Benito Mussolini's death occurred on April 28, 1945. He left this world 2 days before Hitler. At the time of his death, the leader of Italian fascism was 61 years old. This man lived bright life and was familiar with almost all prominent political figures of the first half of the 20th century. They spoke very highly of him, since the Duce (leader) was distinguished by his extraordinary intelligence, determination and had a strong will. But all these qualities did not help to avoid a well-deserved execution, which was carried out on the debunked leader by members of the Italian Resistance.
Brief biography of Mussolini
Benito Mussolini (1883-1945) is a prominent statesman and political figure in Italy. Born in the small village of Varano di Costa near the town of Predappio in northern Italy in the family of a blacksmith and a teacher. My father adhered to socialist views and took an active position. He spoke at rallies and even spent time in prison. All this did not pass without a trace for Benito. In 1900 he joined the Italian Socialist Party, but in 1902 he left for Switzerland to avoid military service.
There he first tried himself as a speaker, speaking to Italian emigrants. He soon met Marxists and read the works of Nietzsche, Marx, Stirner, and Sorel. He was particularly impressed by the French philosopher Sorel, who called for the overthrow of capitalism through violence.
In 1903, Mussolini was arrested by Swiss police at the request of the Italians for evading military service. He was deported to Italy, where the young man voluntarily enlisted in the Italian army. After serving for 2 years, he became a teacher in the lower grades, having graduated from high school at one time. In parallel with his work as a teacher, he was engaged in revolutionary activities and organized a strike of agricultural workers.
I had to leave my job and move to the city of Trento, which at that time belonged to Austria-Hungary. This happened in 1909. And from that time on, the young man took up political journalism. He was the editor of the newspaper "The People", and a year later, returning to Italy, he became the editor of the magazine "Class Struggle". In 1912, he headed the newspaper of the Socialist Party “Forward” and established himself as a bright and talented journalist.
With the outbreak of the First World War, Benito began to advocate for Italy's entry into the war against Germany. This caused discontent among the socialists, and the future leader of the country was relieved of his post as editor-in-chief of the newspaper “Forward”. In August 1915, Italy entered the war against Germany and Austria-Hungary, and Mussolini was drafted into the army. He ended up in the elite infantry (Bersagliere) and established himself as a brave soldier. In February 1916, he was given the military rank of corporal, and a year later he was demobilized due to a leg wound.
The front-line soldier who returned from the war decisively broke with socialism, declaring that this doctrine had become obsolete. In March 1919, he created a new organization - the Italian Struggle Union. In November 1921 it was transformed into the National Fascist Party. After this, Benito proclaimed the "Third Way" of the Italian people. Under his leadership, armed fascist detachments (Blackshirts) were created, and this new force began to successfully resist communists, socialists, and anarchists.
At the end of October 1922, fascist detachments moved in masses of thousands towards Rome (March on Rome). This march frightened King Victor Emmanuel III. He did not organize resistance to the fascists, but held a meeting with Mussolini and appointed him Prime Minister of Italy. He created his own cabinet of ministers, and the country's parliament meekly approved it. Thus, in 1922, Benito Mussolini came to power and became the leader (Duce) of the Italian people.
By December 1925, the Duce's power became absolute. The Black Shirts suppressed any resistance to the new regime, constitutional restrictions on power were eliminated, and the Duce was retrained from prime minister to head of government. He was no longer accountable to parliament, and only the king could remove him from office.
Italy became a one-party state, and all parties except the fascist were banned. In accordance with this, parliamentary elections were canceled, and instead of parliament, the Great Fascist Council began to rule everything. The Duce formed a personal security service, which began a merciless fight against dissent.
While in power, Mussolini headed the company for state control over business. By 1935, 70% of all Italian firms came under full state control. Strict price regulation began in 1938. The Duce himself was completely unpretentious in everyday life. He didn't care about money or material goods at all. The only thing he was interested in was power.
Two Fascist Dictators: Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler
In 1934, the Duce began to improve relations with Nazi Germany. The first meeting with Hitler took place on June 14, 1934 in Venice. And Benito first arrived in Germany in September 1937. The German fascists gave the Duce a magnificent welcome and overwhelmed him with parades, mass rallies and military might. As a result, on May 22, 1939, Italy and Germany signed the Pact of Steel, an agreement on a defensive and offensive alliance.
After this, on September 27, 1940, the Tripartite Pact was signed between Italy, Germany and Japan. From this moment on, the Axis countries (Nazi bloc or Hitler's coalition) emerged, opposing the anti-Hitler coalition during World War II. Italy fought against France and Great Britain in Africa, the southern regions of France, Belgium, Greece, and Yugoslavia. In June–July 1941, the Duce declared war on the USSR and the USA.
At first, military operations went well for the Italians, but after Germany attacked the USSR, the situation worsened, since the Germans could no longer fully help the Italians in their fight against the opposing coalition. Italian troops began to leave previously captured territories, unable to withstand the onslaught of the British and Americans. In May 1943, Italo-German troops capitulated in Tunisia, and on July 10, the Anglo-Americans landed in Sicily.
The capture of Sicily prompted the leaders of the Fascist Party to consider removing Mussolini and ending the war. On July 24, 1943, the Great Fascist Council was assembled. It was decided to resign the Duce and transfer all power to the king. The next day, the leader, who had lost popularity, was arrested. A new government was formed in the country, and negotiations began with the Americans and British. Benito's arrest sparked violent anti-fascist protests in the country, and on July 27 the fascist party was dissolved.
The new Italian government concluded a truce with the British and Americans on September 3 and pledged to hand over the Duce. The deposed leader himself was kept under guard in the Apennine Mountains at the Albergo Rifugio Hotel. The fate of a political criminal awaited him, but on September 12, 1943, a German landing force under the command of Otto Skorzeny freed the dictator and brought him to Germany to Hitler.
The Fuhrer invited the Duce to create a new state - the Italian Socialist Republic with its capital in the city of Salo. Mussolini agreed to take power into his own hands again, but now he had already become a puppet of Nazi Germany. So in the northern and central parts of Italy, occupied by the Germans, on September 23, 1943, a new state entity arose, completely under the control of Hitler.
However, times have changed. The forces of the Italian Resistance intensified, and Anglo-American troops began to push back the German occupiers and the Italians supporting them. In the last ten days of April 1945, the remnants of the German troops capitulated, and the Italian Socialist Republic ceased to exist on April 25, 1945.
Benito Mussolini and Clara Petacci after the shooting
Death of Benito Mussolini
The Italian dictator bet on Hitler and lost. And the natural ending was the death of Benito Mussolini. On the eve of the end, the Duce, together with his mistress Clara Petacci (1912-1945), arrived in Milan on April 17, 1945. Here he planned to resist the Anglo-Americans, and if that didn’t work out, then flee to Switzerland. But the plans for resistance were confused by the Germans. They decided to capitulate, and Mussolini had no choice but to flee Italy.
Together with Clara Petacci and several fascist associates, he set off along Lake Como to the road that led to Switzerland. On the night of April 26-27, a small detachment of fugitives joined a convoy of German trucks. However, near a small village, a partisan detachment blocked the column’s path. A firefight began but quickly died down. The partisans agreed to let the Germans through, but on the condition that they hand over the Italian fascists with them.
We must pay tribute to the German military. They gave Mussolini the uniform of a German non-commissioned officer and put him in the back of a truck. But the partisans began to carefully examine each truck and the people sitting in it. One of the Garibaldians recognized the dictator, and he was immediately arrested. The Germans did not protest and hastily left, and the Duce, along with his mistress and associates, was captured.
The detained group was taken to the village of Giulino di Medzegra, placed in a peasant house and placed under heavy security. However, the news of the arrest of the Duce very quickly reached the allied forces, and they began to demand the transfer of the dictator to them. The Italian communists opposed this and decided to urgently put Benito Mussolini to death.
The executed Benito Mussolini and Clara Petacci were hanged upside down in Milan (Mussolini is third from left, and Clara Petacci is fourth from left).
On the same day, April 28, 1945, a prominent figure in the Italian anti-fascist resistance, Lieutenant Colonel Valerio (Walter Audisio), went to the village. His people led the Duce out of the peasant house, and Clara Petacci followed, not wanting to part with her beloved man. The couple was taken to Villa Belmonte and placed near the fence. Valerio asked Petacci to step aside, but she grabbed Mussolini with a death grip and shielded him with her body.
The lieutenant colonel once again asked the love-crazed woman to move away. But she didn’t want to listen to anyone. What could the Italian communists do, a volley rang out, and two dead bodies fell to the ground. Both corpses were taken to Milan and hanged upside down near Piazza Loreto at a gas station. The bodies of several other prominent fascists were hanged nearby. After a few hours, the ropes were cut and the bodies fell into the gutter. There they lay until May 1, and then were interred in the Milan cemetery of Cimitero Maggiore. Moreover, the site where tramps were buried was chosen for burial.
Benito Mussolini's grave in the family crypt
However, the shameful death of Benito Mussolini did not leave the fascists indifferent. In March 1946, they dug up the Duce's body from the grave and kidnapped him. They searched for the mortal remains for quite a long time and discovered them only in August of the same year. After that, they lay for 10 years in the Certosa de Pavia monastery (a suburb of Milan) in an old large chest and were not buried. Finally, it was decided to bury the former dictator in the family crypt of the Mussolini family in the city of Predappio. His grave was surrounded by marble fronts and a bust was erected, thereby posthumously honoring the former Duce.
The future great dictator was born on July 29, 1883 in the village of Dovia, in the province of Emilia-Romagna. Rosa Maltoni, Mussolini's mother, was a rural teacher. Benito's father, Alessandro, made money as a blacksmith and metalworker. Two years after the birth of the first child, another son, Arnaldo, appeared in the family, and five years later, a daughter, Edwidje.
Mussolini had an average income and could afford to pay for his eldest son’s education at the school of monks in Faenza. Benito grew up obstinate, stubborn, aggressive and often violated the strict rules established by the monks. The father had a noticeable influence on the formation of his son. An atheist and a rebel who sympathized with the ideas of M. Bakunin, Alessandro knew firsthand about Marxism and considered himself a socialist.
At the end high school Mussolini taught in the lower grades, but not for long - in 1902 he went to seek his fortune in Switzerland. Benito even then called himself a socialist and often spoke to small audiences. His popularity among expatriate workers grew, and his name became well known to the Swiss police, who arrested him several times for “inflammatory speech.” In those years, Mussolini became acquainted with the works of K. Kautsky and P. Kropotkin, R. Stirner and O. Blanca, A. Schopenhauer and F. Nietzsche, and read the “Manifesto” of K. Marx and F. Engels. Mussolini took from theories only what he liked and understood; he easily assimilated other people's ideas, and had the habit of passing them off as his own after some time.
Like many other socialists of his generation, Mussolini was strongly influenced by the ideas of the French syndicalist Georges Sorel.
He was first called the “Little Leader” (“piccolo Duce”) in 1907 after being expelled from the canton of Geneva. A few years later, this title, but without the definition of “piccolo,” appeared in the newspaper of the revolutionary faction of the Italian socialists “La Soffitta” (“Cherevik”) and since then has been firmly entrenched in Mussolini, who did not hide his satisfaction on this occasion.
The Duce preached his ideas in the small newspaper “Lotta di classe” (“Class Struggle”), which he acquired with the help of the socialists of the province of Emilia-Romagna. He was certainly a gifted journalist. The small-format paper, which became the daily organ of the Italian Socialist Party (PSI) in Forlì, consisted almost entirely of his articles. Mussolini attacked the monarchy and militarism, scolded the rich and priests, socialist reformists and republicans. His articles were angry and merciless, their tone was peremptory and aggressive, their phrases were categorical and assertive. The popularity of the newspaper grew, its circulation doubled, reaching 2,500 copies, and the Duce, having become secretary of the Socialist Party in Forlì, in October 1910, for the first time attended the next congress of the ISP, held in Milan.
Mussolini felt that the crisis brewing in the party, caused by the intensification of the struggle between supporters of reformist and revolutionary tactics, could be used to move up. And he plays this card at the next congress of the ISP in Emilia-Romagna in July 1912.
This congress was of particular importance for Mussolini's political career. The "irreconcilable" figures of the "revolutionary faction" and among them Mussolini managed to achieve the expulsion of right-wing reformists from the ISP. Mussolini's speech at the congress was a resounding success. It was commented on and quoted in the press, but this could not fully satisfy the ambition of the Duce. For a person abundantly endowed with the abilities of a publicist, the most reliable way to the top was the central all-Italian newspaper ISP. His dream came true: in November 1912 he was entrusted with heading the editorial office of the newspaper Avanti! ("Forward!").
Mussolini knew the craft of a reporter. He loved the newspaper and was a virtuoso of journalism. After a year and a half, the newspaper's circulation increased from 20 to 100,000 copies, and it became one of the most read in Italy.
And then it burst out World War, and the Socialist Party, true to its long anti-militarist tradition, addressed the masses with an anti-war manifesto and put forward the slogan of “absolute neutrality.” However, as the conflict developed, the tone of publications in Avanti! acquired a pronounced anti-German and anti-Austrian character, and Mussolini’s pro-Entente sympathies became an “open secret.” October 18, 1914 in "Avanti!" An editorial was published, “From absolute neutrality to active and real neutrality,” and although this formula contradicted the anti-war course of the socialists, Mussolini tried to impose it on the party leadership. He demanded that the party hold a referendum on this issue. After a long and fierce debate at a meeting of the ISP leadership, Mussolini’s resolution was rejected, he himself was relieved of his duties as editor-in-chief, and a month later he was noisily expelled from the party.
Mussolini played a win-win game, since back in the spring of 1914 he received an offer from F. Naldi, the publisher of a Bolognese newspaper. Naldi had connections at the royal court and had friends among major industrialists and financiers. The Duce could not resist the temptation to have his own large newspaper, which would become in his hands a powerful political weapon, enabling further struggle for power. The first issue of "Popalo d'Italia" ("People of Italy") was published on November 15. Although the newspaper was initially called a "daily, socialist", it was the leadership of the ISP and the Socialist Party as a whole that were subjected to vicious, bitter attacks on its pages. Mussolini advocated the immediate entry of Italy into the war on the side of the Entente countries. His supporters hoped, with the help of war, to bring the revolution closer and make Italy great. The idea of a “revolutionary war for a place in the sun” found a response among wide sections of small property owners. Mussolini became the spokesman for their sentiments. His extremism was easily understandable to ordinary people and lumpen people. “I am increasingly convinced,” he wrote, “that for the good of Italy it would be useful to shoot... a dozen deputies and send at least a few ex-ministers to hard labor... The parliament in Italy is a plague-ridden an ulcer that poisons the blood of the nation. It needs to be cut out."
Italy officially entered World War I on May 23, 1915. Mussolini did not follow the example of many nationalists and did not rush to sign up as a volunteer. Newspapers accused him of cowardice, but he insisted that he was waiting for the draft of his year. The summons arrived only at the end of August, and since mid-September he had been in the active army. The legend of Mussolini's reckless bravery at the front was created by himself after the end of the war. In fact, he didn't do anything remarkable. The Duce wore a military uniform for 17 months, but spent only a third of this time in the trenches, the rest of the time he was in the rear - in hospitals, on vacation. In February 1917, he became the victim of an accident: during instruction on the use of a mortar, one of the mines exploded in a trench. Four soldiers were killed outright, and Mussolini was wounded in the right leg. Six months later, he was demobilized and returned to the editorial office of Pololo d'Italia, and two months later, the tragedy of Caporetto broke out, where the Italian army was completely defeated by Austrian troops. Along the roads of Northern Italy, hundreds of thousands of exhausted, embittered people, until recently called soldiers.
Mussolini managed not only to understand the interests of front-line soldiers, but also to express in a simple and accessible form the innermost thoughts and aspirations of these people. Gradually he became their idol. Mussolini was subject to sudden outbursts of anger, vengeful and cruel, but these qualities only complemented his image of a “man of action”, ready to do anything for the sake of an idea. However, Mussolini soon realized that a strong, militant organization was needed to seize power. On March 21, he gathered former interventionists, nationalists, and futurists in Milan. There are about 60 people in total. They decided to create a “Combat Union” (“Fascio de combattimento”, hence the name of the new movement) and for this purpose to convene a kind of constituent assembly. A little more than a hundred people responded to the call published in the newspaper Pololo d'Italia.On March 23, 1919, these people settled in the mansion of the Milanese Commercial and Industrial Club in Piazza San Sepolcro.
For two days there were calls for the restoration of Italy's greatness, and there were debates about foreign policy. 54 people signed a declaration in which the fascists - that’s how members of the new organization began to call themselves - pledged to defend the demands of front-line soldiers and sabotage former neutralists. They declared themselves opponents of any, in particular Italian, imperialism and immediately demanded the annexation of the regions of Dalmatia and Fiume, disputed with Yugoslavia. Soon their program was supplemented by an extensive list of social slogans that sounded very radical: the abolition of the Senate, the police, castes, privileges and titles, universal suffrage, guarantees of civil liberties, convening the Constituent Assembly, establishing an 8-hour working day and a minimum wage for everyone, transferring land to peasants, universal education and much more. Thus, the fascists did not appeal to any specific social stratum, but to all Italians who longed for tangible social and political change.
Mussolini did not hide his intentions. In the conditions of the decline of the revolutionary movement, when the immediate threat to the existing system had passed, he openly declared his claims to gain political power. “Fascism is a gigantic mobilization of moral and material forces,” he wrote on March 23, 1921. “What are we trying to achieve? We talk about it without false modesty: governing the nation.” In May 1921, Mussolini was elected to the Italian parliament. The 35 mandates received by the fascists allowed them to participate in the parliamentary game, behind-the-scenes combinations and deals. And although Mussolini called all this a “mouse race”, and the parliamentary group of fascists - a “punitive platoon”, he nevertheless looked closely at the internal parliamentary kitchen, calculated the chances of success. In November 1921, at the time of the creation of the fascist party, he defiantly refused the post of General Secretary: he should have been above current party affairs. This gesture was typical of Mussolini, who became a member of the party leadership, but in fact had full power. In the fall of 1922, dual power was actually established in Italy: the fascists captured more and more cities and provinces Mussolini relied on an armed coup.On October 24, the next congress of fascist unions opened in Naples, at the San Carlo Theater.
Mussolini made an aggressive speech at it, with an ultimatum demanding that the government provide the fascists with five ministerial portfolios and an aviation commissariat. At the same time, he declared his devotion to the monarchy, for he was aware of the power of the monarch.
In the evening of the same day, at the Vesuvius Hotel, where the Duce was staying, his closest associates and quadrumvirs (I. Balbo, C. M. De Vicchi, E. De Bono, M. Bianchi) - members of the operational leadership of the fascist detachments - gathered. After some debate, a decision was made: October 27 - general mobilization of the fascists, October 28 - attack on the main centers of the country. Three columns of squadrists - members of fascist combat detachments (squads) - were supposed to enter Rome from Perugia, present an ultimatum to the government of L. Fact and take possession of the main ministries. If the operation failed, it was planned to proclaim the creation of a fascist government in Central Italy and prepare a new “march on Rome.”
Blood began to flow immediately: in Cremona, Bologna and Alessandria the squadrists became uncontrollable. The Cabinet of Ministers decided to resign, but first approved and even sent out a decree on the state of siege, according to which the army received the necessary powers to restore order. However, at the last moment, King Victor Emmanuel III, summoned from his country residence, refused to sign this decree.
New order.
On the afternoon of October 29, Mussolini, who was in Milan, received the much-desired notification of his appointment as prime minister and in the evening of the same day he departed for Rome on a special train in a sleeping car. Dressed in a fascist uniform (black shirt, dark green trousers and leggings), the Duce came to the king. A few years later, in a conversation with the German writer E. Ludwig, he admitted that on the way to Rome he felt like a patriot. Walking out onto the balcony with the king, he greeted the jubilant crowds of Blackshirts. Thus ended the fascist coup, ironically called by the people “the revolution in the sleeping car.”
Having become prime minister, Mussolini retained many of the habits of a provincial populist.
Mussolini was forced to interrupt the work of parliament. Never before had he been so shocked and confused. According to the testimony of his assistants, during those days of crisis the Duce was seized with panic: he rushed around the office, beat himself on the head with his fists, shouted that fascism in Italy was over forever. And then he fell into prostration. This is how he was found by the leader of the Bologna fascists L. Arpinati and four squadrists who had specially come to Rome to support their Duce. A few years later, the Duce admitted to his attending physician that “in those days, the onslaught of 50, no, even 20 determined people would have been enough,” and he would have resigned.
Gradually, the peak of the crisis passed, the bourgeoisie again rallied on the platform of fascism. On January 3, 1925, the Duce made a speech in parliament, which meant that fascism was going on the offensive. IN short term In Italy, a series of “emergency laws” were issued, which led to the elimination of democratic institutions of society and the establishment of a fascist dictatorship.
Mussolini assigned himself a new official title - "head of government" and from now on had to formally account for his actions only to the king, who, in turn, could sign decrees only with the knowledge and consent of the Duce. The traditional separation of legislative and executive powers was largely eliminated, as the government gained the right to make laws even without the formal consent of parliament. The Duce firmly adopted the habit of announcing his decisions from the balconies of official residences: the Chigi palace, and later Venice. The Blackshirts gathered in front of the palace, and those simply curious, enthusiastically shouted “yes!” in response to the Duce’s question whether this or that decree is needed. The official organs of information only had to present this “popular approval” in an appropriate manner.
For Italy, the 30s were a time of consolidation and dominance of the Mussolini regime. The Duce was a sophisticated and intelligent dictator. He understood that it was impossible to create a solid foundation of political power through violence alone, so fascism actively implanted in society its own system of ideological, political and moral “values”, based on unconditional recognition of the authority of the leader. Any dissent was suppressed by force. In the conditions of Catholic Italy, ensuring public harmony largely depended on the state's relations with the Vatican. Of course, Mussolini really wanted to solve the “Roman question.” Back in September 1870, when the royal troops occupied Rome, the high priest cursed the Italian state and forbade Catholics to participate in political life.
Mussolini in his youth was a militant atheist and even signed some of his articles as a “true heretic.” Vicious attacks on Christian teaching and the cult of its ministers continued until the early 20s, but soon the tone of Mussolini’s speeches changed dramatically. In his first speech in parliament, he had the courage to mention the “Roman question,” which had not been raised for decades, and after becoming prime minister, he allocated funds for the restoration of destroyed churches, returned the crucifix to schools and hospitals, recognized the Catholic University in Milan and increased the salaries of sixty thousand parish priests.
Mussolini's actions were dictated by the needs of political strategy and tactics. The "Roman Question" was settled in 1929. In exchange for official recognition of the Kingdom of Italy, the Vatican received the status of an independent state with a territory of 44 hectares and a population of about a thousand people. However, relations between the Holy See and the fascist regime remained difficult and subsequently worsened several times. While keeping the secret police under control, the Duce constantly demanded from agents the most complete information about the state of mind in the country, both about the activities of the highest hierarchs and about the statements of former political opponents who were in prison and in exile.
From the pages of newspapers, Mussolini appeared as the author of all the “great achievements” of the nation, its pride and symbol. He accompanied the average person everywhere; portraits of the leader were pasted on the walls of houses and trams, his busts filled city squares and public gardens, his statements “decorated” advertising posters, pediments of residential buildings and government agencies, sewn along highways and railways. It seems that at some point Mussolini himself believed that he was a man “sent to Italy by providence”, that all its successes were the fruit of his brilliant creativity. “Italians, rest assured,” he once said during a trip to Reggio Emilia, “I will lead you higher and further.”
The inflation of the myth of the “superman” leading the nation to a “bright future” reached its apogee in the second half of the 30s. In honor of the Duce, they composed poems and songs, made films, created monumental sculptures and stamped figurines, painted pictures and printed postcards. Endless praise flowed at mass rallies and official ceremonies, on the radio and from the pages of newspapers. Since 1933, the new official chronology began to count the years of the “fascist era.”
Fascism introduced a series of rituals into the daily life of Italians, conventionally united by the concept of “fascist style.” “The whole complex of our daily habits must be transformed: our manners of eating, dressing, working and sleeping,” Mussolini declared in 1932. Mussolini's regime began to introduce new norms of behavior into society. Among the fascists, handshakes were abolished, women were prohibited from wearing trousers, and one-way traffic was established for pedestrians on the left side of the street.
By government decision, all Italians, regardless of age, social status and gender, were required to engage in military, sports and political training on Saturdays. Mussolini himself set an example to follow, organizing mass swims, hurdles and horse races. Mass gymnastic exercises became fashionable and widespread, because movements in a single rhythm, according to the fascists, contributed to the development of a sense of collectivism.
In the 1930s, another new mass ritual appeared: “fascist weddings,” at each of which Mussolini was considered the imprisoned father. He elevated stimulating population growth to the rank of state policy and attached special importance to it, expressing his plan in a concise formula: “More population - more soldiers - more power.”
A significant part of ordinary people, especially in the mid-30s, judged Mussolini approximately this way: he established order in the country, gave jobs to many unemployed, sincerely cares about the greatness of the nation and is trying to establish “social justice.” Talk about “social justice” was stimulated by the implantation of a corporate system in the country, aimed, according to the Duce’s plan, at overcoming class antagonisms. The Duce was surrounded by many illiterate people. The principle of personnel selection was ridiculously simple - personal sympathy or hostility of the Duce. Often the choice of the lucky person was determined by his appearance, the ability to present oneself, a good joke or something else like that. On May 26, 1927, speaking in the Chamber of Deputies, Mussolini spoke about his apparatus as follows: “All ministers and their deputies are soldiers. They go where the Head of Government directs them, and stop if I order them to stop.”
The Duce did not hide the fact that the OVRA, on his instructions, controls the private life and correspondence of the hierarchs. Each of them did not leave for a minute a feeling of uncertainty and fear for their career, because Mussolini often and carefully “shuffled the deck” of his entourage, reporting displacements and movements through the media.
Many appointments were formally carried out on behalf of the king, to whom the Duce regularly appeared on Tuesdays and Thursdays. Legally, Victor Emmanuel the Third remained the head of state, which created the appearance of dualism in governing the country. From time to time, disagreements arose between the Duce and the king, but in all fundamental issues Mussolini won. He even managed to make the fascist song "Gio Vinezza" the national anthem along with the "Royal March". This was perhaps the only time in history when a country had two official anthems.
Earthly passions.
Unlike his son-in-law G. Ciano, Mussolini did not strive for unbridled personal enrichment. He was indifferent to money, but not to the benefits it provided. A fanatical car enthusiast, he bought several of the most prestigious cars for his own pleasure and used them often. His other hobby was horses - there were more than a dozen of them in his stable.
The Duce always lived for himself. He did not belong to the family - not because of excessive workload, but because of his character. Communication with children (Edda, Vittorio, Bruno, Romano, Anna Maria) was superficial; the Duce never had close friends. He had a good relationship with his brother and sister, and in December 1931, when Arnaldo died, Mussolini experienced genuine grief. The Duce suffered another personal blow in connection with the death of his son Bruno, who crashed during a training flight in August 1941.
For the crowd, the leader is a superman, alien to earthly passions. But behind the monumental facade, of course, there is always a mere mortal, with all human weaknesses. Neither Hitler, nor Lenin, nor Stalin were ascetics. However, Mussolini, with his southern temperament, far surpassed them in love affairs.
The future dictator lost his virginity at the age of 16 with a cheap street prostitute. By his own admission, he then “undressed every woman he saw with his eyes.” But in reality, it was rarely possible to undress a woman.
In 1909, Benito fell in serious love for the first time. Raquel Guidi, his former student (Mussolini was then a teacher at the school), worked in the bar of a local hotel. She did not reject the advances of a respectable admirer, but she did not say “yes” to him either. By that time, the young teacher had firmly decided to devote himself to politics and feared that family ties might interfere with his ambitious plans. He proposed a civil marriage to Raqueli, but this did not suit her parents. And then Benito played a melodramatic scene. During his next visit to Raquel’s house, he pulled out a pistol and announced: “You see this pistol, Signora Guidi? It has 6 cartridges. If Raquel refuses my offer, the first bullet will go to her, and the second to me. Choose.” It made an impression. Mussolini took his daughter away from her parents' home without officially registering his marriage.
However, later he had to back down. The fact is that his next mistress, Ida Dalser, gave birth to a son from him and began to introduce herself everywhere as Signora Mussolini. This did not suit the future dictator in any way, and he formalized his marriage to Raquel. The First World War was going on. And even later, in 1937, the Duce put Ida Dalser in a psychiatric hospital, where she would end her earthly journey. Her son Albino would die during the Second World War.
Raquel gave birth to Mussolini's four children - daughter Edda in 1910, son Vittorino in 1918, another son, Romano, in 1927, and daughter Anna Maria in 1929. For a long time his wife and children lived separately, and not even in Rome. The Duce visited them three or four times a year. But after the Nazis announced that family life- sacred, Mussolini had to move his family to his place. However, in fact, Benito and Raquel lived separately. Even among her own family, Raquel addressed her husband only as “Duce.” Mussolini's wife was a woman of a sober peasant mind and practical savvy. She did not interfere in her husband’s state affairs, knew about many of his amorous adventures, but actively entered into battle only when she felt a threat to family well-being.
Mussolini himself admitted that he was not a very attentive father. He justified himself by saying that government concerns did not leave him any free time. Nevertheless, the dictator always found time for lovemaking. Many of the Duce's female visitors experienced his irrepressible masculine temperament - either on the wide carpet that covered the floor of the huge office, or standing at the windowsill. The leader was so busy with the affairs of the party and the state that sometimes he did not have time to take off not only his shoes, but also his trousers.
His sexual behavior sometimes showed sadistic tendencies. He often beat Raquel, and once lightly strangled the French journalist Magda Fontange, who considered the Duce a “fatal man,” during sexual intercourse with her own scarf. The Frenchwoman was madly in love with Mussolini, and when he, having decided to get rid of the annoying fan, ordered her to be given 15 thousand francs and escorted to the border, she even tried to commit suicide.
Duce met the beautiful Claretta Petacci when he was already over fifty. Their relationship acquired almost official status, and Raquel had to come to terms with it. Claretta is probably the only woman that Mussolini truly loved. He groomed and cherished her, gifted her with precious apartments and luxurious villas. One day, Raquel threw in her rival’s face: “Someday you’ll cum on Piazza Loreto, whore!” Prostitutes of the lowest caliber gathered in this Milan square. The prophecy came true, but everything turned out to be much worse.
Claretta Petacci and Benito Mussolini meet for the first time on April 24, 1932. She was 20 years old and he was 51 years old. Claretta was at that time engaged to a young air force officer, whom she would soon marry. In 1936, they filed for official divorce.
Claretta was born on February 28, 1912 and grew up, like the entire young Italian generation of that time, with the cult of the unattainable and adored Duce - Mussolini. Therefore, there is nothing strange that at their very first meeting she completely loses her head and gives all of herself, soul and body, to the person she has long chosen. She will carry this love and devotion throughout her entire life. short life, which will be linked entirely until the hour of death with Mussolini. It was no secret to anyone in the State Palace that the Duce loved untouched virgins. There were rumors that he even interrupted government meetings to meet with some of them. There were even claims that 400 fans passed through the sofas of the Venice Palace. But Claretta kept all her jealousy inside and was proud of her constant intimacy with the Duce and did not pretend to break Mussolini with his wife.
In order to legitimize their relationship in any way, Mussolini asks Claretta’s mother for permission for their official relationship. Numerous newspapers and film magazines of the time begin to mention Petacce, and she becomes a famous character.
An irrepressible thirst for power was the dominant feature of Mussolini's life. Power determined his concerns, thoughts and actions and was not fully satisfied even when he found himself at the very top of the pyramid of political dominance. His own morality, and he considered moral only that which contributed to personal success and the preservation of power, as a shield that covered him from the outside world. He constantly felt lonely, but loneliness did not weigh on him: it was the axis around which the rest of his life revolved.
A brilliant actor and poser, abundantly endowed with the characteristic Italian temperament, Mussolini chose a wide role for himself: an ardent revolutionary and a stubborn conservative, a great Duce and his own “shirt guy,” an unbridled lover and a pious family man. However, behind all this is a sophisticated politician and demagogue who knew how to accurately calculate the time and place to strike, pit opponents against each other, and play on people’s weaknesses and base passions.
He sincerely believed that strong personal power was necessary to control the masses, for “the masses are nothing more than a flock of sheep until they are organized.” Fascism, according to Mussolini, was supposed to turn this “herd” into an obedient instrument for building a society of general prosperity. Therefore, the masses must, they say, love the dictator “and at the same time fear him. Massa loves strong men. The mass is a woman." Mussolini's favorite form of communication with the masses was public speeches. He systematically appeared on the balcony of the Palazzo Venezia in the center of Rome in front of a crowded square that could accommodate 30 thousand people. The crowd exploded with excitement. The Duce slowly raised his hand, and the crowd froze, eagerly listening to every word of the leader. Usually the Duce did not prepare his speeches in advance. He kept only basic ideas in his head, and then relied entirely on improvisation and intuition. He, like Caesar, stirred the imagination of Italians with grandiose plans, the mirage of empire and glory, great achievements and general well-being.
The future Duce was born on July 29, 1883 in a cozy village called Dovia in the province of Emilia-Romagna, which has long been known as a hotbed of rebellious sentiments and traditions. Mussolini's father worked as a blacksmith, occasionally “giving a hand” in raising his first-born (later Benito had another brother and sister), his mother was a rural teacher. Like any petty-bourgeois family, the Mussolinis did not live richly, but they were not poor either. They were able to pay for the education of their eldest son, who was systematically expelled from school for fighting. Having received a secondary education, Mussolini tried to teach in the lower grades for some time, led a completely dissolute life and received a venereal disease, from which he was never able to fully recover.
However, his active nature was looking for a different field, and his ambitious plans pushed him to adventurous decisions, and Mussolini went to Switzerland. Here he did odd jobs, was a mason and laborer, clerk and garson, lived in cramped closets common for emigrants of that time, and was arrested by the police for vagrancy. Later, at every opportunity, he recalled this period when he experienced “hopeless hunger” and experienced “a lot of life’s difficulties.”
At the same time, he became involved in trade union activities, spoke passionately at workers’ meetings, met many socialists and joined the socialist party. Particularly important for him was his acquaintance with the professional revolutionary Angelica Balabanova. They talked a lot, argued about Marxism, translated from German and French (Mussolini studied these languages in courses at the University of Lausanne) the works of K. Kautsky and P.A. Kropotkin. Mussolini became acquainted with the theories of K. Marx, O. Blanca, A. Schopenhauer and F. Nietzsche, but he never developed any coherent system of views. His worldview at that time was a kind of “revolutionary cocktail”, mixed with the desire to become a leader in the labor movement. The most reliable way to gain popularity was revolutionary journalism, and Mussolini began to write on anti-clerical and anti-monarchist topics. He turned out to be a talented journalist who wrote quickly, energetically and clearly for readers.
In the fall of 1904, Mussolini returned to Italy, served in the army, and then moved to his native province, where he decided on two urgent matters: he acquired a wife, a blue-eyed, blond peasant woman named Raquele, and his own newspaper, Class Struggle. It was he who acquired it - against the will of his father and mother Rakel, for he once appeared at her house with a revolver in his hand, demanding to give him his daughter. The cheap trick was a success, the young people rented an apartment and began to live without registering either a civil or church marriage.
The year 1912 turned out to be decisive in the revolutionary career of the Duce (“Duce” - they began to call him the leader back in 1907, when he went to prison for organizing public unrest). His fierce struggle against the reformists within the PSI won him many supporters, and soon the party leaders invited Mussolini to lead Avanti! - the central newspaper of the party. At the age of 29, Mussolini, still little known a year ago, received one of the most important posts in the party leadership. His dexterity and unscrupulousness, boundless narcissism and cynicism were also evident in the pages of Avanti!, whose circulation within a year and a half staggeringly increased from 20 to 100 thousand copies.
And then the First World War broke out. The Duce, who was known as an irreconcilable anti-militarist, initially welcomed the neutrality declared by Italy, but gradually the tone of his speeches became more and more militant. He was confident that the war would destabilize the situation and make it easier to carry out a social revolution and seize power.
Mussolini played a win-win game. He was expelled from the ISP for renegade, but by this time he already had everything he needed, including money, to publish his own newspaper. It became known as the “People of Italy” and launched a noisy campaign to join the war. In May 1915, Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary. The Duce was mobilized to the front and spent about a year and a half in the trenches. He tasted the “delights” of front-line life to the fullest, then was wounded (accidentally, from a training grenade exploding), hospitals, and demobilized with the rank of senior corporal. Mussolini described everyday life at the front in his diary, pages from which were regularly published in his newspaper, which was published in mass circulation. By the time of demobilization, he was well known as a man who had gone through the crucible of war and understood the needs of front-line soldiers. It was these people, accustomed to violence, who saw death and had difficulty adapting to peaceful life, who became the combustible mass that could blow up Italy from the inside.
In March 1919, Mussolini created the first “combat union” (“fascio di combattimento”, hence the name - fascists), which included mainly former front-line soldiers, and after some time these unions appeared almost everywhere in Italy.
In the fall of 1922, the fascists mobilized forces and staged the so-called “March on Rome.” Their columns marched on the “Eternal City,” and Mussolini demanded the post of prime minister. The military garrison of Rome could resist and disperse the loudmouths, but for this the king and his inner circle needed to show political will. This did not happen, Mussolini was appointed prime minister and immediately demanded a special train to travel from Milan to the capital, and crowds of Blackshirts entered Rome on the same day without firing a single shot (a black shirt is part of the fascist uniform). This is how a fascist coup took place in Italy, ironically called by the people “the revolution in a sleeping car.”
Having moved to Rome, Mussolini left his family in Milan and for several years led the dissolute life of a Don Juan unencumbered by family concerns. This did not prevent him from engaging in government affairs, especially since meetings with women, of whom there were hundreds, took place during working hours or during lunch breaks. His behavior and style were far from aristocratic sophistication and a little vulgar. Mussolini demonstratively despised secular manners and even at official ceremonies did not always follow the rules of etiquette, since he did not really know and did not want to know them. But he quickly acquired the habit of talking arrogantly to his subordinates, without even inviting them to sit in his office. He got himself a personal guard, and on duty he preferred to drive a bright red sports car.
By the end of the 20s, a totalitarian fascist dictatorship was established in Italy: all opposition parties and associations were dissolved or destroyed, their press was banned, and opponents of the regime were arrested or expelled. To persecute and punish dissidents, Mussolini created a special secret police (OVRA) under his personal control and a Special Tribunal. During the years of dictatorship, this repressive body convicted more than 4,600 anti-fascists. The Duce considered reprisals against political opponents to be quite natural and necessary when establishing a new government. He said that freedom has always existed only in the imagination of philosophers, and the people, they say, ask him not for freedom, but for bread, houses, water pipes, etc. And Mussolini really tried to satisfy many of the social needs of the working people, creating such a broad and multifaceted social security system that did not exist in any capitalist country in those years. The Duce understood well that it was impossible to create a solid foundation for his rule through violence alone, that something more was required - the consent of people with the existing order, the renunciation of attempts to counteract the authorities.
The image of a man with a large hydrocephalic skull and a “decisive, strong-willed look” accompanied the average person everywhere. In honor of the Duce, they composed poems and songs, made films, created monumental sculptures and stamped figurines, painted pictures and printed postcards. Endless praise flowed at mass rallies and official ceremonies, on the radio and from the pages of newspapers, which were strictly forbidden to print anything about Mussolini without permission from the censor. They were not even able to congratulate him on his birthday, since the dictator’s age was a state secret: he was supposed to remain forever young and serve as a symbol of the regime’s unfading youth.
To create a “new moral and physical type of Italian,” Mussolini’s regime began to violently introduce ridiculous and sometimes simply idiotic standards of behavior and communication into society. Among the fascists, handshakes were abolished, women were forbidden to wear trousers, and one-way traffic was established for pedestrians on the left side of the street (so as not to interfere with each other). The fascists attacked the “bourgeois habit” of drinking tea and tried to erase the familiar habit from the speech of Italians. polite form the appeal “Lei”, supposedly alien in its softness to the “masculine style of fascist life.” This style was strengthened by the so-called “fascist Saturdays,” when all Italians had to engage in military, sports and political training. Mussolini himself set an example to follow, organizing swims across the Bay of Naples, hurdles and horse racing.
Heard at its dawn political biography An adamant anti-militarist, Mussolini zealously set about creating military aviation and a navy. He built airfields and laid down warships, trained pilots and captains, and organized maneuvers and reviews. The Duce absolutely loved watching military equipment. He could stand motionless for hours, with his hands on his hips and his head up. He was unaware that to create the appearance of military power, zealous assistants drove the same tanks through the squares. At the end of the parade, Mussolini himself stood at the head of the Bersaglieri regiment and, with a rifle at the ready, ran with them in front of the podium.
In the 30s, another mass ritual appeared - “fascist weddings.” The newlyweds received a symbolic gift from the Duce, who was considered an imprisoned father, and in a return telegram of gratitude they promised to “give a soldier to their beloved fascist homeland” in a year. In his youth, Mussolini was an ardent supporter of artificial contraceptives and did not object to their use by the women with whom he interacted. Having become a dictator, he turned in this regard too. reverse side. The fascist government introduced criminal penalties for those who advocated the distribution of such drugs, and increased the already considerable fines for abortions. By personal order of the Duce, infection with syphilis began to be considered a criminal offense, and the ban on divorce was reinforced by new severe penalties for adultery.
He declared war on fashionable dances, which seemed “indecent and immoral” to him, and imposed strict restrictions on different types night entertainment and banned those that involved undressing. Far from being inclined towards puritanism, the Duce was concerned with the styles of women's swimsuits and the length of skirts, insisting that they cover most body, fought against the widespread use of cosmetics and high-heeled shoes.
Carried away by the struggle to increase the birth rate, the Duce called on his fellow citizens to double its pace. The Italians joked about this that to achieve their goal they could only halve the pregnancy period. Childless women felt like lepers. Mussolini even tried to impose tribute on childless families and introduced a tax on “unjustified celibacy.”
The Duce also demanded more offspring in the families of the fascist hierarchs, being a role model: he had five children (three boys and two girls). People close to the dictator knew about the existence of an illegitimate son from a certain Ida Dalser, whom Mussolini long years supported financially.
Since 1929, the Duce family lived in Rome. Rakele shunned high society, took care of the children and strictly followed the daily routine established by her husband. This was not difficult, since Mussolini did not change his habits in everyday life and in common days led a very measured lifestyle. He got up at half past six, did exercises, drank a glass orange juice and took a horseback ride through the park. When he returned, he took a shower and had breakfast: fruit, milk, wholemeal bread, which Rakelé sometimes baked, coffee with milk. He left for work at eight, took a break at eleven and ate fruit, and returned for lunch at two in the afternoon. There were no pickles on the table: spaghetti with tomato sauce- the simplest dish most Italians love, fresh lettuce, spinach, vegetable stew, fruits. During siesta I read and talked with children. By five he returned to work, had dinner no earlier than nine and went to bed at ten-thirty. Mussolini did not allow anyone to wake him, except in the most urgent cases. But the village
Since no one really knew what this meant, they preferred not to touch it under any circumstances.
The main source of income for the Mussolini family was the newspaper “People of Italy” that he owned. In addition, the Duce received a deputy's salary, as well as numerous fees for publishing speeches and articles in the press. These funds allowed him not to deny anything necessary to himself or his loved ones. However, there was almost no need to spend them, since the Duce had almost no control over the colossal state funds spent on entertainment expenses. Finally, he had huge secret funds of the secret police and, if he wanted, could become fabulously rich, but he did not feel any need for this: money, as such, did not interest him. No one ever even tried to accuse Mussolini of any financial abuses, since there simply were none. This was confirmed by a special commission that investigated the facts of embezzlement among the fascist hierarchs after the war.
By the mid-30s, the Duce had become a real celestial, especially after declaring himself First Marshal of the Empire. By the decision of the fascist parliament, this highest military rank was awarded only to the Duce and the king and thereby, as it were, put them on the same level. King Victor Emmanuel was furious: he only formally remained the head of state. The timid and indecisive monarch did not forget about the revolutionary past and anti-royalist statements of the dictator, despised him for his plebeian origin and habits, feared and hated his “humble servant” for the power he had. Mussolini felt the monarch's internal negative mood, but did not attach serious importance to it.
He was at the zenith of glory and power, but next to him was already looming the ominous shadow of another contender for world domination - a truly powerful maniac who had seized power in Germany. The relationship between Hitler and Mussolini, despite the seemingly obvious “kinship of souls,” the similarity of ideology and regimes, was far from fraternal, although sometimes it looked like that. The dictators did not even have any sincere sympathy for each other. In relation to Mussolini, this can be said for sure. Being the leader of fascism and the Italian nation, Mussolini saw in Hitler a petty imitator of his ideas, a little possessed, a little caricatured upstart, devoid of many qualities necessary for a real politician.
In 1937, Mussolini made his first official visit to Germany and was deeply impressed by its military power. With his nose and gut, he felt the approach of a big war in Europe and took away from the trip the conviction that it was Hitler who would soon become the arbiter of the destinies of Europe. And if so, then it is better to be friends with him than to be at enmity. In May 1939, the so-called “Pact of Steel” was signed between Italy and Germany. In the event of an armed conflict, the parties pledged to support each other, but Italy’s unpreparedness for war was so obvious that Mussolini came up with the formula of temporary “non-participation,” thereby wanting to emphasize that he was not taking a passive position, but was only waiting in the wings. This hour struck when the Nazis had already captured half of Europe and were completing the defeat of France.
On June 10, 1940, Italy declared a state of war with Great Britain and France and launched 19 divisions on the offensive in the Alps, which got bogged down within the first kilometers. The Duce was discouraged, but there was no turning back.
Failures at the front were accompanied by major troubles in the dictator’s personal life. In August 1940, his son Bruno died in an accident. The second misfortune was associated with his mistress Claretta Petacci, who in September underwent a difficult operation that threatened to lead to death.
The Italian armies suffered one defeat after another and would have been completely defeated if not for the help of the Germans, who in Italy themselves behaved more and more impudently. There was growing mass dissatisfaction with the hardships of wartime in the country. Many people no longer had enough bread, and strikes began. On July 10, 1943, Anglo-American troops landed in Sicily. Italy found itself on the brink of a national catastrophe. Mussolini turned out to be the culprit of military defeats, all troubles and human suffering. Two conspiracies matured against him: among the fascist leaders and among the aristocracy and generals close to the king. The Duce was aware of the plans of the conspirators, but did nothing. Like no one else, he understood that resistance could only prolong the agony, but not prevent a sad ending. This consciousness paralyzed his will and ability to fight.
On July 24, at a meeting of the Fascist Grand Council, a resolution was adopted that actually invited the Duce to resign. The next day, the emboldened king relieved Mussolini from the post of head of government. Upon leaving the royal residence, he was arrested by carabinieri and sent to the islands. Italy was immediately occupied by Hitler's troops, the king and the new government fled from Rome. On the occupied territory, the Nazis decided to create a fascist republic, headed by Mussolini.
German intelligence spent a long time looking for the place of his imprisonment. At first, the Duce was transported from island to island, and then sent to the high-altitude winter resort of Gran Sasso, to the Campo Imperatore hotel, located at an altitude of 1,830 meters above sea level. It was here that he was found by SS captain Otto Skorzeny, whom Hitler instructed to free the prisoner. To get to the high mountain plateau, Skorzeny used gliders that could be blown away by the wind, crash during landing, the Duce’s guards could provide strong resistance, the escape route could be cut off, and you never know what else could happen. However, Mussolini was safely delivered to Munich, where his family was already waiting for him.
The Duce was pathetic. He did not want to return to active work, but the Fuhrer did not even listen to him. He knew that no one except Mussolini would be able to revive fascism in Italy. The Duce and his family were transported to Lake Garda, near Milan, where a new, openly puppet government was located.
The two years Mussolini spent on Lake Garda were a time of complete humiliation and despair. The anti-fascist Resistance movement was expanding in the country, the Anglo-American allies were advancing, and the Duce had no chance of salvation. When the ring finally tightened, he tried to flee to Switzerland, but was caught near the border by partisans. With him was Claretta Petacci, who wanted to share the fate of her lover. The partisan command sentenced Mussolini to death. When he was executed, Claretta tried to cover the Duce with her body and was also killed. Their bodies, along with the bodies of executed fascist hierarchs, were brought to Milan and hung upside down in one of the squares. Jubilant townspeople and partisans threw rotten tomatoes and fruit cores at them. This is how the Italians expressed hatred for a man who had treated people with deep contempt all his life.
Lev Belousov, Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor
- a young, unusually beautiful woman entered Mussolini’s life back in the mid-30s. They met by chance, on the road in the suburbs of Rome, but Claretta (the daughter of a Vatican doctor) was already a secret admirer of the leader. She had a fiancé, they got married, but a year later they separated peacefully, and Claretta became the Duce’s favorite. Their connection was very stable, all of Italy knew about it, except Raquele Mussolini. The Italian establishment initially treated the Duce’s next hobby condescendingly, but over time, Claretta, who sincerely loved Mussolini, became a significant factor in political life: she had the opportunity to influence the acceptance of the Duce personnel decisions, learned to convey various information to him at the right time and facilitate the adoption of the necessary decisions, provide protection and remove unwanted ones. High-ranking officials and entrepreneurs increasingly began to turn to her and her family (mother and brother) for assistance. At the beginning of the war in Italy they were already openly talking about the “Petacci clan” ruling the country.
Several times, tired of the hysterics and tragic scenes that the insanely jealous Claretta created, the Duce decided to break up with her and even forbade the guards to let her into the palace. However, a few days later they were together again and everything started all over again.
Benito Mussolini (1883-1943) - Italian politician, publicist, dictator, leader of the fascist party and Prime Minister of Italy.
The future Duce, who terrified half of Europe, was born in the small Italian village of Varano di Costa in the family of a blacksmith and carpenter by profession, the illiterate Alessandro Mussolini, and a rural primary school teacher, Rosa Maltoni. The boy's mother was a zealous Catholic, and his father was a convinced social-anarchist, so Benito remained unbaptized, unlike most of his peers.
Alessandro was distinguished by a hot-tempered and stubborn disposition, as well as considerable passion for politics, so it is not surprising that the guy adopted his love for socialist views back in his youth. early age. In addition to the desire to change the world better methods socialism (in particular, Mussolini Sr. showed special respect for the ideas of Bakunin), the father passed on to his son an obstinate temperament and explosive temperament. From his mother, the boy inherited a love of science and a lively mind, which later helped him become a brilliant publicist and speaker, captivating the masses of people.
Benito Mussolini was a controversial personality, and it is unknown who this unbalanced but talented boy could have grown up to be under others. life circumstances. At the age of four, Benito could already read fluently, and a year later he learned to play the violin. In 1892, the future leader and progenitor of Italian fascism was sent to a church school in Faenza.
The first year of study was marked by a terrible scandal: little Benito, who did not tolerate ridicule of himself and his small stature (as an adult, Mussolini’s height was only 169 centimeters), stabbed a classmate older than himself with a knife. The scandal was hushed up thanks to the tears of his mother and the patronage of the local bishop, but after three years Benito was transferred from a Catholic school with strict discipline to a more loyal gymnasium.
In 1900, while not yet graduating from high school, Mussolini joined the Socialist Party of Italy, opening new page your biography. At the same time, Benito began collaborating with socialist newspapers, publishing sharp political articles with flashy headlines.
Policy
After graduating from high school in 1901, Benito Mussolini headed a committee of workers in the village of Pieve Saliceto, where he taught basic subjects in the primary classes of the village school. According to his political views, the young teacher was opposed to military action and decided to avoid compulsory military service by moving to Geneva in 1902.
In Switzerland, the future dictator first tried himself as a speaker, speaking to local residents in French and to fellow emigrants in Italian. In Lausanne, Mussolini attended lectures by Professor Pareto, a socialist and economist, and became imbued with his ideas, met Russian Marxists and Balabanova.
At the suggestion of Angelica Balabanova, young Benito became interested in the works of Sorel, and other philosophers, economists and political scientists. From that moment on, he was fired up with the ambitious idea of transforming modern Italy through the violent overthrow of capitalism, becoming a convinced Marxist-socialist.
In 1903, Mussolini was arrested by the Swiss authorities, and a year later he was deported to his homeland for military service. After serving, the future dictator returned to teaching at college, where he proved himself to be a talented teacher.
At the same time as teaching, the young professor managed to engage in politics, collaborating with the socialist publication La Lima as an editor. Mussolini continued to write and publish sharp political texts, criticizing the government of the Kingdom of Italy and the Vatican. In 1907, the “supporter of the proletariat” received the nickname “piccolo Duce” (which translates as “little leader”). Duce with a capital “M” Mussolini became a little later.
In 1908, Benito's incendiary speech made him the main organizer of a workers' strike, and the Duce went to prison for threats against the director of one of the leading companies. Then there was another imprisonment and a move to Austria-Hungary, where Mussolini again took up his favorite journalism, writing and propaganda.
At the beginning of the First World War, Benito Mussolini broke off relations with his former comrades from the Socialist Party and became a staunch supporter of dictatorship, not of the proletariat, but of a strong government united by the will of the leader. Mussolini wanted to become this leader, obsessed with the idea of reviving the Roman Empire in all its glory.
He was prompted to abandon the ideas of socialism by life experience and disappointment in the effectiveness of mass protests against the existing regime. Benito advocated for Italy to take part in the war on the side of France and the Entente, and in 1915 he went to the front. During the war, the Duce showed miracles of courage, was awarded the rank of corporal and the respect of his colleagues, suffered from typhus and received a serious leg wound from an exploding mine.
In 1917, having returned to his homeland, Benito Mussolini continued his social and political activities, declaring in his articles and speeches that socialism, as a political doctrine, had completely outlived its usefulness. The time has come to move on to more radical measures to transform society and power structures.
Fascism
In 1919, Mussolini formed a new party - the Italian Union of Struggle. On native language the first word of the name Fasci italiani combattimento sounded like “fascis” and subsequently gave the name to the ideology of fascism. In the 1921 elections, 35 candidates from Mussolini's party entered the Italian parliament, and the "union of struggle" was soon renamed the "National Fascist Party".
The people, like their elected deputies, initially supported their favorite Mussolini, who was considered a symbol of the fight against injustice, with power, a war hero and a skilled speaker who knew how to infect the masses with his enthusiasm. In 1921, Benito Mussolini himself was elected to parliament, and more and more Italians joined the ranks of the fascist party.
The fascists managed to be both revolutionaries and supporters of strong government. The streets of Italian cities began to be patrolled by Blackshirt detachments created by Mussolini's comrade-in-arms, consisting of war veterans. They “maintained order” by engaging in battles with anarchists and socialists, while the police preferred to stay away.
Benito Mussolini and the Blackshirts during the March on Rome in 1922 In 1922, Mussolini, at the head of the fascist party and ordinary Italians who joined them, undertook the famous march on Rome with the aim of overthrowing the current king, Victor Emmanuel. The king could have suppressed the uprising with the help of government troops, but did not resort to force, fearing that a civil war would break out in the country or a revolution would break out.
The king met with the leader of the rebels and concluded an agreement with him, as a result of which Mussolini became Prime Minister of Italy, and soon its dictator. The king remained out of work, but retained his life and formal title. Six months later, in April 1923, the Duce met with Cardinal Gasparri in the Vatican. Mussolini promised to expel all communists, atheists and freemasons from the country, and fascism in Italy enlisted the support of the church.
Dictatorship
In 1923, the fascist party won a majority of votes in parliament as a result of some fraud. These machinations were exposed by the socialist Giacomo Matteotti, for which he was kidnapped and killed on the orders of Mussolini. This murder opened the eyes of many to the essence of the fascist regime, but at that moment there were no strong leaders in the country who could carry out a coup and overthrow the prime minister and his government.
Delay and gullibility cost the Italian people dearly: during the Duce's reign, from 1927 to 1943, more than 21,000 people were arrested on political charges. Mussolini created a real totalitarian police state, in which there was only one ruling party, professing the principles of racism and the superiority of Italians over “inferior” peoples: blacks, Arabs, Slavs, Jews.
Even before the start of World War II, Mussolini's troops captured Albania, Ethiopia and entered Greece, following the leader's idea of restoring the Roman Empire. Unfavorable circumstances at the front soon forced the dictator to enter into a coalition with, although Benito had his own scores to settle with the German fascist. For a long time Mussolini could not forgive Hitler for the murder of his friend, the Austrian dictator Engelbert Dollfuss.
In 1937, Mussolini visited Nazi Germany and was delighted with the military power, discipline of the Germans and the power over the crowd that Hitler possessed. From that moment on, Italian and German fascism went hand in hand, but the Second World War ended in collapse for both dictatorships.
Personal life
Mussolini first married in 1914 to Ida Dalser. The dictator's wife gave birth to a son, but a year later he left her and legitimized his relationship with his long-time mistress Raquela Guidi. The couple had five children: two daughters and three sons. It is noteworthy that after coming to power, Benito hid the fact of his first marriage and subjected his ex-wife and son to severe repression.
Despite his official marriage, Mussolini did not disdain having connections on the side; he especially liked young girls. All this did not stop him from seducing the Italian aristocrat Clara Petacci, who loved the Duce to the point of unconsciousness and accepted death with him from the bullets of Italian anti-fascists.
Death
In 1943, British troops entered Italy and the Duce was arrested. On Hitler's orders, Mussolini was kidnapped by SS paratroopers, and the former dictator lived out his life last days in northern Italy, being the leader of a puppet state controlled by the Germans.
Mussolini organized the Italian Socialist Republic on the territory under his control, which he ruled for almost two years, but the ring of anti-fascist forces around it inexorably narrowed. In April 1945, the Duce and his mistress Clara Petacci attempted to escape to neighboring Switzerland, but he was detained by partisans.
The former dictator has been identified. The execution followed at dawn the next day, Mussolini and his girlfriend were shot on the outskirts of the village of Metsegra. The shameful death of Benito Mussolini is evidenced by photographs that have become history: the bodies of the Duce, Clara Petacci and six other top fascists were hung by their feet the next day from a gas station counter in Milan's Piazza Loreto. The people expressed in every possible way their hatred and contempt for the former idol, whose words once inspired millions of Italians.
Bibliography
- anti-clerical novel "The Cardinal's Mistress";
- essay on “The Doctrine of Fascism”;
- autobiography “My Life”;
The last two books were translated in our country and published under the general title “The Third Way. Without democrats and communists."
Benito Mussolini is the man who founded the Fascist Party of Italy, dictator and head of government. During the years of his reign, he was able to both improve the development of his country and establish a tough regime that did not provide freedom of choice. All his achievements are nullified due to the desire for unlimited power and the vile alliance with Adolf Hitler.
Mussolini was a born leader. In the 1920s, he corresponded with Winston Churchill, who wanted to ally with him. Meanwhile, the Duce wanted to be the only leader in Europe, so he did not agree to the proposal. In the Old World they understood that the Italian leader could start a war at any moment. The world was constantly in a state of tension.
Brief biography of Benito Mussolini
Benito Mussolini was born on July 29, 1883 in the province of Romagna. His father was a blacksmith and revolutionary, for which he was often arrested. Young Benito did not lag behind his father in his views. In his youth, Mussolini managed to work as a teacher in a gymnasium and write several articles for socialist newspapers. He later worked as a journalist, was also a natural speaker and traveled around Italy giving speeches on political topics.
In 1919, Mussolini created the Italian Union of Struggle, which in 1921 turned into the National Fascist (from the Italian fascio "union") party. The popularity of this organization, like Benito himself, grew every day. In 1922, Mussolini becomes prime minister.
In 1928, the fascist party became the only one in Italy, and other political associations were declared illegal. The state controlled almost all spheres of social life, and any deviations were severely punished.
By the time Mussolini came to power, Italy was in economic decline. There were approximately 500 thousand unemployed in the labor market, and after the crisis, unemployment rose to one and a half million people. There was a huge deficit in the Italian budget, and the crime situation in the country was growing. The bandits felt like full-fledged masters who could rob anywhere, at any time of the day. The people demanded change and a decisive ruler.
Mussolini not only solves problems, but also turns Italy into a prosperous country. For the first time, the budget begins to turn positive, even despite constant growth expenses (the main items are military needs and social security). The number of unemployed is sharply reduced to 100 thousand people. The condition of roads has improved and new ones are being built. The entire country is provided with telephone communications, as numerous telephone exchanges have been created.
Mussolini is trying to solve Italy's demographic problem. He stated the need to increase the population from 40 million to 60 million. Mothers with many children were awarded medals and monetary incentives, and fathers with many children had privileges when hiring and promoting in the service. The system of benefits is developing, medical insurance is emerging. Working hours are reduced to 40 per week.
However, the situation in Italy was not always full of positives. Mussolini's dictatorial regime was harsh towards opponents of the regime. Thus, during the reign of the Duce, 5,000 anti-fascists, including communists, were convicted. In 1936, after the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, they begin to cooperate.
During World War II, during a conspiracy between fascist leaders, Mussolini was arrested. His dreams of creating a new Roman Empire are crumbling every day. Soon he is released by Hitler's supporters, but the Duce no longer has the strength and ability to fight his enemies. He tries to escape, but Italian partisans catch Mussolini along with his mistress. Both were shot on April 28, 1945. Their bodies are hung by their feet and publicly shown to the people. The story of the once revered Duce Benito Mussolini ends with such disgrace.
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