Oct 14, 2014
Substances whose molecules consist of two or more amino acid residues are called peptides. Chains of 10-20 amino acids form oligopeptides, and when their number increases to 50 or more, a protein is formed. Amino acid residues are linked by a special type of bond called a peptide bond. Already a hundred years ago, a method for synthesizing proteins in laboratory conditions became known.
It is proteins that are the main building material for all living organisms. Peptides, which are “building blocks”, can be obtained from the cells of plants, animals, and humans. For peptides, a primary structure is distinguished - this is directly the sequence of amino acid residues, but the structure of the molecule and its spatial configuration determine their secondary structure.
What are the peptides
The main types of peptides in the body:
- Peptide hormones - hormones of the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, somatotropin, prolactin, adrenocorticotropic hormone, melanocyte-stimulating hormone, pancreatic and thyroid hormones, glucagon;
- Neuropeptides - hormones that are formed in the central and peripheral nervous system, regulate physiological processes in the body;
- Immunological hormones with a protective function;
- Peptide bioregulators that control the functioning of cells.
What are peptides for?
Being the links for the construction of protein molecules, peptides themselves become the building material of the body. In the case when the production of protein molecules is disrupted in the body, the human body is exposed to negative external factors leading to the development of diseases, wear and tear and aging of the body. In case of violation of the control function, a malfunction occurs in the cells, entailing a disorder of the vital activity and functioning of the organ. And since all the organs in the body are interconnected, the activity of the whole system of organs is disrupted. It is the peptides that prevent:
- Development of disorders in the work of the cardiovascular system;
- Digestive system disorders;
- The onset of oncological diseases;
- Obesity;
- The emergence of diabetes mellitus.
Peptides also contribute to the elimination of radionuclides and heavy metal salts from the body.
"Information system" of the organism
All the genetic information of the organism is recorded on the matrix -. The synthesis of new protein molecules occurs due to the "reading" of this information with the help of peptides. Peptides carry "written-off" information to cells, where protein molecules are synthesized.
All peptides have a narrow working specialization, and each organ and tissue has its own peptides. And at the same time, peptides of a certain specialization have the same structure in different mammalian species. This discovery made it possible to create drugs based on animal peptides.
Practical application of peptides
Scientists have found out the influence of the use of external peptide bioregulators (dietary supplements) on the health status and life expectancy of a person. After the research carried out, a statement was made that the basis of aging, as well as the occurrence of fatal diseases, including cancer, is a violation of the regulation of protein synthesis. When the corresponding peptides are artificially introduced into the body, regenerative processes begin in cells and tissues, so you can buy peptides and help your body. Cells get the opportunity to divide additionally, and old cells that hardly perform their functions are replaced by new, young, healthy ones. Thus, the process is suspended, the life expectancy increases. Peptides protect our body from the harmful effects of toxins, saturate them with nutrients. Unlike drugs, which relieve the organ of the symptoms of the disease, but do not eliminate their cause, peptides induce to restore the working functions of the cell, bring it to its original state.
Peptides for athletes and bodybuilders
For athletes, the intake of peptides in the body plays a huge role, associated, first of all, with the fact that professional sports and heavy physical exertion lead the body to stress, which negatively affects the production of peptides by cells. In addition, peptides contribute to:
- weight growth;
- additional fat burning;
- acceleration of metabolic processes.
Synthesized Peptides: Benefit Or Harm?
If the body cannot cope with the production of peptides on its own, then it is necessary to help it. Long-term scientific research has made it possible to synthesize peptides and introduce them into the body, stimulating and regulating the functioning of cells. Peptides act on the body at the genetic level, controlling protein synthesis. Taking peptide bioregulators allows you to significantly extend the duration of a person's life, but, in addition, it is necessary to follow the rules of a healthy lifestyle:
- observe the daily routine, get up and go to bed early. Working the night shift is extremely negative for your health.
- eat varied and balanced, giving preference to products that grow in your area. Elderly people benefit from calcium-rich dairy products, especially cottage cheese, but it is better to cut down on meat consumption. Control the consumption of sweet and starchy foods.
- drink one to two liters of water a day. It is advisable to collect water from a source or purchase a high-quality filter.
- active physical activity: walking, swimming, cycling. You should not overload the body, but it should not be allowed to relax either.
- undergo periodic medical examination in order to know the weak points of the body and provide it with timely support in the form of bioregulators.
Longevity is not a myth, it is subject to everyone, you just need to make some efforts for this. You should not expect an instant effect from taking bioregulators, because there is no magic pill for old age, but you can also maintain the health of the body. This process is lengthy, and an integrated approach is important, but the result is worth it - isn't it?
- Conclusion
No human body is able to exist without hormones. They accompany people everywhere, actively developing at the moment when a need arises for them. A wide variety of hormonal substances function in the human body. The lion's share of these hormones are peptides.
What are and what is the basis of the action of peptides
Peptide hormones are protein substances that are produced by various endocrine glands in the body. These glands include the following:
However, not only in specific glands peptides are produced, some of them are produced by adipose tissue, stomach cells, some liver and kidney cells.
The mechanism of action of peptide hormones is typical for all active substances of this nature and does not depend on the place of production of the hormone itself. The points of application of the activity and the final effect of the impact differ. All hormones act on target organs through communication with special receptors located on the cell membrane. Each receptor recognizes only "its" hormone, only the one that can influence it. In the cell, under the influence of the peptide bound to the receptor, mediators are formed in the form of various enzymes. These enzymes in the cell activate the necessary functions, and there is an effective response to the action of the peptide hormone.
Why does a person need a pituitary gland, and what peptides are formed there?
The pituitary gland is an appendage of the brain that sits at the bottom of the brain. Consists of anterior and posterior lobes. It is the anterior lobe that consists of a large number of glandular cells. Below is a list of peptide hormones of the anterior pituitary gland.
In the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland - the neurohypophysis, hormones are usually not produced. Peptides from the hypothalamus are transported there, and here they are deposited. The most important of the deposited hormones are vasopressin and oxytocin. Vasopressin has two main functions: regulation of the constancy of water in the body and vasoconstriction. Oxytocin optimizes the delivery process and participates in lactation by promoting easy milk release from the mother's glands.
The pituitary gland is closely related to the hypothalamus. Together with it, it forms the regulatory hypothalamic-pituitary system, which is involved in many functions of the body. The hypothalamus is not a gland. It is a collection of cells in a small space of the diencephalon. However, the cells found in the hypothalamus are active producers of vital hormones of the peptide structure.
Are there peptides in the hypothalamus?
All peptide hormones of the hypothalamus are three different groups of active substances. The largest group is releasing hormones. They have a stimulating effect on the active substances of the anterior pituitary gland. They are called liberins and, as the name suggests, affect the corresponding hormones in the pituitary gland. The main ones are as follows:
- corticoliberin;
- thyroliberin;
- somatoliberin;
- folliberin;
- luliberin.
Thanks to the effect of liberins, the production of pituitary hormones is enhanced at those moments when the human body needs it. However, the production of active components of the pituitary gland does not always need to be enhanced. In some situations, it is necessary, on the contrary, to inhibit the hormones of the pituitary gland. For this there is a second group of hypothalamic hormones. These are statins that inhibit the activity of the active components of the pituitary gland corresponding to the name.
- somatostatin;
- prolactostatin;
- melanostatin.
What do the peptide substances of the pancreas regulate?
Peptide hormones are produced not only in the parts of the brain. The two most important hormones, insulin and glucagon, are produced by the pancreas. The pancreas is an organ located in the abdominal cavity, in the epigastrium. It has an internal secreting activity aimed at the production of digestive hormones, and external, in which hormones of a peptide nature are formed. The formation of these active components occurs in special areas of the gland - the islets of Langerhans.
Insulin is the most important hormone of the peptide structure in the body. It participates in the metabolism of carbohydrate energy, improves the transport of carbohydrates to muscles and adipose tissue. However, the main effect is glycemic control - a decrease in blood sugar concentration. The antipode is the second peptide pancreatic hormone - glucagon. Its participation in energy metabolism is to raise the concentration of sugar in the blood when the body needs it.
Could peptides be formed somewhere else?
Peptide hormones also include parathyroid hormone, which is produced in the parathyroid glands. The function of this active component is aimed at regulating calcium metabolism in the body. It inhibits the formation of bone tissue and is secreted when the level of calcium in the blood decreases.
Several active peptide substances are produced in the thyroid gland. One of them is a complete antagonist of parathyroid hormone. Its name is calcitonin. It participates in the exchange of calcium and phosphorus and stimulates the activity of bone-building cells.
Certain hormones can affect the composition of the blood. They are called erythropoietins, which control the formation of red blood cells and the formation of blood hemoglobin, and thrombopoietins, which are involved in the formation of platelets. These peptide hormones are produced by the liver and kidneys.
Conclusion
Thus, peptide hormones are involved in many biological processes in the body and play an essential role in controlling the functioning of most organs and systems. In many cases, they are irreplaceable, on which the very existence of a person depends.
Hormones
- these are chemicals that trigger chemical reactions, getting on the cells-ki-mi-she-ni, the purpose of which is to ensure homeostasis of the bio-logic system. Class-si-fi-tsi-ro-vat mountains-mon-nas can be based on a fairly wide range of signs, but the most important criteria are: origin, chemical composition and me-ha-nism of ob-me-na ... According to their origin, hormones are divided into endogenous and exogenous, that is, those that the body synthesizes itself, and into such, which in or-ga-nizm on-pa-da-yut from outside. It is exogenous hormones that are able to have the most significant effect on homeostasis, since the amount of the hormone administered is limited only to a than, it is possible so to overestimate the value of one or several mountains-mon-s, that the or-ga-nizm will not be able to speed-rec-t-ro-vat the ratio of hormones by-the-syn-te-za-mon- new an-ta-go-nis-tov.
In any other case, through the mechanism of negative feedback, the or-ga-nizm always brings the ratio of hormones to their eu-test-ven-th level, therefore any sti-mu-la-to-ry sec -rections of end-gene hormones are not effective. They work? Yes, they work, but their effect is leveled by the EU-test-venous processes! The only thing that can be done is to normalize the underestimated values of the level of one or another mountain. As a name-but - this is already an ind-di-vi-du-al-ny question, the answer to which depends on the cause of gor-mon-nal-no-go dis-ba-lan-sa. If the reason is too high level of the hormone ant-ta-go-nis-ta, then do not take inhibitors of this hormone, if the reason is too low level of self-mo- go gor-mon, then it is necessary to stimulate its secretion.
As for synthetic hormones, their introduction is permissible only under the blue-de-no special-tsi-a-lis-that en-do-kri-no-log-ga, since there is a high probability of disruption of home sta-za, which will lead to an excessively intense work of the endocrine glands and internal organs-ganov. Such an excessive load must be stopped by other ex-gen-ny pre-pa-ra-ta-mi, is-cust-ven-but creating homeostasis, which is possible only if if you are con-tro-li-ru-e-those situation by constant passing of tests, and you are a specialist in en-do-kri-no-logic. If you deliberately want to violate the homeostasis for the achievement of athletic results, then only if you do not want to stay in-va-l-house, you should -there is no time-to-be in en-do-cry-no-logy e-deeper than an ordinary doctor, therefore, let us start teaching you with class-si-fi-ka-tion of hormones.
Chemical classification
Steroid hormones: androgens, estrogens, progestins, glu-co-cor-ti-koids and mi-not-ral-kor-ti-koids. All these hormones are united by a pre-hex-veneer - cholesterol, they are all about it from water, therefore, fat cannot be excluded from the diet even during hu-de-nia. But to reduce the body fat and get rid of the ho-les-the-ri-new plaques is a sensible idea, because the less fat, the more you feel gene receptors. But steroid hormones are not homogeneous, since there are low-mountain-mon-us se-re-ti-ru-sy in the gonads, and glu-co-cort-ti-koi-dy and mi -ne-ral-kor-ti-koi-dy in over-in-Chech-ni-kah. The main androgen in humans is tes-to-sterone, es-tro-gen is estradiol, progestin is progesterone, glu-co-cor-ti-koi-dom is cor-ti-zol, and mi-ne- ral-kor-ti-koi-dom - al-dos-te-ron.
A feature of steroid hormones is their inability to accumulate in endocrine glands, so they immediately enter the blood circulation, and the rate of their entry into the blood -vo-current equals their rate of secretion. The rate of their synthesis is limited by the rate of conversion of cholesterol into pregnenolone, since in this biochemical process this enzyme is laziness is the least of all. Thus, the faster the synthesis of steroid hormones is, the faster the use of cholesterol is. Therefore practical conclusion: for the hu-de-niyah and getting rid of the ho-les-te-ri-no-wicks, it is not necessary to have such de-i-tel-nos-tyu, which promotes the synthesis of ste -roid mountains-mon-new. In this sense, a technique, for example, tes-to-ste-ro-no-vh beads-te-ditch can have a positive effect on the rate of utilization of subcutaneous fat.
Peptide hormones: are long amino acid chains, the number of links of which determines whether it will be a peptide or protein hormone. If the number of amino-acid-lot-of-tat-tats is not more than twenty, then such a hormone is called peptid, if there are more than twenty of them - the hormone is called protein. This group of mountains-mon-nov includes co-ma-to-tro-pin, insulin, glucagon and other hormones. It is important to note that different peptide mountains-mo-nas, that about-us-catch-le-but with those mo-di-fi-ka-tsi-i-mi, to which she will be under-versed. And that is why, for example, growth hormone and insulin are ant-ta-go-nis-ta-mi, since a high level of one of these hormones causes a low level of the other th.
Thyroid hormones: are derivatives of tyrosine, which is used in ka-chest-ve os-but-you for the synthesis of ti-ro-glo-bu-li-na. Then, in the thyroid gland, thyroglobulin under-ver-ga-is-sya pro-tse-du-re yo-di-ro-va-nia, in the process of which T3 and T4 are synthesized. The ty-rhe-oid mountains-monovs have a huge number of functions, from the control of the basal metabolism to the control of the active-nosity of the main glycolysis enzymes. From a practical point of view, it is important to note that in small concentrations, they have a similar effect on protein synthesis, and in excessively - ka-ta-bo-li-ch-ky, therefore the effectiveness of their exogenous analogs is strictly connected with pot-reb-no-cha -mi or-ha-niz-ma. For example, the presence of an op-re-de-len-noy concentration of thy-re-oid hormones is a prerequisite for the manifestation of a number of ef-fects of gor-mo-na-growth, according to -this application of "lo-sha-di-ny" doses of co-ma-to-tro-pi-na without ti-re-oid mountain-mon-can-can to become a senseless and dangerous measure.
Catecholamines: adrenaline and norepinephrine, which, like the t-re-oid mountains, are derivatives of tyrosine, but the process of their synthesis does not take place in a very visible gland -ze, and in the cells of the medulla layer above-in-Chech-nikov. Since ka-te-ho-la-mi-us are also white-to-you-mi-gor-mo-na-mi, they can also drop in the cells glands, but their release and act-ti-va-tion pro-e-go-th-d by means of sti-mu-la-tion of a sim-pa-ti-chesky nerve noah system-te-we. What is the conclusion from this? Very simple! Con-center-traction ka-te-ho-la-mi-nov in one or another area of the body correlates with its pot-reb-no-cha-mi in these mountains-mon-nah, which is a load of -not because of physical activity. It is on this special-ben-nos-ti ob-me-na ka-te-ho-la-mi-nov os-no-va-ny me-to-do-lo-gi-ches-ki-instructions by local-cal-noy reduction of sub-skin-fat-roy cellulose.
The mechanism of hormone exchange
Endocrine - in this case, the hormone is secreted in a special gland, then it enters the bloodstream, which delivers it to the target cell, spaced but removed from the hormone secretion iron.
Paracrine - this is a way of hormone exchange, when the synthesis takes place in a non-average way in the cell, but affects a whole group of cells that are nearby.
Juxtacrine - similar to the previous method, but in this case the hormone has a specific target cell, which is located in the vicinity of the cell in which the hormone is secreted.
Autocrine - the hormone has an effect on the cell membrane of the cell that produced it, without exerting any effect on the cells in the neighborhood.
Intracrium - like the previous method, it affects the cell itself, only this process is no longer associated with interaction and action with its top-of-the-line re-chain-to-ra- mi.
The main functions of hormones
Peptide hormones, or protein-peptide, is the general name for hormones, which are proteins or peptides in their structure. Peptide hormones in the body often act as triggers. They stimulate the production of other hormones such as testosterone and corticosteroids. After the use of peptide hormones, anabolic processes in the body are significantly enhanced, muscle growth is increased, or the threshold of pain sensitivity decreases.
Analogs of human peptide hormones include synthetic drugs, or drugs obtained using modern genetic engineering technologies. These are gonadotropin, growth hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone and erythropoietin.
Gonadotropic hormones are formed in the anterior pituitary gland and stimulate the functions of the gonads. This produces effects similar to those of testosterone, i.e. muscle growth.
Growth hormone causes skeletal growth in humans to a certain limit and is used by some athletes to build muscle mass. Preparations containing growth hormone, as growth hormone is also called, cause a number of side effects. These can be abnormalities in the size of the hands, face, internal organs, in particular the liver. Exogenous growth hormone causes joint diseases, the development of diabetes, cardiovascular diseases.
Adrenocorticotropic hormone, or ACTH, increases corticosteroid levels and is used by athletes to repair injured tissues and muscles. With prolonged use of exogenous ACTH, muscle death can occur. In addition, the athlete has trouble sleeping, high blood pressure, diabetes, stomach ulcers and other side effects.
Erythropoietin increases the number of red blood cells - erythrocytes. This significantly improves performance in endurance sports by increasing the oxygen transport function of the blood. Therefore, in some sports, international federations are forced to introduce additional doping control of the number of red blood cells. Erythropoietin affects the hematocrit of the body, i.e. increases the viscosity of the blood. In turn, for the normal supply of oxygen to tissues, although this sounds paradoxical in relation to the action of a drug that stimulates erythropoiesis, the body is forced to turn on the mechanisms of increasing blood pressure. Intense cardiac activity in this case can cause myocardial infarction. Other dangerous effects of erythropoietin are associated with cerebral palsy, the possibility of blood clots in the lungs.
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See items 91, 56-59, 83, 6. And the file "91 TABLE"
PARAGRAPH 99 1:
"Protein-peptide hormones."
99. 1. Protein-peptide hormones (PPH): general properties.
99. 2. Classification of protein-peptide hormones.
99. 3. Organs, cells and biological fluids in which BPH are formed.
Protein-peptide hormones are called
which are chemically peptides or proteins (clauses 56, 57).
99. 1. Protein-peptide hormones: general properties.
1. All of them are sequences of amino acid residues
(aminoacyls), interconnected by peptide bonds (clause 56).
Because of this, protein-peptide hormones when entering the gastrointestinal tract
are broken down by digestive enzymes (peptidases) into amino acids,
as well as food proteins (item 61).
Therefore, when treating with hormones of a protein-peptide nature, injections are made,
and not in the form of tablets or syrups, hormone preparations are taken orally.
2. All protein-peptide hormones are formed
from polypeptide precursor chains,
when certain bonds of these chains are cleaved,
that is, by the RESTRICTED PROTEOLYSIS of the predecessor (clause 83).
The precursor polypeptide chain is synthesized, like all proteins,
from amino acids during a process called translation and is carried out by ribosomes (item 82).
For translation, mRNA is needed that encodes this PCP.
mRNA is formed as a result of transcription and processing - items 80 and 81.
An example of a PPT precursor of protein-peptide hormones -
1) the precursor of CORTICotropin (ACTH, p. 100),
2) MELANOcyte-stimulating hormones (MSH) and
3) OPIATES,
4) lipoprotopin,
which is called ProOpioMelanoCortin (POMC).
POMK synthesis in the pituitary gland
stimulated by corticoliberin and reduced GCS (p. 108).
Therefore, with an excess of GCS, POMA synthesis is reduced,
which leads to a decrease in the synthesis of opiates,
what may be the cause of imbalance (before psychosis),
abdominal pain
and general physical discomfort with an excess of GCS.
Disorders of limited proteolysis of PCP precursors
can lead to a deficiency of protein-peptide hormones.
Another example is the limited proteolysis of the insulin precursor in paragraph 102.
3. All protein-peptide hormones are CODED BY GENES.
More precisely, genes are encoded by PPC precursors
protein-peptide hormones.
Mutations in these genes can lead
to disruption of the work of protein-peptide hormones
(for example, hormone deficiency).
For example, mutations in genes that code for STH or IGF,
lead to dwarfism - item 100.
It is treated with STH and IGF injections,
obtained for medicine by methods of genetic engineering.
4. Cells synthesizing protein-peptide hormones.
Protein-peptide hormones are synthesized
many cells of the body, not only the endocrine glands. - see clause 99.3.
The same hormone can be synthesized in different cells.
For example, somatostatin is synthesized
hypothalamus
and the pancreas (pancreas delta cells).
Somatostatin of the hypothalamus reduces the synthesis of growth hormone,
and somatostatin PZhZh reduces the synthesis of insulin and glucagon.
Another example is cholecystokinin and opiates, which are synthesized:
and in the digestive tract, and in the brain.
5. Protein-peptide hormones are hydrophilic (p.92),
Therefore, they are not able to pass through membranes,
therefore, receptors for protein-peptide hormones are located on the surface of the cytoplasmic membranes of cells - item 92.
In the transmission of a signal from the protein-peptide hormone into the cell
membrane G-proteins, protein kinases, tyrosine kinases can participate, the second messengers - items 94-98.
6. Method for industrial production of protein-peptide hormones
For their treatment - genetic engineering (technology of recombinant DNA).
In this way they get:
1) insulin for diabetics (item 103),
2) growth hormone for dwarfs (item 100),
3) leptin for obese people (items 99.2 and 44.3),
4) erythropoietin for people with some forms of anemia (item 121),
5) gonadotropins for the treatment of infertility (some forms)
and many other hormones
without which it would be impossible to cure a number of patients by other known methods - clauses 88 and 124.
99. 2. Classification of protein-peptide hormones. See paragraph 91.
1. Classification by chemical nature.
Protein-peptide hormones are divided into PROTEINS AND PEPTIDES.
They differ in that
peptides contain from 2 to 100 aminoacyls,
and proteins contain from 100 aminoacyls.
But this is formal; for example, insulin, which consists of 51 aminoacils, is also a real protein.
Proteins are divided into SIMPLE and COMPLEX.
Simple proteins are composed only of aminoacyls,
and complex proteins include other, non-protein substances,
forming complexes with PPTs.
Usually, carbohydrate components are a part of protein hormones.
These complex proteins (which contain carbohydrates) are called GLYCOPROTEINS.
On the structure of glycoproteins - items 38 and 39.
The carbohydrate component is represented by an oligosaccharide
(a compound of several monosaccharide residues linked by glycosidic bonds),
participates in specific recognition.
Examples of glycoprotein hormones are thyrotropin, gonadotropins.
2. Classification by cells that synthesize protein-peptide hormones (See file "91 TABLE" and further 99.3):
1) brain hormones (neuropeptides, including opioids, etc.),
2) hypothalamus (liberins, oxytocin, ADH = vasopressin),
3) pituitary gland (pathways, tropic hormones),
4) thyroid gland (calcitonin, not iodothyronines - they are not protein),
5) pancreas (insulin, glucagon, somatostatin),
6) fat cells (leptin),
7) KGF synthesized by different cells,
8) kidney cells (erythropoietin),
9) liver cells (somatomedins, IGF)
etc. - see item 91.
3. Classification by type of regulation.
Like other hormones (item 91), protein-peptide hormones
1) there are DISTANT hormones (insulin, TSH, opioids),
2) there are NEUROHORMONES (mediators and modulators; examples are liberins, opioids),
3) there are LOCAL hormones (insulin),
BPGs can participate in the regulation of:
1) endocrine (in which the hormone is delivered to the target cell with the blood stream),
2) NEUROCRINE (in which the hormone diffuses into the synaptic chips),
3) PARACrine (in which the hormone diffuses into the tissue) and
4) AUTOcrine (in which the hormone acts on the same cell that secreted it).
4. There are groups of hormones that act:
1) through RECEPTORS of different types,
2) through various SECOND INTERMEDIARIES,
3) cause EFFECTS of different types - clause 92.
For example, a group of hormones acting through tyrosine kinase receptors
(receptors that regulate the activity of tyrosine kinases)
and therefore related to oncoproteins. Examples - CTC, insulin - clause 98.
Hormones that affect the concentration of calcium ions in the cell (in the hyaloplasm),
called calcium-dependent (p. 97): angiotensin, liberins, etc.
Hormones acting through changes in the concentration of cAMP in the cell. Etc.
5. Can be classified protein-peptide hormones
BY THE INFLUENCE ON THE BODY.
For example, there are hormones that lower blood pressure -
these are HYPOTENSIVE hormones, examples are NP and adrenomedullin (p. 113).
There are hormones that increase blood pressure - these are HYPERTENSIVE hormones. An example is angiotensin, ADH (item 112, 113).
There are hormones that stimulate synthesis in the body, cell division, growth, healing, increase in muscle mass -
they are called ANABOLIC hormones or anabolic steroids (this is slang).
There are anabolic steroids, but among the protein-peptide hormones
anabolic are insulin, growth hormone, IGF - p. 85.
Insulin and STH stimulate protein synthesis,
but only insulin stimulates fat synthesis,
and STH stimulates the breakdown of fat.
99. 3. Organs, cells and biological fluids,
in which protein-peptide hormones are formed. See file "91 TABLE"
1. Peptide hormones ANGIOTENSIN and BRADIKININ are formed in the BLOOD
from the precursors of angiotensinogen (item 112) and kininogen (item 62). Precursors are not formed in the blood,
they are synthesized by LIVER cells (P.117).
Angiotensin and bradykinin regulate blood pressure and much more.
2. Many cells synthesize cell growth factors (KGF).
3. Leukocytes synthesize CYTOKINES.
4. Cells of white adipose tissue (adipocytes) synthesize the "slimness hormone" LEPTIN.
(head)
5. Brain cells synthesize NEUROPEPTIDES, including ENDORPHINS and other opiates,
affecting the psyche, GNI, thinking, feelings, etc. - see 99.2 and 99.3.
6. The hypothalamus synthesizes LIBERINS and STATINS,
regulating the work of the pituitary gland and the brain - p. 100.
7. The pituitary gland synthesizes TROPINS, which regulate the work of many endocrine glands - p.100.
(neck)
8. The thyroid gland synthesizes CALCITONIN (its iodothyronines are not protein hormones) - p. 114.
9. The parathyroid glands synthesize PARATIRIN - p. 114.
Hormones of the "cervical" glands
calcitonin and parathyrin regulate the concentration of calcium in the blood:
calcitonin - reduces (hypo / calcium / emotic hormone),
and parathyrin - increases (hyper / calcium / emic hormone) - p. 114.
10. Thymus synthesizes THYMOSINES and other hormones that affect the immune system.
11. The heart and blood vessels synthesize hormones
NP (natriuretic peptide) and ADRENOMEDULLIN,
which lower blood pressure
and protect against cardiovascular diseases - paragraph 113.
(Gastrointestinal tract)
12. The stomach synthesizes GASTRIN, which increases acidity, etc. (p. 61)
13. The pancreas synthesizes INSULIN, GLUCAGON (not glucogen), SOMATOSTATIN. - p. 100, 102, 37.
PJH hormones regulate the concentration of glucose in the blood (glycemia) - clauses 37, 102, 103.
Insulin lowers glycemia (hypoglycemic hormone),
and glucagon increases glycemia (hyperglycemic hormone), saving from fainting and coma.
14. Some cells of the gastrointestinal tract synthesize hormones:
SECRETIN
(provides neutralization of acidic contents coming from the stomach,
by stimulating the secretion of bicarbonate juice from the pancreas),
KHOLECISTOKININ
(provides the breakdown of food polymers by stimulating the entry of juice into the duodenum with enzymes - peptidases, lipase, etc.),
OPIATES (prevent diarrhea, etc.)
Non-protein-peptide hormones are synthesized only by the thyroid gland, adrenal glands and gonads.
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