The Greeks have lived in Asia Minor since time immemorial. Before the conquest of the peninsula by the Ottomans, they were one of several indigenous peoples here. The Greeks created here the cities of Smyrna, Sinop, Samsun, Trebizond. The latter in the Middle Ages became an important trading city and the capital of the Empire of Trebizond.
After the conquest of the Trebizond state by the Turks, its territory became part of the Sublime Porte. Greeks in the Ottoman Empire constituted a national and religious minority. Part of the Pontics switched and adopted the Turkish language.
In 1878 the Greeks were given equal rights with the Muslims. At the beginning of the 20th century, separatist sentiments began to mature among the Pontic Greeks. The idea of creating their own Greek state on the territory of Pontus was popular among the population.
With the outbreak of the First World War, the Turkish government began to view the Pontic Greeks as unreliable. In 1916, they, along with Armenians and Assyrians, began to be evicted to the interior regions of the Ottoman Empire. The resettlement was accompanied by massacres and robberies. This process is often referred to as the Greek genocide. Greek rebels began an armed struggle for the creation of an independent state.
After the Turkish troops left Pontus, the power in the region passed to the Greeks. A government headed by Metropolitan Chrysanth was formed. After the capture of the region by the Turkish in 1918, a mass exodus of Greeks began. Refugees were sent to Transcaucasia (Armenia and Georgia), Greece and Russia.
The rest were resettled in Greece in 1923 as part of the Lausanne Peace Treaty, which contained an article on the Greek-Turkish population exchange. The Pontic Greeks regarded their forced departure as a national catastrophe. Muslims from the Balkan countries settled in their place.
The language of the Pontic Greeks
During the period of residence in the Ottoman Empire, the Pontic Greeks were bilingual. In addition to Greek, they also used Turkish. Separate groups of the Greek population switched to Turkish as early as the 15th-17th centuries.
Pontic Greek differs significantly from that of mainland Greece. The inhabitants of Athens and other cities do not understand him. Many linguists consider Pontic a separate language. There is a widespread belief among the Pontics about the great antiquity of their language.
The historical name of the Pontic language is Romaika. After resettling in Greece in 1923, the Pontians were asked to forget their language and renounce their identity. Now only representatives of the older generation, who are over 80, remember their native language.
Pure romeika is partially preserved only in the Villata Of in Turkey. These are the descendants of the Greeks who adopted back in the 17th century. Several thousand people speak this language here. The Pontic dialect is very similar to the language of the "Mariupol Greeks" living in Ukraine.
(John Harrison Sims)
In recent films about Ancient Greece such as " Troy", "Elena Troyanskaya" and " three hundred spartans"starred actors of Anglo-Saxon and Celtic origin, such as Brad Pitt and Gerard Butler. We see the same thing in new films about ancient Rome, such as" Gladiator"(Which starred Russell Crowe) and TV Series" Rome". But is such a choice of directors justified from a historical point of view? Did the ancient Greeks and Romans really belong to the northern European type?
Today, most historians of ancient culture remain silent on this issue. For example, Paul Cartledge, professor of Greek culture at Cambridge and specialist on Sparta, writes for a circle of educated non-specialists, but nowhere in his writings does he discuss the racial origin of the Spartans. A few years ago, I tried to find out from a number of professors of ancient culture what race the ancient Greeks belonged to - but they only shrugged their shoulders, showing that, they say, no one knows this, and the question itself does not deserve to be studied. In our time, interest in the race of the ancients seems to be considered unhealthy, and all evidence in favor of their Nordic origin is ignored for fear of creating dangerous mentalities.
However, even a hundred years ago, Europeans were convinced that many Greeks and Romans belonged to the same race as themselves. In the famous 11th edition" Encyclopædia Britannica', published in 1911, notes:
"the preservation of blond hair, light skin color and eyes among the nobility of Thebes and a number of other places indicates that the fair-haired type, characteristic of northwestern Europe, penetrated the Greek lands even before the beginning of the classical era".
Further in the same place it is said that the first Greeks, or Hellenes, were Nordics, one of the " blond tribes of northern Europe, which was known to the ancients under the name "Celts""Even Bertrand Russell, the British philosopher and socialist, argued 60 years ago that Hellenes" were blonde invaders from the North who brought the Greek language with them" ("History of Western Philosophy", 1946).
Nowadays, interest in the race of the ancients is considered unhealthy..
Today's scientists have dissociated themselves from this unanimous opinion in the 1960s. " Historical Atlas of Ancient Greece", released by Penguin in 1996, pokes fun at " the doubtless dubious racial theories on which this reconstruction of antiquity is largely based", but does not offer any theory in return, recognizing only that " the origin of the Greeks remains a highly controversial issue The author, however, makes the following astonishing confession:
"A number of ideas about racial origins developed in the 19th century, and although they are probably based in part on historical tradition, archeology or linguistics, they were often combined with other, more ambiguous assumptions.".
Beth Cohen in her book " Not a classical ideal: Athens and the creation of the image of the "other" in Greek art"(2000) argues that the Thracians, distant cousins of the Greeks, had " the same dark hair and the same facial features as the ancient Greeks".
However " british encyclopedia"quite rightly wrote about the blondness of the Thebans. Thebes was the main city of Boeotia, a rich agricultural region in central Greece. Fragments of an ancient travel story dating back to 150 BC indicate that the Thebans were " the tallest, most charming and graceful in all Hellas. They tie their golden hair into a knot at the top of their head.".
Detail of an Athenian urn, which apparently depicts a Pelasgian woman.
Scholars today reject such myths, but the latter would not survive if they generally contradicted the popular memory of the ancients. This myth is consistent with what experts in ancient culture have long been convinced of: the Hellenes migrated to mainland Greece and the islands of the Aegean Sea by several " waves". The first of the Hellenes to arrive were the Ionians and Aeolians, then, several centuries later, the Achaeans, and finally the Dorians.
The early Greek civilization of the Bronze Age was, of course, influenced by the Minoan and other Mediterranean cultures, but was undeniably Greek. Entries in Linear B, circa 1500 BC. AD which became the main one in Cretan culture, were deciphered and turned out to be a form of the ancient Greek language.
Around 1200 BC this culture, called the Mycenaean, declined: its cities were destroyed and abandoned by the inhabitants, and Greece plunged into the Dark Ages for 400 years. The destruction was probably caused in part by earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, and later attributed by the Greeks to invasions from the north.
Waves of Hellenic warriors burned the Mycenaean strongholds and became the ruling race in Greece. They also sacked Troy, and Homer's Iliad“It’s about them. They, apparently, largely exterminated the Mycenaean culture: the Greeks forgot writing, art, urban life and trade with the outside world died out.
We learn something about the first Hellenes from " Iliad The poem was first written down in the second half of the 8th century BC, at the end of the Greek Dark Ages, when the Phoenicians taught the Greeks to write again. It tells of events four or five centuries earlier.
We believe that this poem is about the Greeks, but the Homeric warrior heroes belong to the Achaean nobility, and it must be assumed that it was they who destroyed the Mycenaean civilization, and not the Dorians, who invaded Greece and ousted the Achaeans a century later. Archeology confirms this assumption, since Troy was burned around 1200 BC, and the beginning of the Trojan War is traditionally attributed to 1184 BC. The Dorian invasion is attributed by various ancient historians to 1149, 1100 or 1049 BC.
There are good reasons to believe that Homer wrote down the traditions that came down to him through the dark ages. The storyteller lived in Ionia, an area on the Aegean coast that today belongs to Turkey, and if his stories were fiction, he would have made them the heroes of the Ionians. However, he sings the praises of the fair-haired Achaean nobility: the great warrior Achilles has a “fair-haired”; the greatest Achaean strategist Odysseus " reddish"; at his wife Penelope" white cheeks the color of pure snow"; healer and connoisseur of medicinal plants Agameda is reputed to be " fair-haired"; and the Spartan king Menelaus, the husband of Helen, is named" fair-haired".
Also, Elena herself " light-curl", and even fair-skinned slave girls: " fair-haired Hekamede", "white-lanite Chryseis" and " fair-haired Briseida". This is important: after all, if even some slaves were fair-haired, it means that the Nordic type was inherent not only to the Achaeans, but also to other peoples of the Aegean world.
In the description of Homer and Pindar, most of the Olympian gods appear blond and " clear-eyed", that is, gray, green or blue-eyed. Demeter" fair-haired" or " golden" hair; " golden-haired"Leto, the mother of Apollo, is also named. Aphrodite -" golden-haired", while Athena is described as " fair-haired and clear-eyed", as well as " gray-eyed goddess". Two of the gods have dark hair - Poseidon and Hephaestus. Let us recall how Xenophanes complained that all peoples present their gods as similar to themselves.
The last of the Greek invaders were the Dorians; they put an end to the dominion of the Achaeans and probably forced the Aeolians and Ionian Hellenes (among whom were undoubtedly the ancestors of Homer) to migrate en masse across the Aegean to the shores of Asia Minor. The Dorians, who settled in the fertile valley of Eurotas in the southern Peloponnese, were the direct ancestors of the Spartans of the classical era and considered themselves the only pure Dorians.
Here is what Werner Jaeger, director of the Institute for the Study of Classical Antiquities at Harvard, wrote:
"The national type of invaders has been preserved in its purest form in Sparta. Pindar borrowed from the Dorian race his ideal of a fair-haired noble warrior, who used to describe not only Homeric Menelaus, but also the greatest Greek hero Achilles, as well as in general all "fair-haired Danae"[that is, the Achaeans who fought near Troy] heroic era" ("Paideia: The Ideals of Greek Culture", 1939).
The Greeks of the classical era did not consider themselves autochthonous, that is, the original inhabitants of their land. On the contrary, they were proudly called " epeludes", considering themselves the descendants of later settlers and conquerors. A well-known exception was the Arcadians and Athenians, whose rocky lands, apparently, did not attract armed colonizers.
Origin of the Greek people
Where did he come from, this people, who neither on the Mycenaean tablets nor in the Homeric poems called themselves "Greeks", because not he himself, but the Italians, having come into conflict with the inhabitants of Epirus, extended the nickname of a little-known tribe to the entire Greek archipelago, in the 4th century BC e. living in the vicinity of Dodona. The author of the Catalog of Ships (Iliad, II, 530) uses the term panhellenes to refer to all the inhabitants of Hellas, that is, a small region south of Thessaly, as well as the valley of Sperhei. Most often, the soldiers gathered near Troy are called Achaeans ( akhaios), Argives ( argeios) or Danes ( danaoi), this is clearly not a self-name. Historians point to the presence of Achaean tribes in half a dozen regions of Greece - from Thessaly to Crete. The name Argos ("White City") was borne by eight cities or settlements from the middle basin of Heliakmon (Vistritsa) and northern Thessaly to the island of Nisyros. The name of the Danaans is associated not only with the subjects of the mythical king Danae from Argolis, the father of Danaides, but also with the name of a large river in Thessaly - Apidanos. So, most likely, the four names by which the most ancient written sources known to us designate the Greeks - Hellenes, Achaeans, Argives, Danaans - belonged to the tribes that inhabited the rich Thessalian plain. But where did they come from?
There are three options for resolving this issue. The first of them, literary, is no worse and no better than the other two. It consists in taking into account the opinion of Greek historians, because who, if not them, knows the origin of their own ancestors. The ancients considered Hellenes, the hero-eponym of their race, the son of the northerner Prometheus, or Deucalion ("White") and Pyrrha ("Red"). The last ones were washed up on the mountains of Thessaly after the Great Flood. Therefore, they came from somewhere north of Mount Olympus and, according to tradition, this was around 1600 BC. e., Hellen married the nymph Orsea, thereby giving life to the four ancestors of the Hellenic tribes.
The linguistic solution was prompted by a search among the most ancient toponyms of peninsular Greece and Crete for a series of names that undoubtedly preceded the Greek ones, and an attempt to find correspondences for them in Europe and Asia. Meanwhile, among the pre-Hellenic proper names, there are two types: those that cannot be explained according to the laws of the Indo-European languages, such as the names of certain mountains (Mala, Parna, Pindus) and rivers (Arna, Tavros), and others that are ubiquitous on the banks of Aegean, with roots and suffixes comparable to those found in the Indo-European languages, although their phonetics violates the laws of the Greek: say, Corinth and Kurivanda, Pedas and Pedassa, Pergamon and Larissa. As a result, the conclusion suggests itself that before the appearance of the Hellenes in Thessaly, at least two different peoples lived on the Greek archipelago: the first was pre-Indo-European, and the second was formed from various Indo-European elements, and its speakers used words ending in - eus, - tpa, - nthos, - ssos-ssa etc. Such words are widely represented on our maps, from the shores of the Sea of Marmara to Crete, including in Thrace, Eastern Greece and the Peloponnese.
As for the Proto-Hellenic region proper, linguists who study the names of rivers and mountains locate it in Pieria, north of Epirus, that is, approximately on the territory of present-day northwestern Greece: here all toponyms are of ancient Greek origin. Scientists conclude that the ancestors of the mythical Hellenes roamed between the Grammos massif, the copper mines near Grevena and the Ion River basin. On their migrations to the southeast, driving or driven by flocks, hungry and too numerous to feed themselves, they encountered a mixed population, cultured higher than their own, and called them Pelasgians. It has been noted that during the Trojan War, only the eastern parts of Greece, the Balkan Peninsula and the adjacent islands were considered as Hellenic, as if the people of Hellene were dissolved among the shepherds of Pindus and Parnassus and the Aegean sailors. In all likelihood, the name "Achaeans", akhaios, - Pelasgic, that is, of pre-Hellenic origin, and means warrior men, "comrades."
However, the archeological approach to solving this issue is now in vogue. After the excavations of Orchomena, the Minoan capital of Boeotia, the discovery of many cities of Argolis, including Lerna, and most importantly, after a comparative study of burial mounds in southern Russia, called barrows, and similar burial grounds in the Mediterranean, from Albania to Asia Minor, most archaeologists admit the possibility of an invasion of the Balkans by several successive waves of Indo-European aliens from the beginning of the Bronze Age, that is, from about 2500 BC. e. You should not think that they fell in droves: probably there were no more than a few tens of thousands of people who roamed with their herds in search of pastures, living space and a place in the sun. Along the way, they caused a lot of disasters, but they brought something new with them both to the land of Greece itself and to the region of Troy. The settlements of the more ancient inhabitants of those places probably burned to the ground more than once between 2500 and 1900 BC. e .: conflagrations are characteristic of Troy, the towns of Thessaly, Etresi and Lerna, and in the years 2300-2200 the same fate befell many settlements on the Cretan shores.
The steppes brought with them the features of a completely different civilization: burials under mounds, original ceramics with wicker ornaments, very smooth and imitating metal, the ability to combine copper with many other elements - arsenic, zinc, lead, silver, tin - to make battle axes, daggers and swords that became longer and stronger, spears with tips and peculiar armor that covered the whole body, as well as the feudal system of dividing society into three or four classes, and among the latter - a caste of professional warriors capable of harnessing a horse to a war chariot.
The most ancient remains of a domesticated horse found in Macedonia date back to the Early Bronze Age. At the end of the 17th century BC. e. noble conquering warriors demanded that in Greece they be buried under huge barrows along with horses - this fact is proved by excavations in Marathon. It is not difficult to imagine what horror seized the peaceful farmers and shepherds who lived on the plains of Thessaly, Boeotia and Attica, at the sight of war chariots, these terrible war machines, on which archers and spearmen rushed without a miss. The natives, or rather, those who had come here before - the Pelasgians, Lelegs, Lapiths or Aons - had only to flee or submit.
And archaeologists also confirm what has been dimly seen both from literary analysis and from comparative study of place names: from 1600 to 1200, the Mycenaean world experienced a phase of impressive economic and demographic expansion. New settlements appeared everywhere and cities were built. Finally, the instability of the early and middle Bronze Ages is opposed by the constancy of the customs of the Late Bronze Age. Neither in Marathon, nor in Arkhani in Crete (ancient Akanans) during the 16th-13th centuries, no changes were observed in the funeral rites. All these considerations come down to a few dates and symbolic facts:
1600–1500: Construction of a circle of royal tombs at Mycenae AT, then circle A Appearance of similar burials from Lefkada to Marathon.
1500-1400: Laying of the most ancient palaces in Mycenae, Tiryns and Thebes. The appearance of royal domed tombs, tholoses.
1400–1300: Construction of Cyclopean fortifications and new palaces in twenty cities of Greece and on the coasts of Asia.
1300–1200: Build-up and improvement of means of defense. Massive colonization of islands and outlying coasts.
It should not be imagined that the phenomenon of invasions and the merger of invaders with local residents is characteristic exclusively of Greece, and most importantly, that all this ceased in 1200 BC. e. Since that time, every century has witnessed how in the Balkans, not afraid of either the Tempe Gorge or Thermopylae, hordes of conquerors from the farthest corners of Europe march, and sometimes settle on the peninsula. Dorians, Thracians, Macedonians, Celts, Goths, Slavs, Crusaders, Albanians, peoples of the Caucasus and so on - all of them, who earlier, who later, set foot on the land of Greece. But what is most striking in the legendary campaign of the Achaeans to the shores of Asia, or rather, to Troy, is that they met there, according to ancient sources, languages, customs and religions similar to their own, as if they were brothers, or at least relatives of Priam and his vassals. For 100 years, archaeologists have noted that the sixth layer of the Trojan ruins contains the same "Minoan" ceramics - gray, then red and cream, the same types of vessels, buildings, fortifications as the Greek cities contemporary to this layer (c. 1900-1360 .). On the other hand, the Mycenaean pottery found in Troy VII A testifies to the close ties between this city and the Achaean world. And you begin to seriously wonder if Troad was not filled with the same nomadic tribes as the Greek peninsula at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC, and if the Achaeans, who became masters of Greece 500 years later, tried to subjugate the Asian "Minoans" how did they conquer the "Minoans" of Europe?
Anything, of course, happens in the world, but it is hardly worth considering the abduction of the Greek woman Helen from Sparta by the Trojan Paris-Alexander as an indisputable historical fact. It might have been more of a provocation. casus belli(6) capable of justifying a long-planned military campaign. In the end, they did not hesitate, but in 1645 A.D. e. the Turks of Istanbul to throw 400 warships to Crete and capture it, allegedly in retaliation for the hijacking of a galley with a princess from the Seraglio by Maltese corsairs? This is indeed a historical fact, and people have often unleashed wars under much less serious pretexts.
From the book Myths and Legends of China author Werner Edward From the book Rhythms of Eurasia: Epochs and Civilizations author Gumilyov Lev NikolaevichThe origin of the Turkut people The Turkic-speaking peoples in the western part of Central Asia are known in the deepest antiquity, starting from the 3rd century BC. BC, but the term "Turk" did not exist then. At the dawn of history (3rd century BC) they were called "Xiongnu", later, in the 4th - 5th centuries,
From the book Sexual Life in Ancient Greece author Licht Hans6. An Analysis of the Greek Ideal of Boys After presenting the Greek ideal of beauty as expressed in boyish traits, and after attempting to make it easier for the modern reader to understand, we should dwell in more detail on the details of the Hellenic ideal.
From the book Judgment of Time. Issues #35-46 author Mlechin Leonid Mikhailovich42. Fidel Castro: policy against the people or for the benefit of the people? Part 1Svanidze: Hello! In Russia, as you know, the past is unpredictable. Each time perceives the past in its own way. On the air "Court of Time". Our focus is on historical events, characters,
From the book Ancient Greece author Lyapustin Boris SergeevichTHE BIRTH OF THE GREEK POLIS The archaic era was a unique period in ancient Greek history. In just three centuries, completely new, never-before-existing types of civilization, society and statehood appeared in Hellas. Their starting point
From the book Ancient Greece author Lyapustin Boris SergeevichTHE CRISIS OF THE CLASSICAL GREEK POLIS The crisis of the classical polis that began after the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC) is an extremely complex and multi-valued phenomenon. He determined the entire development of Greek society in this century. It is no coincidence that in
From the book History of the City of Rome in the Middle Ages author Gregorovius Ferdinand5. Ignorance of Rome. - liber pontificalis Anastasia. - Origin and character of this book. - Translations of Anastasius from Greek. - Life of Gregory the Great, written by John the Deacon If Anonymous of Salerno visited Rome under Nicholas I, he, of course, would never have been able to find here
From the book The Conquest of America by Ermak-Cortes and the rebellion of the Reformation through the eyes of the "ancient" Greeks author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich5. The origin of Yermak and the origin of Cortes In the previous chapter, we have already reported that, according to Romanov historians, information about Yermak's past is extremely scarce. According to legend, Yermak's grandfather was a townsman of the city of Suzdal. His famous grandson was born somewhere in
From the book 100 great secrets of archeology author Volkov Alexander Viktorovich From the book Three Disappeared Peoples author Gumilyov Lev NikolaevichThe origin of the Turkut people The Turkic-speaking peoples in the western part of Central Asia are known in the deepest antiquity, starting from the 3rd century BC. BC, but the term "Turk" did not exist then. At the dawn of history (3rd century BC), they were called "Xiongnu", later, in the 4th-5th centuries -
From the book Diplomacy of Svyatoslav author Sakharov Andrey NikolaevichOnce again about the "Note of the Greek toparch" In connection with the formulation of the question of the situation in the Northern Black Sea region, in our opinion, it is advisable to return once again to the repeatedly studied so-called "Note of the Greek Toparch". This "Note", as shown by its first
From the book of Jesus. The Mystery of the Birth of the Son of Man [compilation] by Conner JacobThe Emergence of Greek Influence The beginning of Greek influence in this region dates back to 332 BC, when the soldiers of Alexander the Great discovered excellent but sparsely populated lands on the east side of the Jordan. They immediately occupied them, but they still had to
From the book Mysteries of the Roman genealogy of the Rurikovich author Seryakov Mikhail LeonidovichChapter 12. THE ORIGIN OF THE NAME OF RUSSIA AND THE ORIGINAL HOMELAND OF OUR PEOPLE Along with the Norman hypothesis, there were several versions about the Slavic origin of the name Rus. Since not far from Kyiv, in the Middle Dnieper, there is the river Ros, the temptation was great
From the book 50 great dates in world history author Shuler JulesThe Origin of the People of Israel The Jewish people belong to the numerous Semitic-speaking peoples of the Middle East. Leaving Lower Mesopotamia (the founding ancestor Abraham allegedly came from the upper city of Ur), he penetrated with his herds into Palestine and received the name
From the book History of the Ros people [From the Aryans to the Varangians] the author Akashev Yuri§ 2. The origin of the name of the Russian people In the problem of the origin of the Russian people, one of the main ones is the question of the origin of its name. The answer to some other important questions also depends on the solution of this issue: about the antiquity of this people, about its ethnic
From the book General History [Civilization. Modern concepts. Facts, events] author Dmitrieva Olga VladimirovnaSparta as a type of Greek polis Along with Athens, ancient Sparta was one of the largest polises of Greece in archaic and classical times. Just as in Athens, in Sparta there is an ancient form of property as the collective property of fellow citizens -
In the Russian Federation, Tyumen region. Formed 12/10/1930. 750.3 thousand km², including islands in the Kara Cape Bely, Oleniy, Shokalsky and others. Population 465 thousand people (1993), urban 83%; Russians, Nenets, Khanty, Komi, etc. 6 cities, 9 ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
YAMAL NENETS AUTONOMOUS DISTRICT, subject of the Russian Federation; within the Tyumen region. It is located in the Far North of Western Siberia, partly beyond the Arctic Circle. Includes the islands of Bely, Oleniy, Shokalsky, etc., in the north it is washed by ... Russian history
YAMAL NENETS AUTONOMOUS DISTRICT, in the Tyumen region, in Russia. The area is 750.3 thousand km2. Population 465 thousand people, urban 80%; Russians (59.2%), Ukrainians (17.2%), Nenets (4.2%), Khanty, Komi, etc. Salekhard center. 7 districts, 6 cities, 9 villages… Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary
Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug- Russian Federation Federal districts: Far Eastern Privolzhsky Northwestern North ... Accounting Encyclopedia
Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug- as part of the Tyumen region of the RSFSR. It was formed on December 10, 1930. It is located in the extreme north of the West Siberian Plain; about 50% of the territory of the district is beyond the Arctic Circle. It is washed by the waters of the Kara Sea. Includes the islands: White, Oleniy, Shokalsky ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia
Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug- Yamalo Nenets Autonomous Okrug. Nenets. Women at the plague. Yamalo Nenets Autonomous Okrug, a subject of the Russian Federation within the Tyumen Region. It is located in the Far North of Western Siberia, partly beyond the Arctic Circle. Includes… … Dictionary "Geography of Russia"
YAMAL-NENETS AUTONOMOUS DISTRICT- is included in Ros. Federation. Pl. 750.3 thousand km2. Us. 488 thousand people (1996), including Nenets (18 thousand), Khanty (6.6 thousand), Selkups (1.8 thousand), Mansi (0.1 thousand). Center Salekhard. The first Russian native school. in 1850 in Obdorsk (now Salekhard). In con. 19 … Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia
YAMAL-NENETS AUTONOMOUS DISTRICT- an equal subject within the Russian Federation, according to the Constitution of the Russian Federation and the Charter (Basic Law) Ya. N. a. o., adopted by the State Duma Ya. N. a. about. September 19, 1995 The district is part of the Tyumen region. The administrative center of the district is the city of ... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary of Constitutional Law
Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug- Yam alo Nenets Autonomous Okrug ... Russian spelling dictionary
Books
- Ural Endless Drive-2 in Russian, Chebotaeva M. (compilation) Category: Contemporary prose Buy for 1650 rubles
- Ural Endless Drive-2 in English, Chebotaeva M., Book “Ural: Endless Drive-2! 52 routes by car through Europe and Asia” was published as a continuation of the first magnificent photo album “Ural: Endless Drive-1!”, It contains not only 52 new… Category: Contemporary prose Buy for 1650 rubles
- And the snow is warm: stories, essays, memoirs, Yuri Vasilievich Neyolov, With the courage to speak out, he defined in the preface the position of the author, who headed the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug for 16 years, a member of the Federation Council of the Russian Federation, Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR (1985-1990) ... Category:
Loading...