopchin. - Bring him to me.
By nine o'clock in the morning, when the troops had already moved through Moscow, no one else came to ask the count's orders. Everyone who could go did so of their own accord; those who remained decided with themselves what they had to do.
The count ordered the horses to be brought in to go to Sokolniki, and, frowning, yellow and silent, with folded hands, he sat in his office.
In calm, not stormy times, it seems to every administrator that it is only through his efforts that the entire population under his control moves, and in this consciousness of his necessity, every administrator feels the main reward for his labors and efforts. It is clear that as long as the historical sea is calm, the ruler-administrator, with his fragile boat resting his pole against the ship of the people and himself moving, must seem to him that through his efforts the ship he is resting against is moving. But as soon as a storm arises, the sea becomes agitated and the ship itself moves, then delusion is impossible. The ship moves with its enormous, independent speed, the pole does not reach the moving ship, and the ruler suddenly goes from the position of a ruler, a source of strength, into an insignificant, useless and weak person.
Rastopchin felt this, and it irritated him. The police chief, who was stopped by the crowd, together with the adjutant, who came to report that the horses were ready, entered the count. Both were pale, and the police chief, reporting the execution of his assignment, said that in the count’s courtyard there was a huge crowd of people who wanted to see him.
Rastopchin, without answering a word, stood up and quickly walked into his luxurious, bright living room, walked up to the balcony door, grabbed the handle, left it and moved to the window, from which the whole crowd could be seen more clearly. A tall fellow stood in the front rows and with a stern face, waving his hand, said something. The bloody blacksmith stood next to him with a gloomy look. The hum of voices could be heard through the closed windows.
- Is the crew ready? - said Rastopchin, moving away from the window.
“Ready, your Excellency,” said the adjutant.
Rastopchin again approached the balcony door.
- What do they want? – he asked the police chief.
- Your Excellency, they say that they were going to go against the French on your orders, they shouted something about treason. But a violent crowd, your Excellency. I left by force. Your Excellency, I dare to suggest...
“If you please, go, I know what to do without you,” Rostopchin shouted angrily. He stood at the balcony door, looking out at the crowd. “This is what they did to Russia! This is what they did to me!” - thought Rostopchin, feeling an uncontrollable anger rising in his soul against someone who could be attributed to the cause of everything that happened. As often happens with hot-tempered people, anger was already possessing him, but he was looking for another subject for it. “La voila la populace, la lie du peuple,” he thought, looking at the crowd, “la plebe qu"ils ont soulevee par leur sottise. Il leur faut une victime, [“Here it is, people, these scum of the population, the plebeians, whom they raised with their stupidity! They need a victim."] - it occurred to him, looking at the tall fellow waving his hand. And for the same reason it came to his mind that he himself needed this victim, this object for his anger.
- Is the crew ready? – he asked another time.
- Ready, Your Excellency. What do you order about Vereshchagin? “He’s waiting at the porch,” answered the adjutant.
- A! - Rostopchin cried out, as if struck by some unexpected memory.
And, quickly opening the door, he stepped out onto the balcony with decisive steps. The conversation suddenly stopped, hats and caps were taken off, and all eyes rose to the count who had come out.
- Hello guys! - the count said quickly and loudly. - Thank you for coming. I’ll come out to you now, but first of all we need to deal with the villain. We need to punish the villain who killed Moscow. Wait for me! “And the count just as quickly returned to his chambers, slamming the door firmly.
A murmur of pleasure ran through the crowd. “That means he will control all the villains! And you say French... he’ll give you the whole distance!” - people said, as if reproaching each other for their lack of faith.
A few minutes later an officer hurriedly came out of the front doors, ordered something, and the dragoons stood up. The crowd from the balcony eagerly moved towards the porch. Walking out onto the porch with angry, quick steps, Rostopchin hurriedly looked around him, as if looking for someone.
- Where is he? - said the count, and at the same moment as he said this, he saw from around the corner of the house coming out between two dragoons a young man with a long thin neck, with his head half shaved and overgrown. This young man was dressed in what had once been a dandyish, blue cloth-covered, shabby fox sheepskin coat and dirty prisoner's harem trousers, stuffed into uncleaned, worn-out thin boots. Shackles hung heavily on his thin, weak legs, making it difficult for the young man to walk indecisively.
- A! - said Rastopchin, hastily turning his gaze away from the young man in the fox sheepskin coat and pointing to the bottom step of the porch. - Put it here! “The young man, clanking his shackles, stepped heavily onto the indicated step, holding the collar of his sheepskin coat that was pressing with his finger, turned his long neck twice and, sighing, folded his thin, non-working hands in front of his stomach with a submissive gesture.
Silence continued for several seconds while the young man positioned himself on the step. Only in the back rows of people squeezing into one place were groans, groans, tremors and the tramp of moving feet heard.
Rastopchin, waiting for him to stop at the indicated place, frowned and rubbed his face with his hand.
- Guys! - said Rastopchin in a metallic ringing voice, - this man, Vereshchagin, is the same scoundrel from whom Moscow perished.
A young man in a fox sheepskin coat stood in a submissive pose, clasping his hands together in front of his stomach and bending slightly. His emaciated, hopeless expression, disfigured by his shaved head, was downcast. At the first words of the count, he slowly raised his head and looked down at the count, as if wanting to tell him something or at least meet his gaze. But Rastopchin did not look at him. On the young man’s long thin neck, like a rope, the vein behind the ear became tense and turned blue, and suddenly his face turned red.
All eyes were fixed on him. He looked at the crowd, and, as if encouraged by the expression that he read on the faces of the people, he smiled sadly and timidly and, again lowering his head, adjusted his feet on the step.
“He betrayed his tsar and his fatherland, he handed himself over to Bonaparte, he alone of all Russians disgraced the name of the Russian, and Moscow is perishing from him,” said Rastopchin in an even, sharp voice; but suddenly he quickly looked down at Vereshchagin, who continued to stand in the same submissive pose. As if this look had exploded him, he, raising his hand, almost shouted, turning to the people: “Deal with him with your judgment!” I'm giving it to you!
The people were silent and only pressed each other closer and closer. Holding each other, breathing in this infected stuffiness, not having the strength to move and waiting for something unknown, incomprehensible and terrible became unbearable. The people standing in the front rows, who saw and heard everything that was happening in front of them, all with fearfully wide-open eyes and open mouths, straining all their strength, held back the pressure of those behind them on their backs.
- Beat him!.. Let the traitor die and not disgrace the name of the Russian! - shouted Rastopchin. - Ruby! I order! - Hearing not words, but the angry sounds of Rastopchin’s voice, the crowd groaned and moved forward, but stopped again.
“Count!..” said Vereshchagin’s timid and at the same time theatrical voice amidst the momentary silence that ensued again. “Count, one god is above us...” said Vereshchagin, raising his head, and again the thick vein on his thin neck filled with blood, and the color quickly appeared and ran away from his face. He didn't finish what he wanted to say.
- Chop him! I order!.. - shouted Rastopchin, suddenly turning pale just like Vereshchagin.
- Sabers out! - the officer shouted to the dragoons, drawing his saber himself.
Another even stronger wave swept through the people, and, reaching the front rows, this wave moved the front rows, staggering, and brought them to the very steps of the porch. A tall fellow, with a petrified expression on his face and a stopped raised hand, stood next to Vereshchagin.
- Ruby! - Almost an officer whispered to the dragoons, and one of the soldiers suddenly, with his face distorted with anger, hit Vereshchagin on the head with a blunt broadsword.
"A!" - Vereshchagin cried out briefly and in surprise, looking around in fear and as if not understanding why this was done to him. The same groan of surprise and horror ran through the crowd.
"Oh my God!" – someone’s sad exclamation was heard.
But following the exclamation of surprise that escaped Vereshchagin, he cried out pitifully in pain, and this cry destroyed him. That barrier of human feeling, stretched to the highest degree, which still held the crowd, broke through instantly. The crime had been started, it was necessary to complete it. The pitiful groan of reproach was drowned out by the menacing and angry roar of the crowd. Like the last seventh wave, breaking ships, this last unstoppable wave rose from the rear ranks, reached the front ones, knocked them down and swallowed everything. The dragoon who struck wanted to repeat his blow. Vereshchagin, with a cry of horror, shielding himself with his hands, rushed towards the people. The tall fellow he bumped into grabbed Vereshchagin’s thin neck with his hands and, with a wild cry, he and he fell under the feet of the crowd of roaring people.
Favorable environmental conditions of this region (high temperatures and humidity, rich flora) led to an increased role of gathering, and already in the Mesolithic (8 thousand BC) people switched to a productive economy (cultivation of legumes and melons). In the Neolithic, a type of rice farming developed here, which was more or less the same for ancient Southeast Asia. The territory of this region in ancient times occupied the area of the Xijiang and Yangtze valleys with right tributaries, its periphery was the Ganges valley. The main ancient peoples are the Austroasiatics (Mons, Khmers) in its continental part, the Austronesians (Malays, Javanese) in the continental part. The most developed were the Autroasian regions of Southern Indochina, where already in 5 thousand BC. the population moved to the Chalcolithic, and in 4 thousand. - to the Bronze Age. However, by 2 thousand BC. The economic development of this region began to lag behind its neighbors. The complex river regime made it difficult to create the irrigation systems necessary for rice cultivation. For a long time, the population lived in small rural communities engaged in rice farming.
Only in the late Bronze Age, during the Dong Son civilization (in the village of Dong Son in Northern Vietnam), fortified settlements began to emerge and the first states began to emerge.
The oldest written sources, written in peculiar hieroglyphs, were discovered not so long ago, and their number is negligible. Basic information is contained in ancient epigraphic literature in Sanskrit. An important role is played by medieval chronicles (Vietian, Mon), as well as evidence from ancient Chinese, ancient Indian and ancient authors.
The early class states of this region can be divided into 4 groups:
1. States of Northeast Indochina and the northern coast of the South China Sea.
2. States of Southern Indochina.
3. The states of the ancient Indonesians on the Malacca Peninsula and the Archipelago.
4. States of the central part of Northern Indochina and adjacent areas.
Of the states in North Vietnam, the more northern states were best known, primarily the kingdom of Yue (Viet). Own written sources have not been preserved, but archaeological data indicate the presence in this region (Northern Vietnam, the lower reaches of the Hong River) of a very ancient and distinctive state. The Yue Kingdom arose in the 7th century. BC. in the lower reaches of the Yangtze. The main occupation of the population is irrigated rice cultivation. In the 4th-3rd centuries. BC. 5 states are known in this territory (they probably arose much earlier): Van Lang (then Aulak) in the lower reaches of the Hong, further to the east Teyau, Nam Viet, etc.
Most developed in the 3rd century. BC. There were the states of Aulak and Nam Viet. the bulk of the exploited population are small community producers; there were also slaves, which is confirmed by sources. The head of the state is the Vuong (monarch). The beliefs of the ancient Viet were based on the cult of ancestors, spirits of the earth; they revered the dragon crocodile and waterfowl.
In 221-214. BC. Aulak, Teyau and Nam Viet fought against the Qin Empire, during which only Aulak retained independence, annexing part of Teyau. Nam Viet only regained its independence after the fall of the Qin Empire; Both countries united into one Nam Viet Aulak. In the 2nd century BC. in East and Southeast Asia, this state was second in strength only to the Han Empire. The basis of the economy was rice-producing farms. Crafts existed, trade played an important role, and there were large cities. The social and class structure becomes more complex, further development slavery, the state apparatus becomes more complicated. From the beginning of the 2nd century. BC. rulers strive to unite neighboring states under their rule and wage successful wars with the Han Empire. However, in 111 BC. the country was captured by Emperor Wudi, but the establishment of Han rule was not accompanied by significant interference in internal life.
A special group of ancient states in Southeast Asia in the 3rd-2nd centuries. BC. consisted of the mountainous ancient Thai states of Dien and Elan. Cattle breeding plays a significant role here. The processes of formation of class society led to the emergence of early slaveholding societies here. The slave class was replenished from among the subordinate ethnic groups.
At the beginning of the 1st century. AD The administration of the Han Empire attempted mass assimilation of the population of North Vietnam, but encountered resistance. In 40-44. During the uprising of the Two Sisters (leaders were the Trung sisters), independence was restored within the boundaries of ancient Aulak. However, attempts to restore political control continued only in the 1st-2nd centuries. AD The Han Empire began a gradual transfer of power to the local nobility.
In the 3rd-5th centuries. AD Buddhism spread here, becoming the main religion until the 12th-13th centuries. During these same centuries, Chinese culture spread.
At the turn of our era, class societies emerged in all the major river valleys of Indochina and Indonesia. The leading social unit is the small rural community. Each of the states (Aulak, Bapnom (Funan), Srikshetra, the small Mon states in southern Burma, the Malay states of the Malacca Peninsula, the early Javanese states) were located around a specific political-economic core - a densely populated rice-growing region and its capital. As a rule, the capital was the largest city and port. Many states conducted maritime trade.
In the structure of the ruling class there is no fixed division into varnas, castes or ranks. The class of small community members depended on the state or a specific landowner. The main branch of production is agriculture. The state was closely connected with the priesthood, which depended on the state. The supreme power appropriated many religious functions to itself. The main form of exploitation was rent-tax in favor of the state or representatives of the highest aristocracy (with the consent of the state).
Most of the Mon and Khmer states arose around the 1st century. AD The largest, Bapnom, united during its heyday the entire flatland of Southern Indochina. At the turn of the 2nd-3rd centuries. the ancient Khmer monarchs (Kurungs) switched to wars of conquest. The most famous of the monarchs was Fanshiman, who built a strong fleet and captured a number of neighboring states and tribal territories. Bapnom intensified to 4v. AD, irrigation and temple construction was carried out, Hinduism and Buddhism spread, and the power of the monarch was strengthened. However, in the 5th - early 6th century. the state ceased to exist due to the strengthening of northern groups.
In the island world in the 1st-4th centuries. AD 2 groups of states emerged: western (Malay) and eastern (Javanese). Western - Sumatran states and state formations of the Melaka Peninsula. Foreign trade (mainly spices) plays a large role in their country. The most famous states are Lankasuka, Kataha and Tambralinga. Travelers noted the splendor of their courtyards and the strength of their armies. The level of culture was also high (Sanskrit literature, writing and language, Hindu and Buddhist beliefs).
Among the Javanese states, the most famous are Taruma in West Java and Mulawarmana in Kalimantan (4th-5th centuries). Their social structure similar to the structure of Bpnom.
On the eastern coast of the Indochina Peninsula was the state of Tjampa, which in its agrarian structure resembled Vietnamese society. It is a maritime trading power with a strong navy and regular trade connections. Culturally it was part of the Indonesian world and they were influenced in many ways by the Khmer. Relations with the Han Empire were characterized by alternating wars with diplomatic missions and contacts.
There are important trade routes. The Strait of Malacca is comparable in importance to world shipping with the Strait of Gibraltar, as well as the Panama and Suez Canals.
The geographical position of this region between two centers of civilization in ancient times and the largest populous states of the modern world - between and - was reflected in the formation of the political map, the processes of economic and cultural development, as well as the formation of the ethnic and population. The geographical location and significant natural and human resources of the region determined colonial conquests in the past and neocolonial expansion in the South in the present.
At the beginning of the 20th century. many territories in this region become British colonies: in the north of the island of Kalimantan, the Malay Peninsula and nearby islands, as well as in the territory of the modern state (which was also part of the colony of India). by that time it had already lost all its colonies in Southeast Asia.
As a result of the war of conquest of 1898-1904. established their dictatorship over (the former Spanish colony).
In 1967, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations () was created, which included Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, and the Philippines. Later it included Brunei (since 1984), Vietnam (since 1996), Laos and Myanmar (since 1997).
ASEAN, created 30 years ago to accelerate regional cooperation in the economic, social and cultural spheres, has already achieved significant socio-economic progress. Success is evidenced by the successful implementation of various innovations, such as the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA), the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), the Asia-Europe Meeting (ASEM), as well as the important role of the countries of the region in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) ), the productive dialogue between ASEAN and the European Union, applications from various countries to join the association and the coexisting structures of the ARF and ASEM.
The content of the article
SOUTHEAST ASIA CIVILIZATION. South of China and east of India is the peninsular and island region of Southeast Asia, including Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Indochina (Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam), Malaysia and Indonesia, as well as Brunei and Singapore. In this territory, in the first centuries of the new era, a distinctive civilization grew, giving rise to large cities, giant temples, complex irrigation systems, as well as vast powerful states. The most famous of them is the power created by the Khmers on the lands of Cambodia with its capital in the heart of the jungle, in the Angkor region.
ORIGIN OF THE HINDU-BUDDHIST CIVILIZATION
History of Southeast Asia up to the 2nd century. AD remains a blank spot in science. The earliest information about it is contained in Chinese written sources of that time and archaeological finds. Chinese dynastic chronicles mention states whose rulers bore Indian names in Sanskrit, and whose clergy were representatives of the highest caste - Brahmins. Buddha images of the same style as at Amaravati on the Krishna River, in South India, characteristic of the period between 150 and 250 AD, have been discovered in Thailand, Cambodia and Annam (Central Vietnam), and on the islands of Java, Sumatra and Sulawesi.
The earliest texts - in Sanskrit - have been found in West Java, East Kalimantan, northern Malaya and Cambodia. These inscriptions are written in the ancient alphabet of the Pallavas, a Tamil dynasty that ruled from the 3rd to the 8th centuries. in Kanchipuram, southeast India. From more recent times there is evidence reflecting cultural trends from other areas of India. One of the directions of Buddhism - Mahayana - came from the northeast. It bore the imprint of the mystical, Hindu-influenced doctrine of Tantrism, which originated in the Buddhist monastery of Nalanda in Bihar. From the 11th century The authority of the Ceylonese (Lankan) branch of Buddhism begins to affect itself. This branch of Buddhism - Hinayana (Theravada) - gradually replaced Mahayana and Hinduism from Burma, Thailand, Cambodia and Laos.
The most ancient culture of Southeast Asia.
Origin of the peoples of Southeast Asia.
Little is known about the genesis and early migration of the peoples who, under the influence of Hinduism and Buddhism, developed their own cultures. Nowadays, the most civilized peoples inhabit the plains, especially river valleys and deltaic lowlands, as well as sea coasts. Relatively economically backward peoples lead a semi-nomadic lifestyle in the mountains and other elevated areas. Neolithic, Bronze and Iron Age cultures were brought to Southeast Asia by Malay tribes from Southwest China, which are divided into Proto-Malay and Pre-Malay respectively. They became the ethnic substrate of the current population of the region. Both of these groups probably migrated down river valleys towards deltaic and coastal areas. The South China Sea, the Gulf of Thailand and the Java Sea formed a kind of internal basin, promoting the common culture of the peoples living on the coast and the banks of the rivers flowing into them.
Material culture.
The material well-being of the peoples of Southeast Asia was based on the cultivation fruit trees, intensive rice cultivation and fishing. Artificial irrigation systems required a relatively high population density: irrigation structures were built with the participation of large masses of people, organized either under the authority of a strong leader or, in some cases, within rural communities. Apparently, the appearance of pile buildings and the use of domesticated buffaloes for plowing fields dates back to this time.
There was also a “boat” civilization culture, distinguished by an amazing variety of vessels of different types and sizes used. Many families spent their lives on their boats, and until recently, communication between communities in Southeast Asia was carried out primarily by water. Residents of the coasts who made long sea voyages possessed especially high art of navigation.
Religion.
The religion was a mixture of three elements: animalism, ancestor worship, and the worship of local fertility gods. The water gods of fertility were especially revered in the form of a naga - a mythical cobra with several human heads. For the inhabitants of Southeast Asia, the world was filled with mysterious forces and spirits, ideas about which were reflected in dramatic mysteries and in works of art that have survived to this day. The cult of ancestors was associated with the construction of megaliths in which the remains of deceased leaders were placed.
Penetration of Indian culture.
The penetration of Hinduism and Buddhism into Southeast Asia apparently began before the 2nd century. AD Hinduism was propagated by the rulers of local states who sought to imitate the pomp of Indian courts. Buddhism was brought with them by mendicant Buddhist monks (bhiksus), who founded monasteries.
Rulers who accepted Hinduism invited Indian Brahmins to perform rituals to deify monarchs by identifying them with one of the highest Hindu gods - Shiva, Vishnu or Harihara (a deity combining the features of the first two). The new names of the rulers often indicated the gods with whom they were identified (Isanavarman - “Favorite of Shiva”, Indravarman - “Favorite of Indra” and Jayavarman - “Favorite of Victory”). The widespread use of the suffix "-varman" in names seems to have its roots in the Pallavas. At first it was a ritual suffix of the Kshatriyas - the class (varna) of warriors and leaders in Ancient India, but later it lost its class meaning and was used to designate members of the ruling class. In addition to the Brahmins, the rulers had to invite specialists in the construction of appropriate sanctuaries for the worship of the god-king.
Gradually Sanskrit became the sacred court language. Over time, Indian writing was adapted for the first literary works in local languages. The earliest extant inscriptions in Javanese, Malay, Mon and Khmer are excellent examples of this.
To legitimize the rulers of Southeast Asia, the Brahmins used mythical images taken from epic poems Ramayana and the Mahabharata, as well as from the Puranas (collections of religious myths and hymns) and other texts containing the mythical genealogy of the royal families of the Ganges region. They also imposed the system of government set forth in the Arthashastra (Treatise on Politics and State), Indian astrology and Indian calendars. The people of Southeast Asia themselves made an important contribution to this process, many of whom made pilgrimages to India to study the sacred texts.
Early Shaivite inscriptions indicate that the basis of the state religion was the cult of the royal linga (phallic symbol), which was believed to concentrate the magical power of the god-king, which ensured the well-being of the state. Thus, the autochthonous cult of fertility was dressed in Indian clothing
EARLY HINDUIZED STATES
Funan.
The first royal courts known to historians under Indian influence appeared towards the end of the 2nd century. AD in three areas: a) in the Mekong Delta, b) on the coast of modern Vietnam, south of Hue, and c) in the north of Malaya. The name "Funan", by which the state located in the Mekong Delta is known, is found in Chinese sources and is a derivative of the ancient Khmer word for "mountain". For the Chinese, Funan meant the country of the “king of the hill.” Chinese sources report that its ruling dynasty was founded by a Brahman named Kaundinya, who married the leader of one of the local tribes. This legend was based on the local version of the dynastic myth of the Pallavas, in which the founder of the family was Princess Naga - the mythical nine-headed cobra, the goddess of water. Later, the Naga was adopted as a sacred symbol from the Funani by the Khmers, and it became an indispensable attribute of the iconography of the Khmer capital of Angkor. It was believed that the country's prosperity was maintained by the nightly union of the Khmer kings and the Naga princess.
In the first half of the 3rd century. Funan grew into a powerful empire under the leadership of a king whose name is mentioned in Chinese chronicles as Fan Shiman. The ships of this monarch dominated the seas, and the states on the lands of the lower Mekong up to the northern regions of the Malacca Peninsula were his vassals. Fan Shiman assumed the title of Maharaja, or "great ruler", and sent one embassy to the court of Murunda in India, and another to China. A certain Kang Tai, whom the Chinese emperor sent with a return embassy, left the first description of Funan. Its subsequent rulers expanded the territory of the state and its overseas trade. As follows from the surviving inscriptions, one of the tasks of the royal government was the development of irrigation. Large-scale works to create irrigation systems were often associated with sanctuaries where traces of Vishnu were kept.
Like Rome in Europe, Funan left many elements of its culture as a legacy to the states that replaced it, but in the middle of the 6th century. under the pressure of the Khmers, who were gaining strength, the influence of Funani itself was fading away. The Chinese called the Khmer state Chenla and reported that at first it was a vassal of Funan. No explanation for this name has been found. During the century preceding the accession of the Khmer king Jayavarman II in 802, Chinese sources mention two states: the Chenla of Earth and the Chenla of Water. Until now, little is known about their history. The name "Chenla" was also mentioned for a long time after the founding of the great Khmer city of Angkor.
Tyampa (Champa).
The historical Vietnamese region of Annam is rich in archaeological sites of the people known as the Chams. For the first time in history, they are mentioned as Lin-yi in reports of the Chinese governor north of Nam Viet: a high-ranking official complained about Cham raids. It still remains unclear how Indian trends penetrated them. The earliest inscriptions, dated c. 400 AD, indicate that their court religion was Shaivism. One of the inscriptions is associated with the most ancient linga discovered in Southeast Asia.
The early history of the Cham is a continuous series of attempts at expansion to the north by both land and sea routes, which forced the Chinese to launch punitive expeditions against them. The Vietnamese at that time inhabited lands whose borders in the south only slightly extended beyond the Tonkin region, which occupies northern part modern Vietnam. After liberation from Chinese rule in 939, a long struggle developed between the Vietnamese and the Cham for possession of the lands south of Tonkin. Ultimately, after the fall of Tyampa in the 15th century. Vietnamese culture, which experienced strong Chinese influence, supplanted the Hinduized Cham culture.
States on the Malay Peninsula.
There is scant information about these states in Chinese sources. More valuable information is contained in inscriptions made in the oldest Pallava script, the earliest of which date back to the end of the 4th century.
Early Indonesian states.
The earliest known inscriptions in Java date back to about 450. They were made by the king of Taruma in West Java - Purnavarman, who began the construction of irrigation systems and erected a temple dedicated to the god Vishnu. In the east of Kalimantan, in the Kutei region, on the Mahakam River, they were found dating back to the beginning of the 5th century. inscriptions of a certain king Mulavarman, but about future fate his power knows nothing. Chinese sources mention the existence of Hinduized states in Sumatra starting from the 5th century; discovered inscriptions date back no earlier than the end of the 7th century.
Inscriptions in Myanmar and Thailand.
There is evidence that from the middle of the 4th century. in Arakan, on the western coast of Burma (Myanmar), north of the Irrawaddy River delta, the Chandra dynasty ruled, but this information is known only from inscriptions of a later period. At Srikshetra, near modern Pyyu (Prom), in central Myanmar, inscriptions dating back probably to 500 have been discovered. Srikshetra was the capital of the state of the Pyu people, who are believed to have been the vanguard of the Burmese (Myanmar) who migrated to the country. The Pyu occupied the Irrawaddy Valley as far as Khalinja, in the north, near modern Shuebo. To the east of them, from Chaushe to modern Mawlamyine in the south, and in the Irrawaddy valley were the Mon states of Pegu and Thaton. Mons also inhabited the Menama Chao Phraya valley (Thailand). The earliest identified Mon inscriptions date back to about 600. They were found in Phrapaton, where the oldest known capital of the Mon state of Dvaravati, located in the basin of the said river, was located. Subsequently, the Mons had a strong cultural influence on their related Khmers, as well as on the Burmese and Tai (Siamese), about whose history little is known until the 11th century.
Rise of the Srivijaya state.
After the fall of Funan in the 6th century. its place was taken by Srivijaya, which developed around Palembang, in southeast Sumatra. This vast trading empire owed its prosperity to its control of the Malacca and Sunda Straits, as well as to the favor of China, where it sent numerous embassies. Srivijaya existed from the 7th to the 13th century. She did not leave behind such monumental monuments as those found in Central Java, but Palembang was for a long time an important center of enlightenment for the Mahayanists. In 671, in order to study Sanskrit grammar, he was visited by the Chinese Buddhist monk I Ching, who then went to India. After several years of study in Nalanda, he returned in 685 to Palembang, where he translated Sanskrit texts into Chinese and left his description of the Buddhist religion of that time. The close connections of Srivijaya with the Indian regions of Bengal and Bihar help explain the strong influence that Tantric Buddhism had on the rulers of the Indonesian states. In the 9th century So many pilgrims from Sumatra visited Nalanda that a special house was built for them.
THE AGE OF TEMPLE BUILDERS
In the period from 650 to 1250, remarkable works of art and architecture were created in the states of Southeast Asia, in no way inferior to the best world examples. Among the Chams, this flowering in the artistic sphere began in the middle of the 7th century, when the Tang dynasty in China stopped the expansion of Champa to the north for a long time. Very little is known about significant changes in the lower Mekong region after the Khmer conquest of Funan. Sufficiently complete and reliable information on the history of this territory appears only since the founding of the Khmer capital on the northern shore of Lake Sap (or Tonle Sap - “Great Lake”), founded in 802 by King Jayavarman II. But even earlier, those grandiose changes in art and architecture began, which ultimately led to the creation of such masterpieces as the ensembles of Angkor. In Java, a similar process begins ca. 730 in its central regions, and on Burmese soil, in the state of Bagan, much later - approx. 1100. (However, on the site of the capital of the Pyu state, Srikshetra, there are ruins of buildings from the 8th century, which were the prototypes of the temples built later in Pagan.)
Javanese kingdoms.
The historical information we have about these kingdoms is often inaccurate. The development of art in Central Java was associated with two local dynasties: the Mahayanist Shailendra and the Saivite Sanjaya. Information about these dynasties until the 8th century. are missing. In Sanskrit, Shailendra means "king of the hill", and it is possible that this indicates the dynasty's connections with the Funani "kings of the hill" of an earlier period. Under the Shailendras, remarkable Buddhist monuments and temple complexes were erected, the most impressive of which are the huge Borobudur ensemble and the Chandi (Hindu temple) Mendut. In the 9th century the construction of such structures in Java ceases, but it begins in the state of Srivijaya. The Sanjaya dynasty probably prevailed in Central Java, and one of its rulers married a princess from the Shailendra dynasty. Her brother Balaputra fled to Sumatra, married an heiress from the Srivijaya family and gave the name Shailendra to the Srivijaya dynasty.
An outstanding monument of the Sanjaya dynasty remains the magnificent Saivite temple complex of Lara Jonggrang in Prambanan, built in the early 10th century.
Soon after, for unknown reasons, the center of power moves to East Java. The construction of monumental architectural objects is being stopped in Central Java. Nothing similar was created in East Java until the 13th century. On the other hand, it was important period in the development of original Javanese literature. Sanskrit epic Mahabharata had a strong influence on Javanese literature and the wayang shadow theater, as well as on the sculptural reliefs that began to decorate East Javanese temples of a later period. One of the most famous works of ancient Javanese literature Arjunaviha (Arjuna's wedding) based on what is contained in Mahabharata the story of the ascetic Arjuna. This poem was written by the court poet Mpu Kanwa to celebrate the marriage of the most revered of the East Javanese kings, Erlang (r. 1019–1049), presenting the king's life in allegorical form. The heyday of the Erlang kingdom occurred during the short period of decline of Srivijaya, when the Sumatran state was weakened by a war with the South Indian state of the Cholas.
In the next century, during the heyday of the East Javanese kingdom of Kediri, another masterpiece of Javanese literature was created - Bharathayuddha. It is also based on a Sanskrit epic, but in spirit it is a purely Javanese work. Kediri's heyday continued until 1222, when it became a vassal of another Javanese state, Singasari.
In the religious sphere, there was a close merger of Buddhism and Hinduism, which by that time had absorbed local magical rituals and the cult of ancestors. At that time, there was a custom according to which kings after death were identified with the god Vishnu. An excellent expression of this tradition is the sculpture of King Erlang, originally installed in his mausoleum in Belakhan and currently stored in the Mojokert Museum. The cult that developed around her was a variation of the Javanese cult of ancestors.
Khmers and Angkor Cambodia.
Creation of the state.
In 802, Jayavarman II founded the state of Kambujadesh (in historical literature Angkor Cambodia) in the area of \u200b\u200bLake. Sap (modern Cambodia). The choice of location was determined by a number of conditions that explain the power achieved by the new empire that arose at the crossroads of sea and land routes. The lake was abundant with fish, and the alluvial plain allowed for up to four harvests a year using Khmer-developed irrigation methods. The wealth of forests was combined with the ability to extract sandstone and clay from the Dangrek mountain range, located to the north, necessary for the construction of giant architectural structures.
Jayavarman II spread the cult of the god-king among the Khmers, which formed the basis of the extensive religious system developed by his successors. A linga was erected on the top of the mountain, and the Brahmins, who became the high priests of the cult, through meditation began to identify the king with Shiva, and the linga became the receptacle of his sacred soul. The sanctuary around which the capital grew represented the mythical Hindu Mount Meru, the center of the universe, while the monarch, as the “king of the mountain,” declared himself the ruler of the universe.
Pre-Indian roots of the cult of the god-king.
Upon closer examination, it is revealed that under the veil of Hindu terminology and mythology were hidden ideas and concepts that originated in more early period. Thus, in Cambodia, Tjampa, Java and Bali, there was a belief that the construction of a temple-image fixes in stone the essence, or life principle of the person being immortalized. The temple was built as the future tomb-sanctuary of the king, who, when laying it, left an inscription instructing his descendants to continue this tradition, and with it to preserve the established order - “dharma”. Thus, the ruler tied himself, his ancestors and descendants together in a single cult of ancestors. A remarkable example is Borobudur, a temple-mountain of the Shailendra dynasty in Central Java. This Buddhist monument, containing hundreds of bas-relief images, is a veritable textbook of the Mahayanist branch of Buddhism that developed in Nalanda, Bihar, at the time Borobudur was built. However, its full name Bhumisambarabhudhara - Mountain of accumulation of virtue on the ten stages of a bodhisattva - has another meaning, which is revealed only by taking into account the cult of ancestors. Each of the ten steps, with the exception of the lowest one, symbolizes one of the Shailendras, the predecessors of the creator of the temple, King Indra. The lower stage was deliberately left unfinished in anticipation of the death of the monarch and his transformation into a bothisattva, the future Buddha.
Khmer conquests.
Jayavarman II's kingdom was small. The construction of large reservoirs and canal systems, which became the basis for the prosperity of the state, was begun by Indravarman II (reigned 877–889). Under him, the place of natural heights, from where the universal king showered blessings on the population of his miniature universe, is occupied by man-made mountain temples. The first city of Angkor was founded by Yasovarman I (r. 889–900). Somewhat later, the Khmer capital was moved for a short time to Zhok Gargyar (Kohker), northeast of Angkor, but Rajendravarman II (r. 944–968) returned it back to Angkor, which from then on remained the seat of the Khmer kings until 1432. when the city was completely abandoned.
The history of the Khmer conquests has been little studied. The first of the Khmer wars with Tyampa was fought during the reign of Rajendravarman II, but it did not bring visible success. In the 10th century Angkorian possessions probably extended up the Mekong valley all the way to the Chinese border. Suryavarman I (r. 1002–1050) expanded his lands westward, conquering the Mon state of Dvaravati, in the Menama Valley, and part of the Malacca Peninsula, now part of Thailand. From this time on, the Mon influence on Khmer art and architecture can be clearly seen.
By the beginning of the 12th century. Khmer civilization and statehood reached its peak. Suryavarman II (r. 1113–1150), under whom Angkorwat was built, the culmination of the development of the mountain temples, was the most powerful monarch in Khmer history. However, his endless wars against the Mons, Thais, Vietnamese and Chams did not produce lasting results. His unsuccessful campaign in Tjampa led to several retaliatory attacks, during one of which, in 1177, the Cham unexpectedly captured and plundered Angkor. Jayavarman VII (r. 1181–1219) responded by occupying their country in 1203 and holding it until the end of his reign.
Jayavarman VII, the last of the Great Builders.
Jayavarman VII carried out the most extravagant building project in Khmer history. He redesigned the capital, making it smaller, but at the same time turning it into the fortified city of Angkor Thom. In the center of the city stood the Bayon Temple, and along the perimeter were built monumental gates with towers topped with giant heads with four colossal faces. This was already the time of expansion of Mahayana Buddhism: in the central temple of Angkor Thom there was an image of Buddharaja, the king as the incarnation of Buddha, and in the radially located temples there were images with the names of the highest court nobles of Jayavarman, who were thus involved in the process of his deification. The faces on the towers were his portraits as the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara - “the god who looks down” with compassion on suffering humanity.
Suryavarman II also replaced Devaraja, the Shaivite god-king of his predecessors, with Vishnuraja in Angkorwat. In essence, there was a merger of two cults, just as happened in East Java. Jayavarman VII, having established the cult of Buddharaja, whose main temple was Bayon, took another step in this direction, just as it happened in contemporary Java, under the rulers of the state of Singasari. And just as in Java, Hindu and Buddhist elements were intertwined with traditional Khmer magic and ancestor worship: the mythology, terminology and rituals were Hindu, but expressed purely Khmer ideas about the universe. The cults were dedicated to the material prosperity of the country and the earthly salvation of people. Buddharaja's compassion was also expressed in the construction of more than 100 hotels for pilgrims and the same number of hospitals, open to all subjects, on the roads radiating from the capital.
The state could not sustain such a policy, which constantly demanded forced laborers and soldiers, and it ended with the death of Jayavarman. New grandiose structures were no longer built. About the history of the Khmers in the remaining years of the 13th century. so little is known that it is difficult to judge the situation created after the death of Jayavarman VII. The Khmers had to leave Tjampa, and the lands in the upper reaches of the Menam passed to the Thai tribes. Chinese traveler Zhou Daguan, who visited the area at the end of the century, wrote about the magnificent city and prosperous countryside. His notes contain a new, extremely important point: Hinayana Buddhism became the religion of the people. Thus, the state religion of the god-king should have lost its significance.
Pagan: Mon-Burmese synthesis.
The Rise of Pagan.
The great era of temple building among the Burmese is associated with the city of Pagan, which united them into the first state, which existed from 1044 to 1287. The Burmese, who ruled in Pagan, migrated to the arid central part of the country from the Shan Plateau in the second half of the 9th century. They first concentrated in the Chaushe region, not far from modern Mandalay, and then settled in other lands, to which they gave their name. The earlier Mon inhabitants were the first to cultivate rice and pulses in Myanmar. The Burmese adopted from them the technique of artificial irrigation, which was vital for Pagan. The foundations of Hindu-Buddhist culture, including writing, were also adopted from the Mons.
The Pyu state of Srikshetra collapsed under the onslaught of Nanzhao, the Thai state in Yunnan, just before the arrival of the Burmese, and the Pyu people themselves gradually lost their identity and were assimilated. The Mon states of Lower Burma were conquered by King Anorate (r. 1044–1077), the founder of Pagan. This led to increased Mon cultural influence in Pagan, where state religion was Hinayana Buddhism. Pali became the canonical language, replacing Sanskrit. In essence, Pagan Buddhism was the same combination of Buddhism, Hinduism and local cults as in other places, but the official religion was Hinayana, which, with the help of the royal power, gradually took a leading position.
Mon influence.
Mon influence in Pagan becomes predominant under King Chanzit (r. 1084–1112). During his reign, the Ananda Temple was built, the first and perhaps the most beautiful of the religious buildings. Unlike Angkor, Pagan was not the center of an extensive irrigation network.
Before the end of Pagan's prosperity, which, as in the case of Angkor, occurred in the first half of the 13th century, there was a change of cultures, accompanied by a change in the language of inscriptions from Mon to Burmese. However, much more important were the changes in local Buddhism that occurred as a result of the development of ties with Ceylon (Sri Lanka). New trends were brought by Mon pilgrims who visited this island at the end of the 12th century. They resulted in a movement for the purification of the Hinayana in accordance with orthodox teaching, which preached personal salvation through poverty, meditation, and complete renunciation. Missionary monks spread this doctrine throughout the country and far beyond its borders.
SOUTHEAST ASIA AFTER THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY
The thirteenth century proved to be an important turning point in the history of the region. The construction of huge temples stopped in Angkor and Pagan, and Hinayana Buddhism took possession of the minds of the people inhabiting the vassal possessions of these two centers. He was destined to gain a foothold on the religious map of mainland Southeast Asia. Serious political changes also occurred. The sea power of Srivijaya has disappeared, although the available data does not indicate clear idea about how it happened. After the conquest of China by Kublai Khan, the Mongols invaded Burma, Vietnam, Tjampa and even penetrated into Java. Bagan collapsed in 1287, even before the Mongol invasion, and the same happened with the East Javanese state of Singasari in 1293.
Thai conquests.
By the end of the 13th century. Outside the islands, Thai peoples are taking leading positions. The Shans, one of them, sought to establish control over Upper Burma, and the state of Sukhothai, founded by King Ramkhamhaeng (r. 1283–1317), subjugated the Mon-Khmer tribes inhabiting the western outskirts of Angkor Cambodia and adopted the Hinayana.
Thai expansion has decisively changed the balance of power in the region. In 1350, Ayutthaya was founded, marking the beginning of modern Thailand, and already in 1378 it conquered Sukhothai. Three years later, the state of Lan Xang arose in the middle and upper reaches of the Mekong. After 1350, under the pressure of the Thai tribes, the Khmer state quickly collapsed. In 1431 they ravaged Angkorth, which as a result ceased to be the capital the following year. The Khmers moved their capital to the south, to Phnom Penh, but their state was never able to revive its former power. In 1471, the Vietnamese captured Thampa, and its Hindu-Buddhist culture gradually disappeared as the Vietnamese penetrated further south into the Mekong Delta.
Burmese and Mon states.
In Burma, the struggle between the Burmese and Thai tribes continued until the mid-16th century. and ended in a decisive victory for the Burmese. During this confrontation, Burmese culture made a big step forward. Its center was Ava, founded in 1364. To the south, the settled Mons, who gained freedom after the fall of Pagan, created their own independent state of Pegu, which existed until 1539. Its capital was the city of the same name, and the ports of Syriam, Martaban and Bassein became centers international trade. Pegu made an important contribution to the development of Burmese Buddhism through extensive reforms carried out by the Mon king Dammazedi (1472–1492). Once again, Ceylon initiated the changes. In 1472, the king sent a mission of monks and novices to the island to the Mahavihara monastery on the Kelani River. Upon their return, they consecrated the ordination center in Pegu, where all the monks were invited to undergo the rite according to the Sri Lankan Hinayana rules. Dissent among the monks was strongly condemned, and orthodoxy was enforced everywhere.
Indonesia: the decline of Singasari and the rise of Majapahit.
The state of Singasari in East Java, which collapsed on the eve of the Mongol invasion in 1293, completed the process of religious unification. Kertanagara (r. 1268–1292), one of the most controversial figures in Indonesian history, introduced the cult of Shiva-Buddha, a mixture of indigenous magic and tantrism that developed the demonic aspects of "kalachakra" ("Wheel of Time"). To practice this cult, his followers organized secret vigils. The purpose of the obscene rituals was the desire to give the king the necessary magical abilities to fight the demonic forces threatening the kingdom: internal schism and external threats. Kertanagara tried to create under his leadership a confederation of Indonesian islands to organize resistance to the Mongol invasion, the threat of which turned out to be real for Southeast Asia after Kublai Khan launched 1264 aggressive campaigns. The challenge posed by Kertanagara did not go unanswered, and in 1293 the Mongol armada was sent against him. But even before her invasion of Java, one of Kertanagara’s vassals rebelled, captured the capital, and killed the king himself when he, along with a group of associates, performed secret tantric rituals. The Confederation, or "holy alliance" as it was called, fell apart. But the Mongol army, which defeated the usurper’s forces after landing on the island, fell into a trap set by the direct heir of Kertanagara, Prince Vijaya, and was able to avoid defeat only by abandoning the intended goal and returning to their homeland. After this, Vijaya was crowned king under the name of King Kertarajas.
Under Kertarajas, whose policy was a continuation of the expansionist line of Kertanagara, Majapahit became the new capital of the East Javanese kingdom. However, for many years the state was torn apart by civil strife. Majapahit owes its rise to the talents of its chief minister, Gadjah Mada, who held this post from 1330 until his death in 1364. Scholars disagree as to how far Majapahit's conquests extended beyond Java. His power was certainly recognized by the neighboring islands of Madura and Bali, but it is unlikely that Majapahit’s possessions extended to the entire territory that in the first half of the 20th century. constituted the Netherlands Indies. The kingdom's decline began shortly before the end of the 14th century, although it still maintained a dominant position in Java in the next century. However, as the Islamic sultanate strengthened on the Malay Peninsula and Islam penetrated into the northern regions of Java, Majapahit's territory decreased. Ultimately, the state disappeared from the political arena in the first half of the 16th century, and its history in the 15th century. so vague that it gave rise to a lot of speculation about the reasons for the death of the state.
Monuments of Majapahit.
While the reliefs on the buildings of Central Java are realistic, in the reliefs of East Java the heroes and their servants are depicted in the bizarre form of wayang puppets, as if belonging to the world of ancestral spirits. Most of the monuments in Java are known as "chandi". This name, applied to temple-sanctuaries related to the dead, is derived from one of the names of the Hindu goddess of death, Durga. In Javanese folk tradition However, these temples acquired a slightly different meaning. They were Hindu-Buddhist only in appearance, and were seen more as places of spirit release and resurrection, clearly deriving from local ancestor cults.
Bali.
The conquest of Bali by Chief Minister Gadjah Mada was a major milestone in the cultural life of the island. For hundreds of years there existed its own form of Hindu-Buddhist culture, which later became completely Javanese. Among other things, Old Javanese literature had a strong influence on the Balinese literature into which it was incorporated. Currently, it is Bali that remains the repository of Javanese literary works of the Hindu-Buddhist period, since in Java itself much of the historical heritage was lost as a result of subsequent Islamization.
Spread of Islam in Malaya and Indonesia.
At the end of the 13th century. in Southeast Asia, the results of the activities of Islamic preachers began to be felt. Marco Polo, who visited the Sumatran port of Perelak in 1292, noted that its population had already been converted to the religion of the Prophet. Under the influence of North Sumatra, the monarch of Malacca converted to Islam, with the strengthening of its power in the 15th century. Islam was adopted by Malacca vassals on the mainland and in Sumatra. Malacca's trade connections contributed to the penetration of Islam into the northern ports of Java and Brunei, in Kalimantan, whose rulers swelled the ranks of supporters new faith. Just before the conquest of Malacca by the Portuguese in 1511, the rulers of the Spice Islands (Moluccas) followed their example. By the end of the 16th century. Most Indonesian rulers were already adherents of Islam, but in East Java the struggle between the defenders of the old faith in the old state of Padjajaran and the Muslim elite of the new state of Mataram continued in the 17th century. Bali has resisted all attempts at conversion and has maintained its Hindu-Buddhist culture to this day.
However, the adoption of Islam by the rulers did not mean the extension of this process to their subjects. The situation that was observed in earlier times, when Hinduism and Buddhism were introduced in the royal courts, was repeated with Islam. The adoption of Islam did not violate the integrity of Indonesia's cultural history. Social relations were still determined by local “adat” (customary law). There were no mass conversions, and there was no break in cultural life. It’s just that the Indonesian and Malay civilizations absorbed elements of Islam over the centuries, just as they previously absorbed elements of Hinduism and Buddhism, and later the beginnings of Western culture.
Spread of Hinayana Buddhism on mainland Southeast Asia.
In this territory, where Hinayana took a leading position, in particular in Arakan, Burma, Siam (Thailand), Cambodia, Laos, a long process of interaction of cultures also took place. At the same time, their early traditional forms of religion showed amazing resilience, and Buddhism showed a magnificent spirit of tolerance. It is noteworthy that neither Islam nor Christianity left a noticeable mark on the peoples who professed the Hinayana. The most peculiar feature of this process of acculturation is not just a tolerant attitude towards animism, but actually its inclusion in Buddhist mythology. Pagoda festivals and national celebrations are excellent examples of this. These include the New Year (Tinjan, or Water Festival) in April, the First Furrow ceremony in May, the Festival of Lights (Tarinjut), usually in October, and the Swing Festival, celebrated in December or January during the harvest. The New Year's Water Festival in these Buddhist countries marks the annual return of the king of spirits (Taj Min among the Burmese, Phra In among the Thai) to Earth, and the very moment of this return is determined by the Brahmins. Young boys and girls solemnly sprinkle water on images of Buddha. The Festival of Lights, which marks the end of the Buddhist fast (and monsoon season), is an even greater mixture of Buddhism, animism and remnants of Hinduism. At this time, ritual meals are organized for the monks, who are given new robes. Buildings are decorated with illuminations and fireworks are displayed.
In Burma, the process of mixing beliefs took the extreme form of celebrations in the context of the legend of how Gautama Buddha ascended to the land of spirits to explain to his mother, who became their queen, the commandments of the teaching he created.
Orthodox Hinayana is essentially an atheistic teaching that denies the existence of the world of spirits. Nevertheless, in all the countries of Southeast Asia where Hinayana predominates, every phase of human life, from birth to death, from plowing to harvesting, is accompanied by rites to propitiate the spirits. There are numerous places of worship everywhere, where fresh offerings arrive. On the grounds of the Shwezigon Stupa in Pagan, famous for its Buddhist relics, there are temples of the Thirty-seven Nats (spirits), which testify to their respect for the shrines.
Socio-economic conditions of Hindu-Buddhist civilization.
Information about the socio-economic conditions of life during the existence of the Hindu-Buddhist civilization is extremely fragmentary. This is due to the fact that to this day only buildings made of brick and stone have survived, while all dwellings, starting with the royal ones, built of wood, have long disappeared from the face of the earth. Inscriptions, a valuable potential source for the study of social relations, have not been sufficiently studied. Latest methods archaeological excavations and aerial photography can seriously help specialists, but so far the only successful attempt at analysis economic system, which gave rise to a boom in temple construction, was undertaken by Bernard P. Groslier at Angkor. He described in detail the city as the center of a powerful system of reservoirs and canals, which provided constant irrigation and intensive cultivation of vast rice fields, but also required strictly centralized management of the life of a close-knit community. The Khmers created an apparatus of government to suit their own needs, but the administrative structures of all other leading states in the region were also based on the cult of water and fertility. Thus, the god-king of the Khmers, Chams, Burmese, Mons or Indonesians performed almost the same function everywhere, and their cities were most closely connected with areas of irrigated rice growing. Even Bagan, located in the arid zone of Burma, owed its existence to the Chauskha irrigation network and was so located on the Irrawaddy River as to keep the irrigation facilities downstream under control. Its fall at the end of the 13th century. was associated mainly with the loss of control over Chaushe, and the fall of Angkor in the 15th century. occurred due to the destruction of its water facilities during the Siamese invasions.
Cities did not, however, turn into purely urbanized settlements. Aerial photographs show that Angkor was cut by canals and included cultivated land. It was a real garden city, in the center of which stood the palace city, the administrative heart of the country. A special quarter was allocated to merchants, and representatives of various countries had their own farmsteads. Around the city, along the banks of canals and rivers, there are villages, fields and plantations of fruit trees.
Local varieties of Southeast Asian culture.
Throughout its early history various peoples Southeast Asia developed highly individually. This is especially clearly visible in the designs of fabrics, for example on batiks - both made in Malaya and imported from India. The importer had to be well aware of the specific needs of the population of different regions, since what sold well in one of them might not be in demand in another. In all countries of the region, clothing consisted of the same elements: a long piece of fabric was wrapped around the hips, a shorter piece was thrown over the shoulder, and a third was tied around the head. But there were noticeable differences in patterns and style of wearing between the Burmese loungeji, Khmer kampot, Thai panung, and Malay or Indonesian sarong. The same applies to other types of costume. The official robes worn at the courts of Burmese Ava and Siamese Ayutthaya were very different from each other. Everything that came from abroad was quickly absorbed into the local culture. For example, shadow theater borrowed from India merged with Javanese puppet theater and acquired a completely distinct Javanese character. Tales of Buddha's rebirths in Jataka form in Pali, common in Burmese prose and drama, were completely Burmanized. Motifs of Sanskrit epic poems Ramayana And Mahabharata were used everywhere: in shadow theater, national literature, and other forms of art, in each specific case, however, acquiring local flavor and local interpretation. Similarly, traditional musical ensembles, called gamelan in Java, and associated forms of dance and singing were widespread throughout Southeast Asia, but had significant local variations.
Literature:
Hall D. History of Southeast Asia. M., 1958
Peoples of Southeast Asia. M., 1966
Bartold V.V. Essays, vol. 6. M., 1966
History of Asian and African countries in the Middle Ages. M., 1968
Tatar-Mongols in Asia and Europe. M., 1970
Southeast Asia in world history. M., 1977
Southeast Asia: problems of regional community. M., 1977
Shpazhnikov S.A. Religion of Southeast Asian countries. M., 1980
Berzin E.O. Southeast Asia in the 13th–16th centuries. M., 1982
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