In 1858, a new upsurge of the national liberation movement began in Italy. The idea of war against Austria was still popular among the Italian people. Opposing a new revolution and striving to unite Italy under their auspices, the rulers of Piedmont had long been preparing for war and for this purpose in 1858 entered into a conspiracy with imperial France. The Bonapartist regime entered into an alliance with Piedmont because it was interested in ousting Austria from Italy and sought to replace Austrian rule with French. By concluding a deal with France, the Piedmontese government hoped to win over the Italian republicans as well, using the sentiments mainly of that part of them that believed in Piedmont as the banner of the liberation and unification of Italy. And so Cavour invites Garibaldi to his place and invites him to recruit volunteer squads. Although the popular hero was distrustful of Cavour's plans for a war against Austria, he nevertheless accepted this offer, secretly thinking that in this war, along with others, the Sardinian monarchy would fall. If King Victor Emmanuel and his first minister Cavour wanted to use Garibaldi's popularity among the masses and the entire revolutionary democracy to their advantage, Garibaldi hoped that he would be able to use the well-armed Piedmontese army.
The war that began at the end of April 1859 caused a general patriotic upsurge in Italy, as the people associated with it the hope of freeing the country from foreign oppression and its unification. The first significant victories over the enemy were won by Garibaldi's volunteers, among whom were many convinced Republicans. In 1848 Garibaldi was the last to leave Lombardy, and in 1859 he was the first to enter it. The inhabitants of Lombardy enthusiastically welcomed their liberators from the Austrian yoke. Victories at Varese were followed by victories at Como, Bergamo, Palazolo and others. Garibaldi occupied city after city, and the Austrians retreated in panic. By the beginning of June, detachments of Alpine riflemen had cleared most of Lombardy of the enemy. This was Garibaldi's first triumphal march in the 1859-1860 revolution.
The victories won by Garibaldi, his popularity among the broad masses frightened Cavour and Victor Emmanuel, terrified Napoleon III. Therefore, not only did the Piedmontese government poorly supply Garibaldi with weapons - he was deliberately sent to the most dangerous positions, and sometimes to certain death, the hostile attitude of the main command of the Piedmontese army towards Garibaldi was noted by military observers of that time. K. Marx and F. Engels wrote about this with indignation. "It is possible," Engels wrote on May 30, 1859, "that in sending Garibaldi to Lombardy, Louis Napoleon and Victor Emmanuel counted on destroying him and his volunteers — elements that were perhaps too revolutionary for this dynastic war." Almost the same was written by Marx: "In my opinion, Garibaldi is deliberately sent to such positions where he must perish." In "Memoirs" Garibaldi says that his corps was indeed deliberately put in a difficult position.
One of the reasons for the hostility of the main command to Garibaldi and the secret struggle against him by the Piedmontese government was the social policy pursued by Garibaldi in the liberated areas. Garibaldi could not only deal with the military
1 K. Marx and F. Engels. Op. T. 13, p. 380.
2 K. Marx and F. Engels. Op. T. 29, p. 360.
life forced him to solve social issues. The agrarian problem was acute for Italy. Representatives of the bourgeois-democratic camp, to which Garibaldi belonged, again faced her. He did not have a developed agrarian program, but he tried in every way he could to alleviate the plight of the peasants. In the areas he occupied, he freed the peasants from exorbitant taxes.
The consequence of Garibaldi's policy was the desire of the broad masses to come under his banner. But neither Cavour nor the main command agreed to increase the size of his detachment. Moreover, Garibaldi was under police surveillance. K. Marx wrote about this: "The Paris correspondent of The Times writes today that the Bonapartists are already grumbled about Garibaldi's" glory "and that" several selected police agents "have penetrated into his detachment, sending detailed reports about him."
The successful struggle against the Austrians on the fronts contributed to the growth of the revolutionary movement. Popular uprisings broke out in Tuscany, Parma, Modena, in the Papal State. The national liberation movement took on a wide scale and could lead to the creation of a united and independent Italy. This raised concerns and was not part of the plans of Napoleon III. Therefore, deciding that after the victories won, he would be able to get the concessions he needed from the Austrian emperor, he hurried to end the war behind the back of his ally. On July 11, 1859, the Villafranca Armistice was signed. Garibaldi was full of anger and did not accept the truce. But he was glad that this truce would finally untie the hands of him and all Italian patriots: the royal war was over, and a real, people's war would begin. This shameful truce, which - consolidated the fragmentation of Italy and supplemented the Austrian oppression with the French dictatorship, caused an explosion of indignation in the country. “The emergence of the Italian nation,” Marx wrote about the Villafranca Treaty, “was accompanied by a sophisticated insult ...” The democratic forces of Italy did not recognize this truce. A powerful movement of the popular masses arose throughout the country. Summing up his article on the Treaty of Villafranca, Marx wrote that "the Italian revolution can intervene in the matter to change the picture of the entire peninsula." It happened as Marx foresaw. During the summer of 1859, the number of mass demonstrations increased every day, and the heat of revolutionary energy intensified. Particularly threatening was the indignation of the broad masses in Central Italy.
The South also rebelled behind Central Italy. At the end of 1859, Sicily rose again against the oppression of the Spanish Bourbons. On April 4, 1860, under the leadership of the leader of the Sicilian republicans, Rosalino Pilo, an uprising began in Palermo. Mazzini's Republican Party has decided to take the leadership of the movement in Sicily into its own hands. To assist the rebels in Genoa, the so-called "Sicilian Committee" was organized. He began to prepare an expedition to Sicily with the expectation of capturing the island, and from there, with the help of the rebels, undertake a campaign to the mainland and take possession of the entire Kingdom of Naples. This campaign was led by Garibaldi. This is how the legendary campaign of the Red Shirts, the Garibaldi "Thousand", was conceived, which played a major role in the unification of Italy. The social composition of the "Thousand" was the most diverse: almost half of the expedition was made up of the proletarian strata - workers, artisans, the urban poor; there were many students, representatives of the petty bourgeoisie, the intelligentsia (engineers, lawyers, doctors, artists, poets, writers). There was not a single peasant in The Thousand, as Garibaldi himself noted with great regret 5.
Before the expedition set sail, on May 5, Garibaldi issued a proclamation "To the Italians." "The Italians!" Garibaldi wrote. "The Sicilians are fighting the enemies of Italy for Italy. It is the duty of every Italian to help them with words, money, weapons, and most of all - with his own hand ... Left to themselves, the brave sons of Sicily are fighting the mercenaries not only of the Bourbons, but also Austria and the Roman high priest ... Let Marche, Umbria, Sabina, Rome and Naples rise to crush the forces of our enemies ... The brave will find weapons everywhere ... Do not listen to cowards ... A detachment of daredevils from my former comrades in previous battles for the homeland goes with
3 Ibid , page 362.
4 K. Marx and F. Engels. Op. T. 13, p. 442, 445.
5 G. Garibaldi. Le Mille. Paris. 1875, p. 4.
help me. Italy knows them: these are the ones who become v build, as soon as danger arises, - good, generous comrades who dedicated their lives to their homeland, gave her every last drop of their blood, expecting no other rewards except a clear conscience ... To arms! .. "6.
The slogan "Italy and Victor Emmanuel", under which the expedition was carried out, stemmed from the policy of the Party of Action, which was carried out even before the outbreak of the Austro-Italian-French war of 1859. The first to put forward this slogan in 1856 was the former head of the Venetian Republic, Daniel Manin, when he, together with La Farina, created the "National Society". Carrying out the campaign "Thousands" under the slogan "Italy and Victor Emmanuel", Garibaldi thereby gave an official character to the expedition. No matter how Cavour dissociated himself from the expedition, hastily declaring to all diplomats that he was not involved in it, no matter how he scolded Garibaldi in letters to his friends, this slogan, albeit temporarily, tied his hands. With this slogan, Garibaldi rallied all national forces under the banner of the unification of Italy. In his further activities, Garibaldi proved that, putting forward the slogan "Italy and Victor Emmanuel" for tactical reasons, he by no means renounced his republican convictions and until the end of his life remained an ardent adherent of democracy and an opponent of the monarchy.
Until now, there is a discussion in the scientific literature on the question of Cavour's attitude to the "Thousand" expedition. As you know, Cavour not only tried to force Garibaldi to abandon the expedition, but also intended to arrest him in order to disrupt the dispatch of the Thousand. Disregarding widely known documents, traditional bourgeois-liberal historiography argues that Cavour could not help contributing, more or less secretly, to the expedition to Sicily. Some authors, who are more cautious in their formulations, say: yes, it is possible that Cavour did not contribute to the dispatch of the expedition, but his merit lies in the fact that he did not interfere with it. In fact, Cavour did not prevent the sending of the "Thousand" only because he was unable to do so, being forced to reckon with public opinion. Cavour himself wrote about this, many memoirists testify to this, including Garibaldi. Here is Cavour's letter dated May 12, 1860 to the Ambassador of Piedmont in Paris K. Nigra: "I am sorry about Garibaldi's expedition, and I am doing and will do what is possible so that it does not cause new complications. I did not prevent Garibaldi from implementing his project , because in order to do this, it would have to use force, but the government cannot neglect the fact that an attempt to stop Garibaldi would cause great discontent ... Wanting to dispel the intrigues of the opposition on the eve of the elections ... I cannot use violent measures, to thwart aid destined for Sicily "7.
It is impossible to read Garibaldi's story about the battles for the liberation of Sicily and southern Italy without excitement. With sincere pathos, he narrates in his "Memoirs" about the battles, which, according to F. Engels, bore "the stamp of a military genius." Calatafimi, Palermo, Milazzo, Reggio, Volturno - each of these battles inspired Italian patriots, amazed contemporaries: politicians, diplomats, military specialists. Studying in detail Garibaldi's campaign from Marsala to Palermo, F. Engels noted that this was "one of the most amazing military exploits of our century, and it would have been almost inexplicable if the prestige of a revolutionary general had not preceded his triumphant march."
Garibaldi operated in Sicily in close contact with the rebel movement. After consulting with the local leaders of the Republican Party, the partisan leader worked out a general plan of action. The rebels began to flock to Garibaldi, armed with whatever they could - lances, sabers, knives, clubs, axes. Already in Salemi, located near Marsala, 4 thousand armed peasants joined Garibaldi's detachment. A new government emerged on the island. It was organized in the form of a revolutionary democratic dictatorship, and Garibaldi assumed the title of dictator of the Ci-
6 G. Garibaldi. Scritti e discorsi politici e militari. Vol. I. Bologna. 1934, pp. 239 - 241.
7 "II carteggio Cavour - Nigra, dal 1858 al 1861". Vol. III. Bologna. 1928, pp. 294 - 295.
8 K. Marx and F. Engels. Op. T. 15, p. 63, 67.
cilia. He understood the need for a dictatorship for the final suppression of counter-revolution and the consolidation of revolutionary gains. In Sicily, at the initiative of Garibaldi, some socio-economic activities were carried out. He freed tens of thousands of political prisoners languishing in prisons in Palermo and other cities, and set about organizing schools and orphanages for street children. Garibaldi also took care of the families affected by the hostilities. To provide livelihoods for the needy sections of the population, he organized public works; issued a decree abolishing the grinding tax. Important social and economic measures were carried out by the revolutionary government of Garibaldi in Naples. A decree was issued prohibiting Jesuit corporations - hotbeds of counter-revolution. The lands belonging to the Bourbons were nationalized; issued a decree on the distribution of state land to the peasants.
The possessing classes of southern Italy, frightened by the revolutionary character of Garibaldi's campaign, did not doze. The landowners, the big bourgeois, turned to Victor Emmanuel with petitions for the immediate annexation of Southern Italy to Piedmont. Cavour flooded Naples with his agents, who also campaigned for annexation. Garibaldi did not want to even think about joining Southern Italy to the possessions of the Sardinian kingdom before the liberation of Rome and Venice. Victor Emmanuel moved with an army of 20 thousand to the Papal State, and then entered the Kingdom of Naples. He published an appeal "To the peoples of southern Italy", in which he called for reconciliation with the monarchy and declared "the end of the era of revolution." In this situation, Garibaldi decided to call a plebiscite on the issue of joining Piedmont. The plebiscite was held on October 21, 1860, when the Piedmontese army, led by Victor Emmanuel, was already approaching Naples. It ended with the victory of the supporters of the annexation of the South of Italy to the Kingdom of Sardinia. On November 6, Garibaldi was forced to announce the transfer of power in the southern Italy liberated by him to King Victor Emmanuel. Soon, the decrees issued by Garibaldi were canceled, and his army was disbanded. After that, Garibaldi had no choice but to leave political life for a while. "I longed to return to my loneliness (to Caprera. - V. N.) ", - Garibaldi finishes his story about the glorious campaign of the Thousand. A. I. Herzen wrote with deep bitterness about Garibaldi's departure: release the driver when he drove to the station "9.
Garibaldi's expedition to the south of Italy was the largest demonstration of the popular masses in their struggle for the unification of Italy in a revolutionary way. This campaign united the anti-feudal, democratic forces of all Italian states. As a result of the war and revolution of 1859-1860. Italy was almost completely unified. The decisive role in the unification of the country was played by the struggle of the masses, led by the revolutionary elements of the bourgeoisie, the most prominent representatives of which were Garibaldi and Mazzini. Assessing the role of Garibaldi and the masses in the revolution of 1859-1860, F. Engels wrote: “In the person of Garibaldi, Italy had a hero of the antique warehouse, capable of working and really working miracles. With a thousand volunteers, he overthrew the entire Kingdom of Naples, actually united Italy, tore apart the skillful web of Bonaparte politics. Italy was free and, in essence, united - but not by the intrigues of Louis Napoleon, but by revolution. " However, it was not a democratic Italy that was created, not the Italy for which Garibaldi devoted his glorious life. The lack of organization of the democratic forces, the weak participation of the peasantry in the revolution, the vacillations of the leaders of the republican bourgeoisie led to the incompleteness of the revolution of 1859-1860. in Italy. A balance of forces was created in which the Piedmontese monarchy was able to take advantage of the victories won by the revolution and annex the already liberated states to Piedmont.
V. E. Nevler
9 A.I. Herzen. Op. T. XI. M. 1957, p. 257.
10 K. Marx and F. Engels. Op. T. 21, p. 430.
This man left a major mark on the history of his country. Some accused him of the fact that it was he who unleashed the civil war for the independence of the Italian republic, while others considered him a talented commander who saved his homeland. We are, of course, talking about the legendary politician Garibaldi Giuseppe. Today, not everyone knows about his personality and the feats he accomplished. But those who lived in the era of the USSR remember very well how they called Giuseppe Garibaldi. He was a national hero, a warrior-liberator, a revolutionary. Many squares, streets and avenues now bear his name. Garibaldi Giuseppe established himself as an experienced general who had to fight on three continents: Africa, South America and Eurasia. In his outlook, he adhered to the views of idealist philosophers.
But what else is known about Giuseppe Garibaldi? Briefly about such a colorful figure, of course, it would be inappropriate to narrate, so we will dwell on his biography in detail. And there were many interesting things in it.
Years of childhood and adolescence
Garibaldi Giuseppe is a native of the city of Nice. He was born on July 4, 1807. The details of the genealogy of the national hero of Italy were of interest to many scientists, but the revolutionary himself was not very interested in this issue. It is known that Garibaldi Giuseppe was born into the family of a sailor. His father was engaged in commerce, surfing the Mediterranean in his swimming ship. Parents doted on their son. They surrounded him with maximum care and affection. And young Giuseppe answered them in return. The future hero treated his mother with tenderness and awe. “She is a real ideal, and I tried never to contradict her,” wrote Giuseppe Garibaldi later. A short biography in history testifies to the fact that the revolutionary carried love for his parents through his whole life, filled with adventures and bright events.
First feat
Already in childhood, Giuseppe declared himself as a brave and sympathetic boy. Once, when he was only seven years old, he and his cousin went hunting near the Var River.
Approaching the ditch, Giuseppe saw women caressing their linen. And suddenly one of the laundresses, losing her balance, fell into the water. In the next instant, the boy rushed to help and rescued the woman.
As for the upbringing of a young man, it cannot be considered "aristocratic." Such disciplines as fencing, horse riding, gymnastics were not included in his "program". But he mastered them on his own using trial and error. As a teenager, Giuseppe was seriously interested in swimming, and he also learned this business without outside help. And over time, the young man became an experienced swimmer.
Failed Adventure
In general, studies often bored a teenager. He was more attracted by adventures and exploits. At one point, he invited his friends to take a boat trip to Genoa. They agreed, and the trip really took place, albeit in part. Having reached Monaco, Giuseppe and his friends were forced to return. The further path was blocked. The fact is that Garibaldi's father "found out" about his son's plans. And about them he was told by a monk who saw the young men sail away in a rented boat. But, despite some tricks of the young hero, the characterization of Giuseppe Garibaldi does not contain anything negative and seditious.
Sea
And having matured a little, the young man discovered in himself a great craving for sea travel.
However, Giuseppe's father was not happy with this, secretly hoping that his offspring would become a doctor or a lawyer. But the young man did not succumb to the persuasions of his father and went to sea. But these were far from the only goals of Giuseppe Garibaldi that he managed to achieve in his life. Well, the route of the young man's debut voyage by sea ended in Ukrainian Odessa. After this cruise, Giuseppe had no doubt that he would connect his life with the sea.
The liberation movement is gaining momentum
By the age of sixteen, a young man from Nice had already explored the Mediterranean Sea far and wide. In the early 1920s, the political situation in southern Europe changed radically. Suddenly, the centers of the liberation movement flared up. Greek rebels began to fight against the Turkish occupation. The Hellenes had a serious chance of winning. Giuseppe joined the ranks of the rebels and immediately came to the attention of Turkish intelligence officers, who established round-the-clock surveillance of him even in his hometown. The young man understood that he needed to flee the country, otherwise his relatives could suffer. He took a merchant ship and, under the pretext of buying grain, went to Russian Taganrog.
Fateful meeting
After some time, in one of the taverns of the city, Giuseppe Garibaldi, whose biography is of great interest to historians, will hear the speech of an Italian named Mazzini. He will broadcast to the audience about the difficult political situation in which his native republic finds itself. Mazzini, who possessed the skills of oratory, immediately attracted the attention of Giuseppe.
After that, the young man decides to seriously participate in the liberation movement in Europe. In 1931, while in Marseille, the captain of a merchant ship will get to know Mazzini better and will actively contact him.
Riot in Piedmont
The Italian patriot, propagating the ideas of the socialist-utopian Saint-Simon, "infects" Garibaldi with them. Giuseppe, finally believing in the justice of the liberation movement, in 1934 participates in the "Piedmont" riot. According to the organizers, this political action was to be transformed into a revolution. But these expectations did not come true. The court severely punished the rebels, and the captain of a merchant ship managed to escape the death penalty only because he managed to leave Italy in time.
South America
In the period from 1836 to 1848, Giuseppe Garibaldi, whose biography contains a lot of interesting and remarkable, lived in exile in South America. During this period, the continent was also "feverish" from insurrectionary revolutions. The national hero of Italy takes part in some of them. For example, he fought on a ship belonging to the Republic of Rio Grant for its autonomy against Brazil. It was then that he met his soul mate Anna Maria Ribeiro da Silva, who would become not only his devoted wife, but also his faithful companion for the rest of his life.
After some time, Giuseppe resigns from the army of Rio Grant and travels with his wife and son to the capital of Uruguay. Here he works in "unusual" areas for himself.
He was both a sales representative and a teacher, but Giribaldi was never able to get used to the conditions of a peaceful life. And soon fate gives him the opportunity to realize himself in "military affairs". In Uruguay, the liberation movement against the Argentine ruler Juan Miguel de Rozas is gaining momentum. And it's not hard to guess what Giuseppe Garibaldi did in such conditions? Naturally, he joined the rebels and began to fight for the independence of Uruguay. A year later, the national hero of Italy began to command the "scarlet collars" - the detachment with which he won the battle of San Antonio. In 1847, Garibaldi, defending the Uruguayan capital from the enemy, met with Alexander Dumas(father). It is he who will glorify the exploits of the general from Nice.
Italy
At the end of the 40s of the century before last, the revolutionary returned to Italy and began to fight on the side of those who defend the ideas of the republic's separatism. First of all, the activities of Giuseppe Garibaldi were directed against the policy of the Roman Pontiff, but the army did not side with him. Then the commander decided to strike at the forces of the monarch of Sardinia Carl Albert. But he did not succeed in winning the confrontation with the king, and Garibaldi retreated with his army to Milan. And there his ideological inspirer fought the wars of liberation Giuseppe Mazzini, who was ready to help Garibaldi. Karl Albert, realizing that he could not cope with two armies, agreed to compromise. Then the commander began to wage war with the Austrians and continued it almost until the end of the summer of 1848, after which Garibaldi was forced to take refuge in Switzerland under the onslaught of the enemy. But a few months later, Giuseppe returned to Nice, where he created the "second Italian legion" of about four hundred soldiers. In the winter of 1948, he was already in Rome, where riots and rebellions began against the policy of the chief priest.
The pope was forced to urgently leave Italy, and Garibaldi took over the leadership of the Roman Assembly, and his first step in this post was a call to recognize the sovereignty of the Italian republic. The Papal States, as a result, received a different name. But a French army soon arrived, led by General Oudinot, who wanted to return the Roman Pontiff to the throne. The Austrians, led by Marshal Radetzky, and the troops of the Sicilian king Ferdinand II, were also ready to encroach on the independence of Italy. The French decided to storm Rome. But the detachments of Garibaldi interfered with their plans, and the enemy was forced to retreat. After some time, Giuseppe entered into a confrontation with the Sicilian army and defeated it. He wanted to continue the offensive and destroy the enemy on his territory, but Mazzini did not support his companion.
Relations between him and Garibaldi began to escalate. Mazzini used liberal methods in politics, and his associate was a supporter of radical measures.
Rome became "papal" again
The French army, having received reinforcements, again attempts to capture Rome. General Oudinot succeeded in occupying the main defensive targets, and capital of Italy actually ended up in his hands. Power again passed to the Pope. Mazzini fled to England, and Garibaldi rushed to Venice, simultaneously fighting the Austrian invaders. In the summer of 1849, his wife dies of malaria, and a few weeks later the leader of the liberation movement learns that the last stronghold of the revolution, the young republic of San Marco, lost its independence. Thus, Italy was unable to gain sovereignty. Giuseppe Garibaldi, whose short biography was set out in many textbooks on Soviet history, decided to head for Sicily. Having reached the kingdom, the revolutionary fell into the hands of the authorities, was arrested, and then deported from the country.
After a failed revolution
But the ruler of Piedmont did not want Garibaldi to return to his homeland and again begin to excite the masses. Then the national hero of Italy travels to Tunisia, and after a while - to Morocco. But, having lived on the African continent for only a few years, Garibaldi unexpectedly leaves for the United States, where he decides to return to his original occupation - sea trade. Giuseppe carried goods to Australia, China, Peru, New Zealand.
Sardinia
Only in 1854 did Garibaldi receive the right to return to his homeland. The revolutionary bought an estate on the island of Caprera and settled there. But the idea of a liberation movement still haunted Garibaldi. He made an attempt to rescue the Neapolitan monarch, who came from the royal dynasty of Bourbons, from "political isolation", but, in the end, it was not crowned with success. In the late 50s, already at the initiative of the authorities, Giuseppe will fight on the side of the militia against the Austrian occupiers. Garibaldi was able to rally around himself a powerful volunteer army and drive the enemy back to the borders of the Tyrol. Thanks to this military operation, the territory of Lombardy joined Piedmont. After peace was established in southern Italy, the revolutionary focused on the center of the country. The fact is that Florence declared autonomy. He enlisted the military support of the Sardinian king in case Garibaldi decided to attack the papal borders. Moreover, the monarch put forward a condition: an obligatory victory in this campaign. But then the "Sardinian" ruler changed his mind and abandoned the idea of helping the revolutionary.
In the 60s, the territory of Nice was ceded to France, after which Giuseppe spoke in parliament, where he criticized the decision of the ruler of Piedmont.
Another liberation campaign
The revolutionary began to hatch a plan to occupy Naples and Sicily. Moreover, he understood that he would have to rely solely on his own strength, since the authorities would not approve of his plans.
But they were supported by the people, which gave strength to the commander. Arriving in Sicily with his troops, Garibaldi declared himself the full ruler of the island. The local population swore allegiance to him. And in the fall of 1860, Giuseppe occupied Naples and declared himself as the king of the two Sicilies. Then the revolutionary initiated a plebiscite, as a result of which it was decided that the kingdom of the two Sicilies would become part of Sardinia. A few days after the referendum, Garibaldi met with the monarch of the Sardinian kingdom and announced the decision of the people. In November 1860, the new ruler of the two Sicilies, Victor Immanuel II, and the national hero of Italy entered Naples.
In 1962, Garibaldi took part in another military operation. As planned by the king, he was to fight the Austrians in the Balkans. But at the last moment, the revolutionary changed his mind and sent his troops to Rome. The ruler of Italy put up a powerful army against Garibaldi. In the battle, Garibaldi was wounded and taken prisoner, and after a while he was released. The revolutionary eventually returned to the island of Caprera. Then Giuseppe traveled for some time, was engaged in literary creation, taking a break from military banatals.
Last battles
But already in the second half of the 60s, the revolutionary again took up arms. Garibaldi took part in the Austro-Prussian-Italian War, having won a number of brilliant victories. Then he makes a last attempt to capture Rome, but not by military means, but through agitation and propaganda against the policies of the Pope. For an attempt to overthrow the government, the revolutionary was exiled to the island of Caprera. The revolutionary escaped from exile, then was again arrested and "convoyed" to his island. Only in the early 70s was the papal power overthrown, but he could not take part in this action. Great commander died at his home on June 2, 1882. It is difficult to overestimate the personality of Giuseppe Garibaldi in the history of his native country. It was he who did everything possible to ensure that Italy, in the end, gained the long-awaited independence. And the people of the Apennine Peninsula still honor and remember the exploits of their hero. This is evidenced, for example, by the monument to Giuseppe Garibaldi, erected in Rome. In honor of the revolutionary, streets and avenues are named, as has already been emphasized. Until the last days of his life, he cared about prosperity and happiness for his people.
The rise of the national liberation movement
In April 1860, a widespread peasant uprising broke out in Sicily. Garibaldi, at the head of a detachment of volunteers he had created - the famous "thousand" - hastened to help the rebels. Among the fighters of the "thousand" were dominated by workers, artisans, fishermen, but there were also students, lawyers and journalists. Revolutionaries from other countries (including Russians - F. Komissarzhevsky, L. Mechnikov and others) participated in the detachment of Garibaldians. Garibaldi's detachment, after landing in Sicily, began to grow rapidly; the people greeted him as a liberator. On May 15, in a battle with the troops of the King of Naples at Calatafimi (near Palermo), Garibaldi's volunteers won a complete victory. The uprising engulfed the entire south of Italy. Garibaldi won a number of new brilliant victories here too. The dynasty of the Neapolitan Bourbons was overthrown, the king hastily fled, Garibaldi on September 7 triumphantly entered the capital of the kingdom - Naples.
Marx and Engels followed the heroic struggle of Garibaldi and his associates with deep attention and ardent sympathy. Analyzing the reasons for the victories of his army, Engels emphasized its popular character and noted that "Garibaldi showed himself not only as a brave leader and clever strategist, but also as a scientifically trained general." F. Engels, Garibaldi in Calabria, K. Marx and F. Engels, Works, vol. XII, part 2, p. 149.)
In this turning, critical period of the struggle for the unification of Italy, Cavour, true to his policy of secret diplomacy, political combinations and hostility to the people's revolution, played a difficult game. Officially, he dissociated himself from Garibaldi's campaign against Naples, but in secret correspondence encouraged him to attack, hoping to overthrow the Neapolitan Bourbons with the hands of the Garibaldi, and then subjugate the entire south of Italy to the rule of the Savoy dynasty. After the expulsion of the Bourbons, the government of the Sardinian monarchy moved its troops into the territory of the Kingdom of Naples. Garibaldi had the opportunity, relying on the broad masses, to establish a revolutionary democratic dictatorship in Naples, create a republic and unite all of Italy under this banner. But at this crucial hour, Garibaldi's weakness as a bourgeois revolutionary was revealed. He did not dare to rouse the people to fight against the Sardinian monarchy and the bourgeois-noble bloc that supported it. After some hesitation, Garibaldi recognized the power of the Sardinian monarchy over the Neapolitan possessions, allowed Sardinian troops to enter Naples and removed himself from the role of political leader. A vote in the south, carried out with strong pressure from the Sardinian government, gave the majority of votes to the supporters of the annexation of the territory of the former Kingdom of Naples to Sardinia. Garibaldi resigned.
(separate emigrant groups - and on other continents); their number is about 200 million people (early 1990s). The science that studies the Semitic languages (as well as the literature, culture and history of their speakers) is called Semitology.
In accordance with the latest classification (developed by R. Hezron in 1973–74), the family of Semitic languages is divided into the following branches and groups:
I. The eastern branch is represented by the extinct Akkadian (or Assyro-Babylonian) language of 3–1 thousand BC. e. (see Akkad, Mesopotamia) and, possibly, the Eblaite language of 3 thousand BC. e. (in northwestern Syria, see Ebla).
II. Western branch:
A. Central Semitic languages: 1. Canaanite in the broad sense: a) Canaanite proper (see Canaan); Hebrew (see Hebrew language; ancient Hebrew is also called Hebrew), Phoenician 2-1 thousand BC. e. (see Phenicia) and the Punic (in Carthage) and the minor languages of Canaan that originated from it: Moabite, Edomite (Edomite), Ammonite (see Moab, Edom, Ammon) and others; b) Ugaritic 2 thousand BC e. (see Ugarit); c) probably Amorite (2 thousand BC) in the north-west of Mesopotamia and in the east of Syria (see Amorites); 2. Aramaic language; 3. Arabic language, which includes many very different dialects, as well as the Maltese language derived from it. The traditional classification of Semitic languages differs from the newest in that it classifies Arabic as South Semitic. According to many linguists, within the Central Semitic group, Canaanite and Aramaic languages can be combined into the northwestern subgroup of Semitic languages.
B. South Semitic languages: 1.Ancient South Arabian language of the 1st millennium BC. e. (Sabaean, Menaean, Qataban, Hadhramaut and other dialects in the south of the Arabian Peninsula, mainly on the territory of Yemen, and, apparently, the Ethiopian Semitic languages originating from it (in Ethiopia and Eritrea): Ancient Ethiopian (the literary form of which, geez, serves as a cult language Christians and Jews of Ethiopia) and modern Ethiopian languages: Amharic (central Ethiopia), Tigrinya (northern Ethiopia), Tigre (Eritrea), Harari (eastern Ethiopia), Argobba and Gimirra languages (southern Ethiopia); 2.Modern New Arabian languages in southern Arabia peninsulas: meh ri, x arsusi and jibbali (in the southwest of Oman), sokotri (Socotra island in the Indian Ocean) and others.
The reconstructed Prosemitic language had a rich consonant system. Along with voiced and voiceless, there were glottalized consonants (pronounced with closed vocal cords, as in many languages of the Caucasus). The glottalized consonants in Arabic were transformed into velarized ones, but they survived in New Arabian and Ethiopian languages. They apparently persisted in the ancient Semitic languages, including Hebrew. In modern Hebrew, the opposition between glottalized (“emphatic”) and voiceless consonants has been lost: the former glottalized ט [ṭ] and ק [ḳ] do not differ today from the voiceless ת [t] and כ [k]. In the Prosemitic language, 29 consonants are reconstructed: 1) occlusive: labial b and R, front-lingual d, t and ṭ , posterior palatine (velar) g, k and ḳ , and 2) lingual slit: sibilant z, s and ṣ (which may have been an affricate c̣̣), hissing š (w), anterior-lingual-dental δ (th in English this), θ (th in English thin), θ̣ (glottalized θ ), lateral: voiceless ś and glottalized ṣ́, 3) throat: pharyngeal ‘ and h(as ע and ח in the pronunciation of Arab Jews and Arabs), uvular slit ġ and ḫ, '(Glottal stop) and h, 4) sonants m, n, l, r, w and y... Reflection of these consonants in Hebrew: b > ב , R > פ , d > ד , t > ת , ṭ > ט , g > ג , k > כ , ḳ > ק , z and δ > ז , s > ס , ś and θ > שׁ , ṣ, θ̣ and ṣ́ > צ , š > שׂ , ‘ and ġ > ע , ḥ and ḫ > ח , ’ > א , h > ה , m > מ , n > נ , l > ל , r > ר , y > י , w> י (at the beginning of a word). In the ancient South Arabian, Arabic and Ugaritic languages, the ancient consonants were better preserved, but there were also changes (for example, in Arabic R > f, converting glottalized to velarized, ś > š, voicing θ̣ > δ̣ , the change ṣ́ > ḍ). Presemite vowel system: short a, i, u and long ā , ī , ū .
During word formation (especially in the field of the verb) and form formation (for example, tenses, types, participles and verb breeds) in Semitic languages, vowels alternate, that is, the original vowel of the stem is replaced by the vowel of the derivational or formative model. As a result, a de-localization of the primary stem occurs: the primary verbal stem lmad - `to study` (in Hebrew, preserved in the forms יִלְמַד -` will learn` and לְמַד - `learn`, loses the original vowel in the participle לוֹמֵד -` learner` (`learns`), replacing it with the vowel of the participial model -o-e-. The same happens in the derived verb לִמֵּד - `taught` and in the derived names לִימּוּד -` study`, לַמְדָּן - `scientist`, etc. As a result, the common element of related words (that is, the root ) there are only consonants (most often three consonants).
Let's give an example from classical Arabic and modern Hebrew:
| Arab | Hebrew | Transcription | Meaning |
| kataba | כָּתַב | katav | wrote |
| kātib | כּוֹתֵב | kotev | writing |
| maktūb | כָּתוּב | katuv | written |
| kitāb | כְּתָב | ktav | letter (and other meanings) |
| ’Aktaba | הִכְתִּיב | hixtiv | forced to write, dictated |
| takātaba | הִתְכַּתֵּב | hitkattev | corresponded |
The plural of names can also be formed (and in Arabic - even without the end of the number): in Arabic ra's- in Hebrew רֹאשׁ - `head`; in Arabic ru'ūs- in Hebrew רָאשִׁים - `head`. In Arabic, the ending of the dual number has been preserved, in Hebrew - only in some groups of names: in Arabic yawmāni, indirect case yawmayni- in Hebrew yomayim`two days`. There are two grammatical genders: masculine and feminine, the typical ending of the latter is t, and in the form -at it can disappear and be restored in certain cases: in Arabic malika (t+ case ending) - in Hebrew malka, in coupled state (see below) malkat- `queen`,` queen`. Some Semitic languages have a definite article (member) written together: in Arabic al-, in Hebrew -הָ or -הַ, -הֶ.
“Conjugated state” (status constructus in Latin terminology) gives the combination of two nouns a meaning, which is usually translated into Russian by the genitive case of the second of them. This case is preserved in Arabic. The first name is deprived of the article; in a number of Semitic languages, for example, in Hebrew, it can significantly change its form: בַּיִת - `house` (with the article - הַבַּיִת), בֵּית סֵפֶר -` school`, literally `house of the book` (with the article - בֵּית הַסֵּפֶר). This combination often plays the role of a complex name; merged compound words are not typical for Semitic languages, although they are created, especially in modern times (under the influence of Western languages). In addition, the second word of the combination often replaces the relative adjective (this last category is poorly developed in Semitic languages), for example, in Hebrew אוֹר כּוֹכָבִים - `light of the stars`, that is,` starlight`, בּגְדֵי יְלָדִים - `children's clothing`. There is a special possessive name with the suffix - ī which can play the role of a noun or an adjective: in Arabic yahūdī- in Hebrew יְהוּדִי - `Jew` (literally` Jew`) or `Jewish`.
In the field of personal pronouns, like verbs, a feature of Semitic languages is the presence of two grammatical genders not only in the 3rd, but also in the 2nd person of both numbers: in Arabic anta- in Hebrew אַתָּה - `you` (masculine); in Arabic anti- in Hebrew אתְּ - `you` (feminine); etc. There are also suffixal forms of personal pronouns (with a name - possessive, with a verb - object indicators): in Arabic ’Abūua- in Hebrew אָבִי - `my father`; in Arabic ra'ānī, in Hebrew - רָאָנִי - `(he) saw me` (rarely used in modern Hebrew).
In science, it is generally accepted that, instead of tenses, the Prosemitic language had two verb forms: perfect (punctual) and imperfect (italic). In the future, the perfect form developed in the past tense, and the imperfect one - into the future, partly into the present (in modern Hebrew, the latter is transmitted by the participle).
Especially characteristic of the Semitic verb is the presence of the so-called "breeds" (reinforcing, compelling, reciprocal, reflexive and others; in Hebrew they are called "constructions" - binyanim... See above for Arabic and Hebrew examples with the meaning of `wrote`,` forced to write` and `rewrote`).
Among the speakers of the Semitic languages, the first alphabet in the world arose (see also Paleography; Letter), from which (partly - under the influence of which), apparently, all other alphabetical systems of the world originate. The oldest written records of these languages are known in the Akkadian and Eblaite languages (middle of the 3rd millennium BC); they are filled with cuneiform, borrowed from the Sumerians and not representing the alphabet. But already from the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. preserved monuments of the Semitic languages, written in a consonant alphabet. Almost all Semitic languages use alphabets of West Semitic origin. Only a very small number of speakers of the Semitic languages (Maltese, from the 19th century) switched to the Latin alphabet.
In addition to the Semitic languages, the ancient Egyptian family belongs to the Afrasian (Semitic-Hamitic) family (its descendant, Coptic, is the language of the cult of Egyptian Christians); Berber-Libyan languages (see also Hebrew-Berber language; cf. Libya); Chadian languages (of which the Hausa language, the number of speakers of which reaches 30–40 million people, is a means of interethnic communication in West Africa and even in part of Sudan); Kushite languages (in northeast and east Africa; among them - Agau, which was the spoken language of some Ethiopian Jews); some scholars distinguish a part of the Kushite languages into a special branch - the Omot languages (for the etymology of the words "khamit", "kushite" see Kham).
Supporters of the theory of the existence of an even broader, the so-called Nostratic linguistic macrofamily, include the Afrasian languages as well (see Hebrew language. Introduction).
KEE, volume: 7.
Col .: 744–747.
Published: 1994.
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