The Arctic Ocean is the natural border of Russia from the north. The Arctic Ocean has several unofficial names: the Northern Polar Sea, the Arctic Sea, the Polar Basin, or the ancient Russian name - the Icy Sea.
Russia is the owner of six North Seas Arctic Ocean. These include: Barents, Beloe, Kara, Laptev, East Siberian, Chukotka.
Barencevo sea, a marginal sea of the Arctic Ocean, between the northern coast of Europe and the islands of Spitsbergen, Franz Josef Land and Novaya Zemlya. 1424 thousand km2. Located on the shelf; depth is mainly from 360 to 400 m (maximum 600 m). Large island - Kolguev. Bays: Porsangerfjord, Varangerfjord, Motovsky, Kola, etc. Strong influence of warm waters Atlantic Ocean determines the non-freezing of the southwestern part. Salinity 32-35‰. The Pechora River flows into the Barents Sea. Fishing (cod, herring, haddock, flounder). The environmental situation is unfavorable. It has great transport importance. Major ports: Murmansk (Russian Federation), Varde (Norway). The Barents Sea is named after the 16th century Dutch navigator. Willem Barents, who made three voyages across the Arctic Ocean, died and was buried on Novaya Zemlya. This sea is the warmest of the Arctic seas, because the warm Norwegian Current comes here from the Atlantic Ocean.
White Sea- inland sea of the Arctic Ocean, off the northern shores of the European part Russian Federation. Area - 90 thousand km2. The average depth is 67 m, the maximum is 350 m. In the north it is connected to the Barents Sea by the Gorlo and Voronka straits. Large bays (lips): Mezensky, Dvinsky, Onega, Kandalaksha. Large islands: Solovetsky, Morzhovets, Mudyugsky. Salinity 24-34.5 ‰. Tides up to 10 m. The Northern Dvina, Onega, and Mezen flow into the White Sea. Fishing (herring, whitefish, navaga); seal fishing. Ports: Arkhangelsk, Onega, Belomorsk, Kandalaksha, Kem, Mezen. It is connected to the Baltic Sea by the White Sea-Baltic Canal, and to the Azov, Caspian and Black Seas by the Volga-Baltic waterway.
The White Sea does not have a clear border with the Barents Sea; they are conventionally separated in a straight line from Cape Svyatoy Nos on the Kola Peninsula to the northwestern tip of the Kanin Peninsula - Cape Kanin Nos. External part White Sea called Funnel, internal, fenced off Kola Peninsula, - A basin, they are connected by a relatively narrow strait - the Throat of the White Sea. Although the White Sea is located south of the Barents Sea, it freezes. Located on islands in the White Sea historical monument- Solovetsky Monastery.
Kara Sea marginal sea of the North. The Arctic Ocean, off the coast of the Russian Federation, between the islands of Novaya Zemlya, Franz Josef Land and the Severnaya Zemlya archipelago. 883 thousand km2. It is located mainly on the shelf. The prevailing depths are 30-100 m, maximum 600 m. There are many islands. Large bays: Ob Bay and Yenisei Gulf. The Ob and Yenisei rivers flow into it. The Kara Sea is one of the coldest seas in Russia; Only near river mouths in summer the water temperature is above 0C (up to 6C). Fogs and storms are frequent. Most of the year it is covered with ice. Rich in fish (whitefish, char, flounder, etc.). The main port is Dikson. Marine vessels enter the Yenisei to the ports of Dudinka and Igarka.
The main navigable strait (between the Barents and Kara seas) is the Kara Gate, its width is 45 km; Matochkin Shar (between the Northern and Southern islands of Novaya Zemlya), with a length of almost 100 km, is less than a kilometer wide in places, is clogged with ice most of the year and is therefore unnavigable.
Laptev Sea(Siberian), marginal sea of the Arctic Ocean, off the coast of the Russian Federation, between the Taimyr Peninsula and the Severnaya Zemlya islands in the west and Novosibirsk in the east. 662 thousand km2. The prevailing depths are up to 50 m, maximum 3385 m. Large bays: Khatanga, Oleneksky, Buor-Khaya. There are many islands in the western part of the sea. The rivers Khatanga, Lena, Yana and others flow into it. Most of the year it is covered with ice. Inhabited by walrus, bearded seal, and seal. The main port of Tiksi.
It is named after the Russian navigators of the 18th century, cousins Dmitry Yakovlevich and Khariton Prokofievich Laptev, who explored the shores of this sea. The Lena River flows into the Laptev Sea, forming the largest delta in Russia.
Between the Laptev and East Siberian seas lie the New Siberian Islands. Although they are located east of Severnaya Zemlya, they were discovered a hundred years earlier. The New Siberian Islands are separated from the mainland by the Dmitry Laptev Strait.
East-Siberian Sea, marginal sea of the Arctic Ocean, between the New Siberian Islands and Wrangel Island. Area 913 thousand km2. Located on the shelf. The average depth is 54 m, the maximum is 915 m. The coldest of the Arctic seas of Russia. Most of the year it is covered with ice. Salinity ranges from 5 ‰ near river mouths and up to 30 ‰ in the north. Bays: Chaun Bay, Kolyma Bay, Omulyakh Bay. Large islands: Novosibirsk, Bear, Aion. The rivers Indigirka, Alazeya and Kolyma flow into it. In the waters of the sea, walrus, seal and fishing are carried out. The main port is Pevek.
Between the East Siberian and Chukchi seas lies Wrangel Island. The island is named after the Russian navigator of the 19th century. Ferdinand Petrovich Wrangel, who explored the East Siberian and Chukchi Seas; he assumed the existence of the island based on many data known to him. On Wrangel Island there is a nature reserve where polar bears are especially protected.
Chukchi Sea, a marginal sea of the Arctic Ocean, off the northeastern coast of Asia and the northwestern coast of North America. It is connected by the Bering Strait to the Pacific Ocean (in the south) and by the Long Strait to the East Siberian Sea (in the west). 595 thousand km2. 56% of the bottom area is occupied by depths less than 50 m. The greatest depth is 1256 m in the north. Large Wrangel Island. Bays: Kolyuchinskaya Bay, Kotzebue. Most of the year the sea is covered with ice. Fishing (char, polar cod). Fishing for harbor seals and seals. Large port of Uelen.
The ecological situation in the waters of the Arctic Ocean is far from favorable. Currently, the international community is faced with the problem of solving several environmental problems related to the Arctic Ocean. The first problem is the massive destruction of marine biological resources, the disappearance of some species of marine animals living in the Far North. The second problem on a global scale is the widespread melting of glaciers, thawing of the soil and its transition from the permafrost state to the unfrozen state. The third problem is the secret activities of some states related to nuclear weapons testing. It is the secretive nature of such events that makes it difficult to establish the true picture of the environmental situation in the waters of the Arctic Ocean.
And if one of the environmental problems - the destruction of certain species of marine animals - was solved to a certain extent at the end of the 20th century by establishing bans and restrictions on their extermination, then other problems - radiation pollution, melting ice - still remain unresolved. In addition, to the existing environmental problems, another one may be added in the near future - pollution of ocean waters due to the development of the oil and gas industry in the ocean. The solution to these problems is only possible in their entirety, by changing their attitude towards the region of the entire world community, and in particular those countries that are currently busy dividing up the waters of the Arctic Ocean.
It is they, as the future owners of certain territories, who should first of all pay attention to the ecological state of the region. We observe on their part activities that are aimed only at studying the geological nature of the ocean floor in order to satisfy their economic interests.
In connection with the future economic development of the depths of the Arctic Ocean, the question of improving and stabilizing the ecological state of this region is currently being raised at the international level.
However, the solution to this problem is clearly complicated at present by the fact that some states, in pursuit of hydrocarbon deposits, are busy dividing continental shelves. At the same time, they imprudently postpone the solution of environmental problems in the waters of the Arctic Ocean for an indefinite period, limiting themselves only to stating the facts of the emergence of a threat of one or another environmental disaster.
In light of future economic activity, aimed mainly at the development of deep hydrocarbon deposits, another environmental problem for ocean waters is seen. After all, it has been established that ocean waters located near oil and gas production platforms are far from an ideal state in environmental terms. Moreover, such territories can be classified as environmentally hazardous. And if we take into account that by the time the process of international division of the continental shelf of the Arctic Ocean is completed, the level of technology will already make it possible to extract oil at any depth, one can imagine how many such platforms will be built simultaneously in ocean waters. At the same time, a positive solution to the environmental issue of the activities of such platforms will remain in great doubt, because by that time the continental reserves of hydrocarbon raw materials will be practically exhausted, prices for them will rise even more, and mining companies will be chasing production volumes above all.
Also, the question of eliminating the consequences of nuclear weapons tests remains open, which is also an important factor in characterizing the environmental situation in the Arctic Ocean. Currently, politicians are in no hurry to resolve these issues - after all, such events, in light of their implementation in permafrost conditions, are quite expensive. While these states spend all available funds on studying the depths of the Arctic Ocean, the nature of its bottom in order to provide evidence in the struggle for continental shelves. We can only hope that after the division of the territory of the Arctic Ocean is completed, the countries to which certain areas of the ocean already legally belong will take measures to eliminate these consequences and prevent such activities in the future.
The most dangerous phenomenon from an environmental point of view in the waters of the Arctic Ocean is the widespread melting of glaciers.
To highlight this environmental problem on a global scale, you can refer to the data of the Ministry of Emergency Situations of the Russian Federation. According to the ministry's report dated June 18, 2008. - by 2030, in the north of Russia, due to global warming, catastrophic destruction may begin. Already now in Western Siberia permafrost is thawing by four centimeters per year, and in the next 20 years its border will shift by as much as 80 kilometers.
The data provided by the Ministry of Emergency Situations is truly amazing. Moreover, the content of the report was focused mainly not on the actual environmental aspects of global warming, but on those issues that are important for the socio-economic and industrial security of Russia. In particular, it was noted that in twenty years more than a quarter of the housing stock in the north of Russia may be destroyed. This is due to the fact that houses there were not built on a massive foundation, but on stilts driven into permafrost. When the average annual temperature increases by just one or two degrees, the bearing capacity of these piles immediately decreases by 50%. In addition, airports, roads, underground storage facilities, including oil tanks, warehouses and even industrial facilities may be damaged.
Another problem is the sharp increase in flood risk. By 2015, the water flow of northern rivers will increase by 90%. Freeze-up time will be reduced by more than 15 days. All this will lead to a doubling of the flood risk. This means that there will be twice as many transport accidents and flooding of coastal settlements. In addition, due to the melting of permafrost, the risk of methane release from the soil will increase. Methane is a greenhouse gas, its release causes an increase in the temperature of the lower layers of the atmosphere. But this is not the main thing - an increase in gas concentration will affect the health of northerners.
The situation with melting ice in the Arctic is also relevant. If in 1979 the ice area there was 7.2 million square kilometers, then in 2007 it decreased to 4.3 million. That is almost twice. The thickness of the ice has also almost halved. This has advantages for shipping, but it also increases other risks. In the future, countries with low level landscapes will be forced to protect themselves from possible partial flooding. This applies directly to Russia, its northern territories and Siberia. The only good thing is that in the Arctic the ice is melting evenly, while at the south pole the ice moves irregularly and causes earthquakes.
The Ministry of Emergency Situations is so seriously concerned about the situation that it plans to equip two expeditions to the north of the country to study the changing climate and test equipment in new conditions. The expeditions are aimed at New Earth, New Siberian Islands and the mainland coast of the Arctic Ocean. In any case, the task of ensuring the safety of the population in the northern territories is now becoming one of the priorities for the Russian government.
The Chukchi Sea washes the shores of the northern coast of the Eurasian continent.
The Long Strait in the west connects its cold waters with the East Siberian Sea.
The geographical position of the sea off the north-eastern coast of Russia defines it as a continental marginal sea. Its space receives a small amount of sunlight.
History of the Chukchi Sea
Russian sailors are responsible for the discovery of the Chukchi Sea. In 1648, Fedot Popov and Semyon Dezhnev went to sea on kochaz, wooden and single-masted sailing ships. The sailors walked from the mouth of the Kolyma to the Anadyr River, which flows into the Gulf of the Bering Sea.
Russian explorers of the 17th century discovered and assigned the northeastern lands to the Russian state, which contributed to the further study and development of the region. Another important step in the development of Siberia was Kamchatka expedition Vitus Bering.
Chukchi Sea on the map photo
The expedition was supposed to explore the northern latitudes Pacific Ocean and determine the direction to the shores of America. Scientists only learned in 1758 that the strait separating Chukotka and Alaska was discovered a century ago by Semyon Dezhnev. In 1779, the ships of James Cook's expedition plied the waters of the Chukchi Sea. Nils Nordenskiöld, a navigator who explored the Arctic, was a pioneer from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean along the Northern Sea Route, with a forced winter in the ice.
200 years later, an attempt was made to resume passage along the Northern Sea Route across four seas on the Chelyuskin steamship. The ship, stuck in the ice of the Chukchi Sea, was crushed by ice in February 1933 and sank. The people who managed to leave the ship lived in a camp on the ice for two months. 104 people, including 10 women and two children, were evacuated by plane from March to April in difficult atmospheric conditions.
The scientific and survey polar expedition "North Pole-38" was founded in 2010. A team of 15 people worked at the drifting station for a year.
Climatic features
The climatic conditions of the marginal, shallow sea of Russia are of a marine polar nature. Due to the small amount of ultraviolet radiation and solar heat, the water layers of the Chukchi Sea have a very narrow range of temperature fluctuations. The climate regime is carried out as follows:
- During the cold period, from the onset of autumn to warm spring days, the sea is affected by areas of low and high atmospheric pressure. With the beginning of the winter season, the main cores of the Siberian and Polar anticyclones operate in the Chukchi Sea region, which create an unstable direction of winds over the sea;
- The autumn season begins with a sharp drop in temperature. In October, near Cape Schmidt and on Wrangel Island, the temperature is within -8 degrees C. Northwestern November winds prevail until February days, removing areas low pressure;
- The convergence of the peaks of the Siberian and North American anticyclones creates an area of high pressure between the continents. This determines the predominance of winds in the northern and northeastern directions in the northern region of the Chukchi Sea, South part is under the influence of northern and northwestern air currents;
- The second half of the winter period is characterized by the presence of winds with a southerly direction. The wind speed is constant and does not exceed 6 m/s. The temperature of the coldest winter month of February prevails within -28 degrees C.
This temperature regime is due to the warming influence of Pacific currents and the cooling influence of the Asian massif protruding above the ocean surface.
Geography of the Chukchi Sea
The Chukchi Sea separates Alaska from Chukotka. It is a border area between Russia and the United States of America. The eastern waters of the marginal sea border the Arctic Ocean. Wrangel Island and the Long Strait separate the sea from the East Siberian Sea. The eastern part of the Chukchi Sea is connected by a strait to the Beaufort Sea. In the south, the waters of the Chukchi Sea are separated from the Pacific Ocean by the Bering Strait.
Uelen photo
Islands in the Chukchi Sea are few in number compared to other northern seas. Of the few rivers flowing into the Chukchi Sea, the largest are the Amguema, a river in the Russian Far East (498 km long), and the Noatak, a river in Alaska, USA (684 km long). The Chukchi Sea has a cold climate and intense ice conditions. In winter, ice almost completely covers the sea.
The Chukchi Sea covers an area of about 589.6 square kilometers, which is located on the mainland continental shelf with its northern part open to the ocean. On average, the depth of the sea is close to 45 meters. The deepest place of about 1256 meters is located outside the shelf.
The seashore is mountainous, with steep steep slopes. On the territory of Russia, the coast is replete with dagunas, small bodies of water separated from the sea by strips of washed-up sand.
Cities and ports
The largest settlements on the Chukchi Sea coast are the municipal settlement of Uelen with a large port in Russia and small town in Alaska Barrow. The climate of settlements in the Arctic Circle is characterized by a combination of severe frosts and winds.
Flora and fauna of the Chukchi Sea
The cold surface waters of the Chukchi Sea are inhabited by plant photosynthetic planktonic organisms, which require sunlight. The ice floes of the sea are inhabited by a separate population of polar bears. Whales live in the waters of the Chukchi Sea. The coast and islands are occupied by seals and walrus rookeries.
Chukchi Sea. polar bears photos
The waters of the Chukchi Sea are rich in fish. Arctic char, polar cod, navaga, and grayling are inhabitants of northern waters. In summer, the coast and islands are occupied by bird colonies of gulls, geese and ducks.
An expedition of the National Center for Marine Biology on the ship Akademik Oparin discovered an abundance of numerous inhabitants of bottom tropical flora and fauna in the Chukchi Sea. Whole clusters of starfish, sea anemones, and sponges were recorded. They fundamentally rejected the opinion of scientists about the meager underwater world of the harsh sea.
Chukotka
| Coat of arms of the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug Purple color heraldic shield means the age-old wisdom and calm strength of character of the northerners, the long polar night that reigns over the Chukchi tundra for most of the year. The polar bear, a traditional symbol of the region, reflects the potential strength and power of the Autonomous Okrug. The yellow color of the district map is reminiscent of the main wealth of these places - gold. The red star is a symbol of the North Star. Its eight equal rays symbolize the unity of the eight districts of the Autonomous Okrug with the administrative center - the city of Anadyr, the invincible fortitude of the northerners, their love for life. The blue color of the circle symbolizes purity of thoughts and nobility, reflects the endless expanses of two oceans - the Pacific and the Arctic, washing the Chukotka Peninsula, and the unique originality of the animal world of the deep sea. The red color of the ring indicates the special position of the region, which is a border area in the northeast of the Russian Federation. The rays around the entire image represent a symbol of the northern lights and the white silence of the Chukotka tundra in winter, and their number (89) represents the entry of the Autonomous Okrug as an equal subject into the Russian Federation. |
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Yu.N. Golubchikov. |
Territory. Geographical position
We are accustomed to seeing this land on small-scale maps and considering it small. But she is huge! From the head of the Penzhinskaya Bay to the Bering Strait is about 1300 km - the same as from Moscow to Sevastopol. Some call this far corner of our country the outskirts of Siberia, others - the northern tip of the Far East. In nature and economy here there is still more Siberian than Far Eastern.
Yu.K. Efremov
The territory of the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug is 737.7 thousand km 2. This more sizes any of the largest states in Western Europe. Chukotka also stands out for its size within Russia. The district occupies 1/24 of Russia and is second in area only to such constituent entities of the Russian Federation as the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), Krasnoyarsk, Khabarovsk territories and Tyumen region.
The Chukotka Autonomous Okrug is strongly extended in the northeast direction. It has a long and winding border. Its length is 7,000 km, of which about 4,000 km is on the coastline of the East Siberian, Chukchi and Bering seas. Most of the border runs either along water boundaries or along watershed ridges, plateaus and highlands. The Bering Strait separates Chukotka from Alaska, one of the US states.
The district occupies the most northeastern part of the Eurasian continent and the adjacent islands, as well as a 12-mile zone of water around the coasts. The largest of the islands included in the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug is Wrangel Island. Not far from it lies Herald Island. There are other large islands near the coast - Ayon, Arakamchechen, Ratmanova. Ratmanov Island belongs to the Diomede Islands group.
The southernmost point of the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug - Cape Rubicon - lies just south of 62° N. w. There are two extreme northern points: island and mainland. Ostrovnaya is located on Wrangel Island at 71°30" N latitude, and the mainland one is on Cape Shelagsky (70°10" N latitude). There are also two extreme eastern points: mainland Cape Dezhnev (169°40"W) and Ratmanov Island (169°02"W). At the same time, they are the extreme eastern points of Russia. The western border of the district is located about 157-158° east. d.
The territory of Chukotka is located in two time zones, but conditionally, for ease of work, they are combined into one. Chukotka is located in the eleventh time zone, and the capital of our Motherland, Moscow, lies in the second time zone, which makes a time difference of nine hours.
Touching two great oceans, Chukotka lies on the edge of Eurasia, next to America, between the continents of the Old and New Worlds. The seas of the Arctic Ocean that wash Chukotka include the East Siberian and Chukotka, and the Pacific Ocean - the Bering Sea. No other region, region or district of Russia lies on the coast of two oceans or three seas at once.
The seas of the Arctic and Pacific oceans are connected by the Bering Strait. The state maritime border between Russia and the United States runs through the middle of the strait. On Ratmanov Island in the Diomede Islands group there is a weather station and our easternmost border outpost. Behind it, in the same group of islands, lies Krusenstern Island. But this island belongs to the USA.
Ratmanov Island and Kruzenshtern Island are separated by a narrow strip of icy Arctic water only two miles wide (1 mile = 1.62 km). But this strip separates not just countries and continents. There is a meridian between the islands, from which it is customary to count the time of the coming day. Time is measured from east to west, and a date line runs between the islands. And if a new day has come on Ratmanov’s island, then on Kruzenshtern’s island it is still yesterday.
The Chukotka Autonomous Okrug is located in both the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. This territory is at once Arctic, Far Eastern, Pacific, and in some ways even North American. Through the windows of its houses Chukotka looks out to both Asia and America.
Together with Alaska, Chukotka forms a kind of transition between the main powers of the planet - the Russian Federation and the United States of America, the extreme east and the extreme west. And at the same time, Chukotka is the Far North. No matter which way you look at Chukotka, it always seems extreme. After all, it is located in one of the most remote areas of the globe. And at the same time, Chukotka lies in the very center of the world political space. If you look at a world map in a polar projection with a conditional pole in Anadyr, you will find that Chukotka is located between the most densely populated areas of Western North America and Southeast Asia. Not far away, across the North Pole, is Western Europe. Alaska is only 100-200 km from here. Even Japan is geographically closer to Chukotka than Moscow.
The distance from Chukotka to America is small. If on clear days you look east from the extreme eastern point of Russia, the high and steep Cape Dezhnev, then on the opposite side of the Bering Strait you can see the low-lying shores of Cape Prince of Wales. This is another continent - North America. If the level of the Bering Sea suddenly dropped by 50 m, then in place of the North Bering Sea islands a land isthmus would form connecting the two continents. Scientists believe that in the distant past there really was such a bridge. They named him Beringian land. In any case, Chukotka surprisingly combines North American features with Asian ones, Pacific ones with Arctic ones, and oceanic ones with continental and polar ones.
Part of Chukotka even extends into America. Ratmanov Island is one of the Diomede Islands, each of which belongs to the North Bering Sea Islands of North America. This means that Russia also has its own American possessions within Chukotka - our Russian America.
Permafrost
Some scientists believe that permafrost and the underground ice contained in it formed many tens of thousands of years ago under conditions of gradual freezing of the soil. Others believe that icy permafrost strata formed very quickly, almost instantly, as a result of some kind of catastrophic cooling. This is evidenced by the numerous remains of heat-loving plants and animals found in the frozen strata.
In the continental regions in the west of Chukotka, on the border with Yakutia, the permafrost is the thickest. It covers rock strata up to a depth of 300-500 m. The thickest strata are found under the mountain peaks. The permafrost temperature varies from -8 °C to -12 °C. But in the Anadyr Lowland, thanks to the softening influence of the Pacific Ocean, the permafrost is less thick - from 150 to 200 m. The permafrost temperature in the Anadyr Lowland is -2...-6 °C. Finally, along the Bering Sea coast there is a narrow strip with average annual soil temperatures of about 0 °C. Here, permafrost is widespread in the form of islands confined to peat bogs, northern slopes and places where the snow cover is blown away and strongly compacted by winds.
Permafrost rocks are found almost everywhere in Chukotka, but thawed rocks, where there is no permafrost, are very rare. For example, there is no permafrost in areas of thermal springs, under the beds of many rivers, most permanent lakes, on some sea coasts, under deep accumulations of snow. Places where there is no permafrost are called taliks.
Flowing water especially prevents the formation of permafrost. large rivers. Under their channels and flooded floodplains there are thawed soils that do not freeze in winter. These are under-channel and floodplain taliks. Thanks to them, groves of willow trees and large poplars often grow along the floodplains and channel banks of Chukotka rivers.
During the short summer in Chukotka, only the most upper layer soil. In the southern part of the Anadyr Lowland, by the end of summer, sand can thaw to a depth of 2-3 m, clay - up to 1.5-2 m, and peat - only to a depth of 30-50 cm. In the Pevek area, the average thawing of soils is limited to 30-40 see. Below lie soils that never thaw. Permafrost soils always contain underground ice in their thickness. In rocky rocks there is little of this ice, but in loose rocks of the plains underground ice is the main rock. These plains are sometimes 70-80% composed of fossil ice.
Interaction between permafrost and vegetation cover. Permafrost in the tundra is of great biological importance. It cools the soil and does not allow water to penetrate deeper, thereby promoting stagnation of moisture and waterlogging. Permafrost reduces the volume of soil in which plant roots can develop. Because of it, plant roots do not reach great lengths.
But vegetation cover also affects the depth of soil thawing. The thicker the ground vegetation layer, especially the moss cover, the better the permafrost underneath is preserved. The dry peat surface can become very hot in summer, but the temperature drops quickly with depth. Moss and peat do not allow heat to pass through and well protect ice particles and layers of ice contained in frozen soils from thawing. But if the vegetation cover is disturbed, then in the summer the frozen soil begins to intensively thaw, and the ice contained in it begins to melt*.
Construction on permafrost. Thawing of icy soils in summer and their heaving in winter lead to distortion and deformation of structures, even to their destruction.
When the soil periodically freezes, pillars and foundations, like large stones, are pushed out of the ground to the surface.
That is why, when constructing the foundations of multi-story buildings in Chukotka, reinforced concrete piles driven deep into permafrost soil are used. They are deepened into permafrost up to 10 m below the seasonal thawing layer.
Best effect during construction in Chukotka, it preserves soil in a frozen state. Road embankments are built so high that the natural soil underneath never thaws. To preserve permafrost, a ventilated space 1-2 m high is left between the floor and the ground surface. In summer, the permafrost surface shaded by the building under such structures is not significantly disturbed.
Water pipes are selected with an increased diameter and laid above ground with reliable thermal insulation. Any breakthrough of warm water from engineering communications leads to intense thawing and even the formation of taliks. This causes catastrophic subsidence of foundations and destruction of buildings.
An interesting idea about the relationship between vegetation and permafrost was expressed in the 20s of the 20th century. Russian geobotanist Robert Ivanovich Abolin. In Yakutia (and this also applies to the west of Chukotka) the amount of precipitation is so low that there should be a desert there. But it is the permafrost that replenishes the soil with moisture and allows the taiga to grow. -
Note ed.
Ecological problems
Since ancient times, the glory of the Chukotka region has been its reindeer herds, walrus tusks, furs and fish. Economic activity for a long time was reduced only to the ruthless exploitation of nature’s reserves. Since the middle of the 17th century. Here marine fisheries for the extraction of “fish tooth” or walrus tusk arise. Local nomadic tribes were forced to continuously expand the production of animals and birds to meet the growing needs of the market.
The harsh but vulnerable nature of Chukotka does not always withstand the pressure of human activity. Even dogs released from a leash and destroying bird nests can cause significant damage to the tundra.
Excessive use of pastures has led to significant destruction of lichens and shrubs. Knocking out and grazing vegetation by deer leads to the exposure of the soil layer and, ultimately, to the development of permafrost processes. Most of the cleared reindeer pastures are covered with spotted tundras, where areas devoid of vegetation occupy large areas. Maintaining pasture productivity is possible only by limiting grazing. Areas devoid of vegetation must be sown with cereals, sedge, and cotton grass.
Serious damage to reindeer pastures is caused by all-terrain vehicles and tractors, often pulling trailers, cargo sleds or residential trailers. They usually do not move along roads and thereby severely disturb the vegetation cover. Areas of loose sediments saturated with underground ice are especially vulnerable to tracked vehicles. here, the tracks of all-terrain vehicles “pierce” the tundra so much that thermokarst phenomena occur along the ruts and, as a result, it is impossible to drive to some places in the summer. Thus, during geological exploration on the northern coast of Chukotka west of Cape Schmidt, equipment was dragged in the summer along a narrow strip of tundra between the mountains and the sea. As a result, the entire vegetation cover was torn off, along with the soil that had thawed over the summer. Due to the very high ice content of the frozen rocks, the territory turned into a continuous impassable liquefied quicksand. The liquid mass of soil flows into the lagoons.
The most extensive areas of disturbed land are formed during placer gold mining along the floodplains of rivers and streams. In such areas, bulldozers, large dredges and excavators remove a layer of rock with a thickness of 3-4 to 15 m or more. Floodplains over a considerable distance turn into dumps of washed rocks. Disturbed lands require biological reclamation. But it is difficult to accomplish this, since as the deposits are mined, the rock dumps are bound by permafrost.
Distinctive features of seasonal stops of geological parties and expeditions are areas of damaged vegetation, pits and ditches, clutter, and as a result, waterlogging and the development of thermokarst phenomena. Certain sections of the coast are littered with piles of iron barrels and filled with diesel fuel, the decomposition of which stretches here for many decades.
Due to the increased heat loss of all mechanisms in the Arctic, much more waste is produced per unit of production. The toxic (poisonous) effect of all pollutants increases significantly at low temperatures. Pollutants cannot penetrate into deep layers of soil due to the waterproof permafrost. The activity of microorganisms that can utilize waste is inhibited here. Pollutants that take a long time to decompose, in particular radioactive ones, accumulate in the slow-growing perennial plants characteristic of the Arctic. From them, pollution flows to the animals that eat them, and from them to people.
Long-term exposure to coal-fired boiler houses leads to increased alkalinity in the air of settlements due to calcium oxide present in the smoke, as well as soil pollution due to the addition of slag on the territory of settlements (slag produces an alkaline environment); Thermal power plants, along with flue gases, steam and dust, also emit radioactive substances into the atmosphere. During the cold period of the year, when an area of high pressure dominates over Chukotka and the weather is windless, often with prolonged fogs, smog forms in working villages and cities. It is especially often recorded in settlements located in intermountain basins, where cold air stagnates.
Today, not a single settlement or enterprise on the Arctic coast of Chukotka has wastewater treatment facilities. Waste is directly discharged into rivers, lakes and seas. For example, several tens of tons of detergents and fuels and lubricants are dumped into the Anadyr Estuary every year. But Far Eastern salmon come through the estuary to spawn. The main pollutants are wastewater from mines, mines, and quarries. They are characterized by increased turbidity and contain chemical and bacterial contaminants. Ultimately, most pollutants end up in the seas, and under their ice cap, decomposition processes practically do not occur.
Filters should be used to prevent contamination. It is more profitable to produce electricity at large thermal power plants, where it is cheaper and it is possible to pre-extract it from fuel harmful impurities. The use of wind energy is promising, especially in the tundra and on sea coasts.
Tundra woodlands require especially careful treatment. Extensive logging is not allowed in them. Meanwhile, local wood is still widely used as fastening and building material and for domestic heating. As a result, many settlements located in the forest-tundra and northern taiga zones found themselves surrounded by secondary tundra, char or swamps that arose in the place of cleared forests. Even in the recent past, forests in Chukotka in a number of places extended much further to the north. In many cases, they were deliberately burned by humans to obtain reindeer pastures and areas with good grass. The largest trees were used for sleighs, boats, traps, poles, and most importantly, as fuel. The last larch island near the mouth of the Anadyr was cut down in 1866.
Compliance with fire prevention measures plays a major role in forest conservation. After the forest-tundra burns out, active waterlogging usually begins.
National composition of the population.
Indigenous peoples
About 60 nationalities live in the district. In 1989, in Chukotka, with a total population of 164 thousand people, the indigenous population of the North (Chukchi, Eskimos, Evens, Yukagirs, Koryaks, etc.) amounted to 10%, i.e. 17 thousand people. The most representative in terms of quantitative composition were Russians (66%), Ukrainians accounted for 17%, Belarusians - 2%. Due to population migration, the share of indigenous peoples in national composition increased to 21%.
Northeast Asia has long been inhabited by Paleo-Asian peoples - descendants of the most ancient population of the Earth. These include the Chukchi, Koryaks, Itelmens and Yukaghirs, whose languages show some similarity with each other. The Nivkhs living in the lower reaches of the Amur and on Sakhalin are also close to them in language. All these peoples are linguistically close to each other, but have a completely different origin from the Eskimos and the Evenks (the former name of the Tungus). The threads of kinship between the Chukchi, Koryaks and Itelmens (the former name of the Kamchadals) lead to northwestern America, to the Indians, with whom they apparently merged as they moved north. The myths of the Koryaks and Kamchadals are close in form and content to the legends of the Indians of northwestern America.
Representatives of the indigenous peoples of the Far North in Chukotka are currently about 18 thousand inhabitants.
Chukchi The total number of people is about 15 thousand people; 12 thousand people live in Chukotka. The original self-name of the Chukchi is “luoravetlan”, which means “real people”. Among the Chukchi and Koryaks, coastal sedentary groups that engage in fishing and hunting sea animals (self-name - “ankalyn”), and groups of nomadic reindeer herders (self-name - “chauchu” or “chavuchu”) stand out noticeably. Chavuchu means "reindeer herder". Let's go from here geographical names(toponyms): Chukotka, Chukotka. The division into coastal and reindeer groups can also be traced in the dialects of the Chukchi language.
Life and economic activity the coastal Chukchi and Koryaks are largely reminiscent of the life of the Eskimos. Since ancient times, it contained the same leather canoe, a leather shuttle, a throwing harpoon, and a float made of inflated seal skin. The influence of Eskimo culture affects the language, religion and folklore of the coastal Chukchi.
Back in the 19th century. The Kolyma River served as the western border of the regular nomadic movement of Chukchi reindeer herders. But once they lived even further to the west, as indicated by the name of the Bolshaya Chukochya River. But then the Chukchi disappeared from these places and reappeared on the left bank of the Kolyma River in the middle of the 19th century. Later, the Chukchi spread west along the sea coast to the Alazeya River and further, almost to Indigirka. In the south, the Chukchi occupied the territory up to the Olyutorsky Peninsula and further south.
The total number of reindeer Chukchi at the beginning of the 20th century. there were 9-10 thousand people. They had about half a million deer. The Primorye Chukchi numbered about 3 thousand people.
Eskimos 1.7 thousand people live in Russia, of which 1.5 thousand people live in Chukotka. Modern Eskimo settlements stretch along the Bering Strait and the Bering Sea, from Cape Dezhnev to Cross Bay, mainly in the Providensky, Chukotsky and Iultinsky regions. In the 1920s small settlements of Eskimos arose on the territory of modern Shmidtovsky and Iultinsky districts (villages Ushakovskoye, Uelkal). The Eskimos are the largest and most northern people on Earth from the indigenous population of the Arctic. There are 97 thousand Eskimos in the world, they mostly live outside of Russia: in Alaska, northern Canada, and Greenland. The most western representatives of the Eskimo people live in Chukotka.
The Eskimo language is divided into two groups: Inupik, spoken by the people of the Diomede Islands in the Bering Strait, Northern Alaska and Canada, Labrador and Greenland, and Yupik, spoken by the Eskimos of western and southwestern Alaska, St. Lawrence Island and the Chukchi Peninsula. In addition to their native language, Russian is also common among Asian Eskimos; the Eskimos of Alaska are largely English-speaking; among the Eskimos of Canadian Quebec, both English and French are common, and among the Greenlandic Eskimos, Danish is common. It is unlikely that you will find an indigenous people on the planet with such a variety of “second” languages.
The Eskimos do not have a common self-name. They call themselves by their place of residence or simply call themselves people: “Inuit”, “Yupigit” or “Yuit”, that is, “real people”.
Like no other people in the world, the Eskimos are related to the Arctic Sea and the polar desert. They are typical hunters of sea animals. Fishing for marine mammals provided them with everything: food, clothing, shelter, fuel, transportation. whale bones served as an excellent building material for the construction of the skeleton of semi-underground dwellings. The main food product of the ancient Eskimos was the meat of sea animals. From seal skins they learned to sew waterproof, waterproof fur clothing and boots (torbasa). In winter they wore a double thick fur jacket, men wore double fur pants, and women wore overalls.
Canoes were made from walrus skins. The perfection of leather frame kayaks with a hatch for a seat, accommodating from 1 to 30 people, is amazing. They became the prototype of the modern kayak.
Stone, deer antler (it was steamed and given any shape), musk ox horn, walrus tusk replaced metal and wood for the Eskimos. All over the world, Eskimos are famous for their ornamental and sculptural carvings of walrus tusks. In Greenland, they learned to build a dome-shaped dwelling out of snow - an igloo. To heat and illuminate their homes, they used fat-soaked bones of whales, seals and deer fat.
The Eskimos of Chukotka, St. Lawrence Island, the northwestern coast of Alaska and Western Greenland primarily hunt walruses and whales. In addition to marine fishing, they hunt Arctic foxes and fish in river mouths. Dogs are kept as pets; on average, there are 6-7 dogs per household.
Evens.The total number is 17 thousand people, 1.5 thousand people live in Chukotka. The old name of the Evens is Lamut, from the Tungusic word “lamu”, which means “sea”. This is a people close to the Evenks (the old name is “Tungus”). They speak a special dialect, although very close to Evenki, and live in the west of Chukotka, the north of the Kolyma Highlands, in the upper Anadyr basin and in the Koryak Autonomous Okrug. At the beginning of the century, the Lamuts numbered about 3 thousand people; in the 1920s. A significant part of the Yukaghirs were assigned to the Evens.
Chuvantsev There are 1.5 thousand people, 944 people live in Chukotka, mainly in the Markov region. The Chuvans are one of the Yukaghir clans, where there are many Russians who intermarried with the Chukchi and Yukaghirs. In Markov at the beginning of the 20th century. half of the population were already Russified Chuvans, and their Russian language still contains many Yukaghir words.
Yukagirov only 1.1 thousand people, 160 people live in Chukotka. They live in the Anadyr and Bilibino regions.
Koryaks The total number of Koryaks is 10 thousand people; 95 people live in Chukotka, mainly along the coast of the Gulf of Anadyr.
Kereki There are only a few representatives of this ethnic group left, which remained until the 1960s. was not identified at all by population censuses as an independent ethnic group. The Kerek people live in the Beringovsky region.
So, seven indigenous people live in Chukotka small peoples North. Nowhere else in the Arctic is there a region with such ethnic diversity as Chukotka.
Culture and economy of the nomads of Chukotka.Life in the cold consists of harsh everyday life. Hunters, nomads, and fishermen had to not only know most crafts, but also be original encyclopedists-craftsmen. They are the only ones who own household appliances, without which it is impossible to survive in extremely cold conditions.
Like the coastal Chukchi, the Eskimos built their economy on the prey of sea animals. The nomads of the tundra received everything they needed from domesticated reindeer. The nomads were so dependent on the reindeer that a kind of unity arose between the life of man and his herd of reindeer. This led to a constant search for new pastures and determined a nomadic lifestyle. The means of transportation were sled reindeer, dogs, canoes, and skis.
Deer meat serves as the basis of nutrition for northern nomads. Its steaming pieces are dumped from a huge cauldron onto wooden dishes or freshly chopped willow branches. Meat is often eaten raw and frozen. Thus, the body receives more microelements and biologically active substances. They also eat kidneys and tendons. Soup or porridge is made from deer blood. Deer antlers trimmed in the spring are roasted and also eaten. The most delicious dish is hot deer tongue.
Elegant and comfortable fur clothes of the peoples of the North are known all over the world. Lightweight and elastic, they retain heat well. Their traditional cut was adopted by polar explorers and mountaineers. Even the names: “kukhlyanka”, “anorak”, “parka” (warm jacket), “unty”, “kamiki”, “torbasa” (warm boots) are included in the languages of the peoples of the world from the speech of northern peoples.
The people of Chukotka lived in a large hemispherical tent - yaranga, as well as a fur tent. The frame of the yaranga is made up of a lattice of wooden poles. The frame is covered with reindeer or walrus skins and reinforced with heavy stones. Inside the yaranga there is also a small sleeping area made of skins - a canopy. The design of the yaranga is created in such a way that it can be easily assembled or disassembled, which is very important for a nomadic lifestyle. Sometimes a yaranga has several compartments. The center of the yaranga is considered the most sacred place. There is a fire burning in a round hearth made of stones. This place is treated with the utmost respect. Pieces of deer meat and gutted fish carcasses are smoked over the fire. In places where there is no fuel for a fire, the yaranga is heated and illuminated by a fat lamp, which is fueled with whale or seal oil.
The polar peoples' good knowledge of nature, the habits of animals and birds is admirable. People who have to wander through the tundra and mountains quickly navigate the terrain. They develop a special internal vision of space and a sense of time. without saying a word, they can gather at a certain time for a gathering; they look for fellow tribesmen covered with snow during a blizzard, when they cannot be detected by footprints or with the help of dogs.
Some nationalities still observe division into clans and the obligation of marriage between certain clans. The coastal Chukchi and Eskimos retain collective forms of labor, property and norms for the distribution of any spoils among all members of the community. For them, wealth does not necessarily entail prestige.
Without taking into account the experience of the indigenous peoples of the North developed over thousands of years, a reasonable organization of life in high latitudes cannot be established. Nomadism, for example, is the most rational way to use fragile tundra landscapes. Herds of wild deer travel up to 2.5 thousand km per year. Obviously, similar movements must be made by herds of domestic reindeer. Therefore, reindeer herders spend a significant part of their lives in nomads. In winter they live with reindeer in the forest-tundra or in treeless expanses of the tundra; in summer they move to the shores of the seas or to the mountains.
Migrations brought people into contact with other nationalities. As a result, useful borrowings arose from spatially separated cultures. Thus, all reindeer herders of the tundra are characterized by sled reindeer herding, the same types of hunting: the use of traps for arctic foxes, crossbows, nets for catching geese, as well as similar clothes made of reindeer skins and shoes made of kamus, jewelry made of alternating strips of white and black fur, rectilinear ornament, ways of eating food. However, not everything was borrowed. For example, the breeds of deer among the Chukchi and Evens are different. Reindeer husbandry has taken root to a small extent in Native American culture.
In connection with the transfer of northern nomads to settled life in the 1950s. traditional forms of environmental management began to fade away. The nomads who lived in mobile yarangas were moved into houses. The lives of many of them improved, many wanted it, but not all. The trouble is that everyone was relocated. The children of nomads began to study in boarding schools and forgot their native language. They no longer mastered the skills of nomadic life in nature, but many were unable to join the alien life of industrial, port or mining villages. There was no one to competently develop the tundra. It turned out that the rational exploitation of the tundra directly depends on the preservation of the traditional way of life, spiritual culture and the use of the language of the people.
There is a point of view that future effective models of civilization are connected with the Arctic. It is supported by the facts of centuries-long, and in some cases even millennia-long, completely stable existence in the Arctic conditions of a number of ethnic groups while maintaining their constant numbers and without depletion of natural resources.
Fuel and energy complex
Energy system of the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug. One of the problems in the development of the Chukotka mining industry is finding the energy sources necessary for it. For the extraction of gold and other minerals in the 1960s and 70s. an energy system was created. Its main subjects were the Bilibino Nuclear Power Plant, the Pevek Thermal Power Plant, and floating stations on Cape Verde and Cape Schmidt. In 1986, the Anadyrskaya CHPP came into operation, but only recently was a cable laid from it to the left bank of the estuary. The Beringovskaya hydroelectric power station and thermal power plant in the village of Provideniya have also been operating for many years. Nowadays, it is these power plants that provide electricity to the largest industrial areas of Chukotka. Most energy facilities in mining and industrial areas are connected to each other by power lines: Pevek-Bilibino-Green Cape, Egvekinot-Iultin. The Chaun-Bilibino energy hub united the Chaun thermal power plant, the Northern Electric Networks and the Bilibino Nuclear Power Plant. Previously, this system included the country's first floating station on Cape Verde. Remote villages of Chukotka receive electricity from small diesel power plants. The stations require the import of large quantities of diesel fuel, the combustion of which, like coal, leads to significant environmental pollution.
Over 30-40 years of operation, the equipment of the leading thermal power plants in the district has become outdated. Therefore, work is underway to reconstruct outdated stations and create new ones. A 103 km long gas pipeline is being built from the Zapadno-Ozernoye gas field to the city of Anadyr. This will allow the Anadyr CHPP to completely switch from coal to gas, which will significantly reduce the cost of local electricity. Now this thermal power plant annually burns more than 60 thousand tons of coal and significantly pollutes the natural environment.
The development of oil fields in Chukotka will reduce the import of diesel fuel (mazut) and fuel and lubricants in large volumes from other regions of the country.
Problems of small energy. For the extreme regions of Chukotka, small-scale nuclear power is the most acceptable today. Its feature is good mobility and independence from fuel sources. We owe the emergence of small-scale energy to the military-industrial complex, focused on the use of high-tech technologies in emergency combat conditions. In Pevek, it was proposed to build a floating nuclear thermal power plant (FNPP) with two reactors, which are used on Arctic nuclear icebreakers. The reactors have been tested in the most severe sea conditions, when trips to the North Pole became commonplace. Floating nuclear power plants are easily transported from place to place. They are ideal as a source of heat and energy saving in cases natural Disasters, especially on coasts with undeveloped infrastructure. But after the Chernobyl accident nuclear energy A distrustful attitude has developed in Russia.
Development of wind energy. Chukotka has significant reserves of environmentally friendly wind power. Over most of its territory, the average annual wind speed is 4-6 m/s. On the southeastern coast of Chukotka, as a result of the interaction between the largest continent and the largest ocean, some of the highest differences in temperature and atmospheric pressure occur. The average annual wind speed here reaches 6-9 m/s. These are the highest average annual wind speeds in Russia. Therefore, it was decided to begin developing the district’s wind power resources. Wind power plants operating in conjunction with thermal or diesel power plants will significantly increase electricity production and achieve savings in mineral fuel. The main thing is that they constitute an alternative to organic fuel, the combustion of which is accompanied by large emissions of harmful substances.
The first low-power wind power plants were built in the area before the war. And in February 2002, a wind power plant began operating in the village of Shakhtersky. The power line was repaired to supply electricity to the village of Ugolnye Kopi. A wind-diesel power plant is being built at Cape Observation, on the opposite bank of the estuary from Anadyr. It is planned to provide wind turbines to all 14 national villages on the eastern coast of Chukotka. New wind power plants will be built in the village of Provideniya and in the national villages of Uelkal and Konergino. There is no such scale of wind energy development as in Chukotka anywhere else in Russia.
Agriculture.
Industries of traditional
environmental management
The basis Agriculture The Chukotka Autonomous Okrug consists of such an industry as reindeer husbandry. Marine, fishing, and hunting play an important role for the indigenous population. There is cage farming, they raise pigs and cattle. But Chukotka never provided itself with food.
Reindeer husbandry.The most important area of agriculture in Chukotka remains reindeer husbandry. The rituals and traditions of reindeer herders are associated with deer.
For northern peoples, deer provided everything for life: from a belt to a home. His carcass was subjected to absolutely waste-free processing. The best suede in the world is made from the skins of young deer. Summer clothes and shoes are made from it. Winter kukhlyankas (double fur shirts) and torbasa (fur boots) are made from the skins and fur of deer - fawn, neblyuya and calf. In severe frosts, only reindeer skin retains lightness and elasticity along with high heat-protective properties. Extraordinarily strong threads are made from deer tendons. Various crafts are carved from horns and medicines are made. Artistic appliqués are made from fur and deer skin, and embroidery is made from deer hair.
In 1980, the number of domestic reindeer in Russia was 2.5 million heads. Today, 80% of the world's domestic reindeer and 40% of the world's wild reindeer are grazed in the Russian tundra. The largest herd of domestic reindeer in the whole world was in Russia and it was located in Chukotka. In 1927, the Chukotka reindeer herd, according to the Subpolar Census, numbered 557 thousand heads.
In 1970, 587 thousand heads of deer were counted in Chukotka, in 1980 - 540 thousand heads (a quarter of the world population).
In 1991, reindeer herding collective farms and state farms were reorganized into independent farms, but without government support it was difficult for them to develop. The mass slaughter of deer began. In 2000, the reindeer population of the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug totaled only 92 thousand heads. And only recently it began to grow little by little. In 2001, the reindeer population of the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug amounted to 100 thousand heads, and by the end of 2002 - 106 thousand heads.
But the Chukotka herd of deer still remains one of the largest in the world. It is represented by the famous Hargin deer breed, bred in Chukotka. Hargin feeds on both herbs and reindeer moss. Compared to other breeds of domestic reindeer in the North, it is characterized by high meat productivity.
In terms of biosphere significance, the Chukotka herd of deer is in no way inferior to the world-famous herds of large herbivores in African national parks. Reindeer husbandry has long been the national pride of Chukotka and all of Russia, if only because it appeared in the Western Hemisphere only at the end of the 19th century.
Hunting. Herds of wild deer migrate to Chukotka, the total number of which in some years reaches 300 thousand animals. Every year, “savages” take away up to 20 thousand domesticated deer. Hunters shoot migrating wild deer, which allows them to supply the population with dietary meat. Harvesting wild reindeer antlers can become a highly profitable trade. The most valuable varieties of Chukotka fur are in great demand on the international market. This is another currency reserve for the future of Chukotka, which can be supplemented with clearly regulated scales of caged fur farming. The most valuable are sable, arctic fox, and red fox. Hunting is also possible for moose, wolverines, wolves, brown bears, American minks, muskrats, stoats, and snowshoe hares. This includes meat, furs, and medicinal and technical raw materials. Of the game birds, the most promising resource is the white partridge. In some years, the volume of their procurement can reach 70 thousand individuals.
Sled dog breeding. At one time, unique strong and hardy sled dog breeds were formed and improved in Chukotka. One of the Chukotka breeds of sled dogs is known throughout the world as the Samoyed. Chukotka is also the birthplace of the famous Siberian husky, which is called the husky in the world. This breed originated from the Chukchi dogs that participated in the early 20th century. in sled dog competitions in Alaska. The Americans liked the Chukchi dogs, they began to breed them and called them Siberian huskies. In recent years, the importance of Chukotka sled dogs in the development of the export potential of the district has been realized, and sled dog breeding, although very slowly, is gradually being revived.
Vegetable growing. There are greenhouse farms in the district. In the central and western parts, mainly in the Markovo and Omolon region, potatoes, cabbage, and radishes are grown. Productivity can be increased by reclamation of soils, in particular, by the introduction of mineral and organic fertilizers, which neutralize the characteristic acidity of soils and increase the humus content in them.
Meadow farming. Meadows at the bottom of drained thermokarst lakes are used for making hay for cattle, and also as autumn and winter pastures for deer on the way to slaughter points. The quality of meadows is increased by overseeding more productive types of cereals, such as Siberian hair grass or meadow foxtail. The yield of green mass in such lake meadows ranges from 80 to 300 c/ha, but after 4-5 years of operation it usually decreases, and the meadows themselves become swamped. In some farms in Chukotka, the area of meadows cultivated on the bottom of drained lakes reaches several thousand hectares.
ABSTRACT
on ecology
on the topic of:
Environmental problems of the northern seas
The seas of the Arctic Ocean - Barents, White, Kara, Laptev, East Siberian, Chukotka - wash the territory of Russia from the north. The total area of the seas of the Arctic Ocean adjacent to the coast of our country is more than 4.5 million km2, and the volume of sea waters is 864 thousand km2. All seas are located on the continental shelf and are therefore shallow (average depth - 185m).
Currently, the Arctic seas are very heavily polluted as a result of human activity. Negatively affect the ecological state of waters: continental runoff; widespread use of ships; extraction of various minerals in the sea area; disposal of radioactive objects. Toxic substances enter both through water flows and due to the circulation of air masses. The ecosystem of the Barents and Kara seas is most severely disturbed.
Open part Barents Sea Compared to other Arctic seas, it is not very polluted. But the area where ships actively move is covered with an oil film. The waters of the bays (Kola, Teribersky, Motovsky) are subject to the greatest pollution, mainly from oil products. About 150 million m3 of polluted water enters the Barents Sea. Toxic substances constantly accumulate in the sea soil and can cause secondary pollution.
Rivers that flow into Kara Sea, have a relatively low level of pollution. However, the waters of the Ob and Yenisei have a high concentration of heavy metals, which adversely affects the sea ecosystem. Vessels have a negative impact on the ecological state of the sea. The places where they frequently move are contaminated with petroleum products. The waters belonging to the bays of the Kara Sea are characterized by experts as moderately polluted.
Coastal waters Laptev Sea contain a high concentration of phenol, which comes with river water. The high content of phenol in river and coastal waters is due to the huge number of sunken tree species. The most polluted waters are the Neelova Bay. The water spaces of Tiksi and Buor-Khaya bays are polluted. The ecological state of the water resources of Bulunkan Bay is noted as catastrophic. The content of large amounts of toxic substances in coastal waters is due to the discharge of untreated water from Tiksi. The sea also contains a large amount of petroleum products in areas of developed shipping.
Water East Siberian Sea are relatively clean. Only in Pevek Bay there has been slight water pollution, but recently the environmental situation here has been improving. The waters of Chaunskaya Bay are slightly polluted with petroleum hydrocarbons.
Chukchi Sea located quite far from the main large industrial centers. Due to this serious violations are not observed in the ecology of this sea. The only major source of pollution is pods coming from North America. These water streams contain large amounts of aerosol materials.
Let's take a closer look at the environmental problems of the northern seas.
The first problem is the reduction of marine biological resources. The anthropogenic load on biological resources has always been high. Back in the XVI-XVII centuries. merchants sent special expeditions to explore the northern seas and search for a passage to Far East. These studies were accompanied by the discovery of large whale habitats. But if the Arctic natives have been using marine biological resources moderately for centuries, the Europeans quickly brought closer the danger of complete destruction of the populations of fur seals and bowhead whales. Although the situation has now stabilized somewhat, the future of the whales remains unclear. There was also a threat of extermination of the populations of narwhals and walruses, which became objects of uncontrolled hunting for their tusks.
Arctic ecosystems maintain an extremely delicate balance and their biological uniqueness is at risk.
In terms of species abundance and population density, there is a significant depletion in the direction from the Atlantic Ocean to the central part of the Arctic Ocean and further to the Chukchi Sea. So in the Barents Sea the number of animal species is close to 2000, in the Kara Sea - slightly more than 1000. The Laptev and East Siberian seas have the poorest fauna. The density of fauna from the outskirts to the depths of the Arctic Ocean decreases by 3-4 times. However, this is due to geographical features and does not indicate a poor environmental situation.
The incidence of diseases in valuable fish species and the accumulation of harmful pollutants in them is increasing (in the muscle tissues of sturgeon there is an accumulation of organochlorine pesticides, salts of heavy metals, and mercury).
The current ecological state of the waters of the northern seas is also characterized by the constant melting of glaciers.
According to new maps of the Arctic made from satellite images, the area of the ice shell has decreased to 4.4 million square meters. km. The previous record, recorded in September 2005, was 5.3 million square meters. km. According to the Ministry of Emergency Situations of the Russian Federation, permafrost is thawing by four centimeters per year, and in the next 20 years its border will shift by 80 kilometers. Western ecologists claim that the process of thawing the Arctic has entered an irreversible phase and by 2030 the ocean will be open to navigation. Russian scientists are inclined to believe that warming is cyclical and should soon be replaced by cooling.
Meanwhile, the melting process continues. The fauna of the region is suffering. For example, polar bears can only live and eat on ice. And as summer ice retreats further north, some animal colonies are already experiencing starvation. As a result, the bear population may decline significantly in the coming years.
In addition, due to the melting of permafrost, the risk of methane release from the soil will increase. Methane is a greenhouse gas, its release causes an increase in the temperature of the lower layers of the atmosphere. But the main thing is that an increase in gas concentration will affect the health of northerners.
Another problem is the sharp increase in flood risk. By 2015, the water flow of northern rivers will increase by 90%. Freeze-up time will be reduced by more than 15 days. All this will lead to a doubling of the flood risk. This means that there will be twice as many transport accidents and flooding of coastal settlements.
In addition to the melting of ice and the destruction of the population of many species of marine animals, the waters of the northern seas have long experienced the consequences of nuclear weapons tests by the USSR and the USA.
For example, on the islands of Novaya Zemlya for a long time there was a site for nuclear testing, including tests of high-power charges and studies of the impact of nuclear explosion factors on various types of weapons and military equipment, including surface ships and submarines. Currently, the operation of the test site has been stopped, but there is no doubt about the extreme level of radiation contamination. There is no need to talk about the ecological cleanliness of this region.
In connection with the economic development of the depths of the Arctic Ocean, the question of improving and stabilizing the ecological state of this region is currently being raised at the international level. The solution to this problem is seen only at the global (world) level, since an individual country will not be able to solve it, both from a physical and legal point of view. However, the solution to this problem is clearly complicated at present by the fact that some states, in pursuit of hydrocarbon deposits, are busy dividing continental shelves.
It has been established that ocean waters located near oil and gas production platforms can be classified as environmentally hazardous. The transportation of oil and petroleum products along the Northern Sea Route is of particular concern to environmentalists. There is plenty of evidence that the condition of the water area is deteriorating every year. Oil spills on the coast, at terminal locations, and during oil transshipment occur regularly. Sometimes the closed areas of responsibility of the Northern Fleet prevent a prompt and timely response to oil spills. On the territory of the Murmansk sea fishing port there is a single point for receiving oily waters.
In recent years, control over the quality of sea waters has weakened somewhat and is carried out according to a reduced program due to insufficient funding.
Conclusion
The ecological situation in the waters of the northern seas is far from favorable. Currently, the world community is faced with the problem of solving several environmental problems associated with the seas of the Arctic Ocean.
The first problem is the massive destruction of marine biological resources, the disappearance of some species of marine animals living in the Far North.
The second problem on a global scale is the widespread melting of glaciers, thawing of the soil and its transition from the permafrost state to the unfrozen state.
The third problem is radiation pollution.
The fourth problem is pollution of ocean waters due to the development of the oil and gas industry in the ocean.
And if one of the environmental problems - the destruction of certain species of marine animals - can be solved to a certain extent by establishing bans and restrictions on extermination, then other problems still remain unresolved.
List of used literature:
Internet resources:
1. Online Encyclopedia “Krugosvet” http://www. krugosvet.ru/enc/istoriya/ARKTIKA.html
2. Ecological portal “Ecosystem”
www.esosystema.ru
3. Geographical dictionary
http://geography.kz/category/slovar/
Of all the seas surrounding Russia, the Chukchi Sea was one of the last to be explored. The exploration of this very northeastern sea of the country began with the explorer Semyon Dezhnev, who sailed from Kolyma to
The area of the sea is five hundred and ninety thousand square kilometers. More than half the area of the Chukchi Sea lies within the continental shelf, so the depths are no more than fifty meters, and in some places there are shallows up to thirteen meters. This is less than the height of a standard five-story building. According to geologists, ten to twelve thousand years ago there was land in this place, along which people settled the American continent. This fairly extensive landmass that existed in the past was named Beringia in the scientific literature. Maximum depth sea is 1256 meters.
The climate here is extremely harsh. The Chukchi Sea freezes in October, and the ice cover begins to disappear only in May. For more than six months the sea is unsuitable for navigation. In winter, the water temperature is negative, as due to the high salinity it freezes at a temperature slightly below zero degrees.
The sea coast in the west is the Chukotka Peninsula, and in the east is Alaska. The Chukchi, who are genetically closely related to the indigenous inhabitants of Alaska, have lived on the Chukchi Peninsula for a long time, at least five thousand years. Now the aborigines are the characters of numerous jokes, and yet these people, until the beginning of the twentieth century, were very warlike and repeatedly defeated the Russians who were actively developing Chukotka.
It is interesting that, recognizing the strength of the Russians, the Chukchi called people other than themselves, only them. All other nations did not receive such an honor from them. Bloody clashes between Russians and Chukchi continued from their first acquaintance in 1644 until the end of the eighteenth century, when a fortress was built on one of the tributaries of the Bolshoi Anyui, in which from now on military contacts were replaced by trade ones. However, minor military “misunderstandings” continued throughout the nineteenth century.
The life of the Chukchi is inseparable from the sea, to which they gave their name. Although, in fairness, it must be clarified that the way of life and even the self-name of the Chukchi living in the interior of the peninsula and on the coast are very different. The name “Chukchi” itself is a derivative of the Chukchi word meaning “rich in deer.” The coastal Chukchi, whose economy is based on fishing and hunting sea animals, are called differently - “ankalyn”, which means “dog breeders”.
Fishing in Chukotka, according to those who have visited this remote corner of Russia, is excellent. concerns mainly the rivers and lakes of the peninsula. Visiting fishermen rarely pay attention to the Chukchi Sea. This rich but harsh northern region, alas, cannot boast of an abundance of fish caught. Although... who knows, maybe due to global warming, the northern ice will retreat, and the local riches, including the sea, will become more accessible.
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