Scientific knowledge - This is a type and level of knowledge aimed at producing true knowledge about reality, the discovery of objective laws based on a generalization of real facts. It rises above ordinary cognition, that is, spontaneous cognition associated with the life activity of people and perceiving reality at the level of phenomenon.
Epistemology - This is the doctrine of scientific knowledge.
Features of scientific knowledge:
Firstly, its main task is to discover and explain the objective laws of reality - natural, social and thinking. Hence the focus of research on the general, essential properties of an object and their expression in a system of abstraction.
Secondly, the immediate goal and highest value of scientific knowledge is objective truth, comprehended primarily by rational means and methods.
Third, to a greater extent than other types of knowledge, it is oriented towards being embodied in practice.
Fourthly, science has developed a special language, characterized by the accuracy of the use of terms, symbols, and diagrams.
Fifthly, Scientific knowledge is a complex process of reproduction of knowledge that forms an integral, developing system of concepts, theories, hypotheses, and laws.
At sixth, Scientific knowledge is characterized by both strict evidence, validity of the results obtained, reliability of conclusions, and the presence of hypotheses, conjectures, and assumptions.
Seventh, scientific knowledge requires and resorts to special tools (means) of knowledge: scientific equipment, measuring instruments, instruments.
Eighth, scientific knowledge is characterized by processuality. In its development, it goes through two main stages: empirical and theoretical, which are closely related to each other.
Ninth, The field of scientific knowledge consists of verifiable and systematized information about various phenomena of existence.
Levels of scientific knowledge:
Empirical level cognition is a direct experimental, mostly inductive, study of an object. It includes obtaining the necessary initial facts - data about individual aspects and connections of the object, understanding and describing the data obtained in the language of science, and their primary systematization. Cognition at this stage still remains at the level of phenomenon, but the prerequisites for penetrating the essence of the object have already been created.
Theoretical level characterized by deep penetration into the essence of the object being studied, not only identifying, but also explaining the patterns of its development and functioning, constructing a theoretical model of the object and its in-depth analysis.
Forms of scientific knowledge:
scientific fact, scientific problem, scientific hypothesis, proof, scientific theory, paradigm, unified scientific picture of the world.
Scientific fact - this is the initial form of scientific knowledge, in which primary knowledge about an object is recorded; it is a reflection in the consciousness of the subject of a fact of reality. In this case, a scientific fact is only one that can be verified and described in scientific terms.
Scientific problem - it is a contradiction between new facts and existing theoretical knowledge. A scientific problem can also be defined as a kind of knowledge about ignorance, since it arises when the cognizing subject realizes the incompleteness of a particular knowledge about an object and sets the goal of eliminating this gap. The problem includes the problematic issue, the project for solving the problem and its content.
Scientific hypothesis - This is a scientifically based assumption that explains certain parameters of the object being studied and does not contradict known scientific facts. It must satisfactorily explain the object being studied, be verifiable in principle, and answer the questions posed by the scientific problem.
In addition, the main content of the hypothesis should not contradict the laws established in a given system of knowledge. The assumptions that make up the content of the hypothesis must be sufficient so that with their help it is possible to explain all the facts about which the hypothesis is put forward. The assumptions of the hypothesis should not be logically contradictory.
The development of new hypotheses in science is associated with the need for a new vision of the problem and the emergence of problematic situations.
Proof - this is a confirmation of the hypothesis.
Types of evidence:
Practice serving as direct confirmation
Indirect theoretical proof, including confirmation by arguments indicating facts and laws (inductive path), derivation of a hypothesis from other, more general and already proven provisions (deductive path), comparison, analogy, modeling, etc.
The proven hypothesis serves as the basis for constructing scientific theory.
Scientific theory - this is a form of reliable scientific knowledge about a certain set of objects, which is a system of interconnected statements and evidence and contains methods for explaining, transforming and predicting phenomena in a given object area. In theory, in the form of principles and laws, knowledge about the essential connections that determine the emergence and existence of certain objects is expressed. The main cognitive functions of the theory are: synthesizing, explanatory, methodological, predictive and practical.
All theories develop within certain paradigms.
Paradigm - it is a special way of organizing knowledge and seeing the world, influencing the direction of further research. Paradigm
can be compared with optical device through which we look at this or that phenomenon.
Many theories are constantly being synthesized into unified scientific picture of the world, that is, a holistic system of ideas about the general principles and laws of the structure of being.
Methods of scientific knowledge:
Method(from Greek Metodos - path to something) - it is a way of activity in any form.
The method includes techniques that ensure the achievement of goals, regulate human activity and general principles, from which these techniques arise. Methods of cognitive activity form the direction of cognition at a particular stage, the order of cognitive procedures. In their content, the methods are objective, since they are ultimately determined by the nature of the object and the laws of its functioning.
Scientific method - This is a set of rules, techniques and principles that ensure the logical cognition of an object and the receipt of reliable knowledge.
Classification of methods of scientific knowledge can be done for various reasons:
First reason. Based on their nature and role in cognition, they distinguish methods - techniques, which consist of specific rules, techniques and algorithms of action (observation, experiment, etc.) and methods - approaches, which indicate the direction and general method of research (system analysis, functional analysis, diachronic method, etc.).
Second reason. By functional purpose they are distinguished:
a) universal human methods of thinking (analysis, synthesis, comparison, generalization, induction, deduction, etc.);
b) empirical methods (observation, experiment, survey, measurement);
c) theoretical level methods (modelling, thought experiment, analogy, mathematical methods, philosophical methods, induction and deduction).
Third base is the degree of generality. Here the methods are divided into:
a) philosophical methods (dialectical, formal - logical, intuitive, phenomenological, hermeneutic);
b) general scientific methods, that is, methods that guide the course of knowledge in many sciences, but unlike philosophical methods, each general scientific method (observation, experiment, analysis, synthesis, modeling, etc.) solves its own problem, characteristic only for it ;
c) special methods.
Some methods of scientific knowledge:
Observation - this is a purposeful, organized perception of objects and phenomena to collect facts.
Experiment - is an artificial recreation of a cognizable object under controlled and controlled conditions.
Formalization is a reflection of the acquired knowledge in an unambiguous formalized language.
Axiomatic method - this is a way of constructing a scientific theory when it is based on certain axioms, from which all other provisions are logically deduced.
Hypothetico-deductive method - creation of a system of deductively interconnected hypotheses, from which explanations of scientific facts are ultimately derived.
Inductive methods for establishing the causal relationship of phenomena:
similarity method: if two or more cases of the phenomenon being studied have only one previous common circumstance, then this circumstance in which they are similar to each other is probably the cause of the phenomenon being sought;
difference method: if the case in which the phenomenon we are interested in occurs and the case in which it does not occur are similar in everything, with the exception of one circumstance, then this is the only circumstance in which they differ from each other, and is probably the cause of the desired phenomenon;
accompanying change method: if the occurrence or change of a previous phenomenon each time causes the occurrence or change of another phenomenon accompanying it, then the first of them is probably the cause of the second;
residual method: If it is established that the cause of part of a complex phenomenon is not caused by known previous circumstances, except for one of them, then we can assume that this only circumstance is the cause of the part of the phenomenon under study that interests us.
Universal methods of thinking:
- Comparison- establishing the similarities and differences between objects of reality (for example, we compare the characteristics of two engines);
- Analysis- mental dissection of an object as a whole
(we break down each engine into its component characteristics);
- Synthesis- mental unification into a single whole of the elements isolated as a result of the analysis (we mentally connect best characteristics and elements of both engines in one - virtual);
- Abstraction- highlighting some features of an object and distracting from others (for example, we study only the design of the engine and temporarily do not take into account its content and functioning);
- Induction- movement of thought from the particular to the general, from individual data to more general provisions, and in the end - to the essence (we take into account all cases of engine failures of this type and, based on this, we come to conclusions about the prospects for its further operation);
- Deduction- movement of thought from the general to the specific (based on the general patterns of engine operation, we make predictions about the further functioning of a particular engine);
- Modeling- construction of a mental object (model) similar to the real one, the study of which will allow one to obtain the information necessary for understanding the real object (creating a model of a more advanced engine);
- Analogy- conclusion about the similarity of objects in some properties, based on similarity in other characteristics (conclusion about engine breakdown based on a characteristic knock);
- Generalization- combining individual objects into a certain concept (for example, creating the concept “engine”).
The science:
- This is a form of spiritual and practical activity of people aimed at achieving objectively true knowledge and its systematization.
Scientific complexes:
A)Natural science is a system of disciplines whose object is nature, that is, a part of existence that exists according to laws not created by human activity.
b)Social science- this is a system of sciences about society, that is, a part of existence that is constantly recreated in the activities of people. Social science includes social sciences (sociology, economic theory, demography, history, etc.) and humanities that study the values of society (ethics, aesthetics, religious studies, philosophy, legal sciences, etc.)
V)Technical science- these are sciences that study the laws and specifics of the creation and functioning of complex technical systems.
G)Anthropological Sciences- this is a set of sciences about man in all his integrity: physical anthropology, philosophical anthropology, medicine, pedagogy, psychology, etc.
In addition, sciences are divided into fundamental, theoretical and applied, which have a direct connection with industrial practice.
Scientific criteria: universality, systematization, relative consistency, relative simplicity (a theory that explains the widest possible range of phenomena based on a minimum number of scientific principles is considered good), explanatory potential, predictive power, completeness for a given level of knowledge.
Scientific truth is characterized by objectivity, evidence, systematicity (orderliness based on certain principles), and verifiability.
Models of science development:
theory of reproduction (proliferation) by P. Feyerabend, which affirms the chaotic origin of concepts, T. Kuhn's paradigm, conventionalism by A. Poincaré, psychophysics by E. Mach, personal knowledge by M. Polanyi, evolutionary epistemology by S. Toulmin, research program by I. Lakatos, thematic analysis of science by J. Holton.
K. Popper, considering knowledge in two aspects: statics and dynamics, developed the concept of the growth of scientific knowledge. In his opinion, growth of scientific knowledge - this is the repeated overthrow of scientific theories and their replacement with better and more perfect ones. The position of T. Kuhn is radically different from this approach. His model includes two main stages: the stage of “normal science” (the dominance of one or another paradigm) and the stage of the “scientific revolution” (the collapse of the old paradigm and the establishment of a new one).
Global scientific revolution - this is a change in the general scientific picture of the world, accompanied by changes in the ideals, norms and philosophical foundations of science.
Within the framework of classical natural science, two revolutions are distinguished. First associated with the formation of classical natural science in the 17th century. Second The revolution dates back to the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. and marks the transition to disciplinary organized science. Third The global scientific revolution covers the period from the end of the 19th to the mid-20th century. and is associated with the formation of non-classical natural science. At the end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st century. new radical changes are taking place in the foundations of science, which can be characterized as fourth global revolution. In the course of it, a new post-non-classical science is born.
Three revolutions (out of four) led to the establishment of new types of scientific rationality:
1. Classic type of scientific rationality(XVIII–XIX centuries). At this time, the following ideas about science were established: the value of objective universal true knowledge appeared, science was considered as a reliable and absolutely rational enterprise, with the help of which all problems of mankind can be solved, natural scientific knowledge was considered the highest achievement, the object and subject of scientific research were presented in rigid terms epistemological confrontation, the explanation was interpreted as a search mechanical reasons and substances. In classical science it was believed that only laws of the dynamic type could be genuine laws.
2. Non-classical type of scientific rationality(XX century). Its features: the coexistence of alternative concepts, the complication of scientific ideas about the world, the assumption of probabilistic, discrete, paradoxical phenomena, reliance on the irreducible presence of the subject in the processes being studied, the assumption of the absence of an unambiguous connection between theory and reality; science begins to determine the development of technology.
3. Post-non-classical type of scientific rationality(end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st century). It is characterized by an understanding of the extreme complexity of the processes being studied, the emergence of a value-based perspective on the study of problems, high degree using interdisciplinary approaches.
Science and Society:
Science is closely interconnected with the development of society. This is manifested primarily in the fact that it is ultimately determined, conditioned by social practice and its needs. However, with every decade the reverse influence of science on society increases. The connection and interaction of science, technology and production is becoming increasingly stronger - science is turning into a direct productive force of society. How is it shown?
Firstly, Science is now overtaking the development of technology and is becoming the leading force in the progress of material production.
Secondly, science permeates all spheres public life.
Third, science is increasingly focused not only on technology, but also on man himself, his development creativity, culture of thinking, to create material and spiritual prerequisites for its holistic development.
Fourthly, the development of science leads to the emergence of parascientific knowledge. This is a collective name for ideological and hypothetical concepts and teachings characterized by an anti-scientist orientation. The term "parascience" refers to statements or theories that deviate to a greater or lesser extent from the standards of science and contain both fundamentally erroneous and possibly true propositions. Concepts most often attributed to parascience: outdated scientific concepts, such as alchemy, astrology, etc., which played a certain historical role in the development of modern science; ethnoscience and other “traditional”, but to a certain extent, teachings that are opposed to modern science; sports, family, culinary, labor, etc. “sciences”, which are examples of systematization of practical experience and applied knowledge, but do not correspond to the definition of science as such.
Approaches to assessing the role of science in the modern world. First approach - scientism asserts that with the help of natural and technical scientific knowledge it is possible to solve all social problems
Second approach - antiscientism, Based on the negative consequences of scientific and technological revolution, he rejects science and technology, considering them forces hostile to the true essence of man. Socio-historical practice shows that it is equally wrong to exorbitantly absolutize science and to underestimate it.
Functions of modern science:
1. Cognitive;
2. Cultural and worldview (providing society with a scientific worldview);
3. Function of direct productive force;
4. Function of social power (scientific knowledge and methods are widely used in solving all problems of society).
Patterns of development of science: continuity, a complex combination of processes of differentiation and integration of scientific disciplines, deepening and expansion of the processes of mathematization and computerization, theorization and dialectization of modern scientific knowledge, alternation of relatively calm periods of development and periods of “sharp change” (scientific revolutions) of laws and principles.
The formation of modern NCM is largely associated with discoveries in quantum physics.
Science and technology
Technique in the broad sense of the word - it is an artifact, that is, everything artificially created. Artifacts are: material and ideal.
Technique in the narrow sense of the word - this is a set of material, energy and information devices and means created by society to carry out its activities.
The basis for the philosophical analysis of technology was the ancient Greek concept of “techne”, which meant skill, art, and the ability to create something from natural material.
M. Heidegger believed that technology is a person’s way of being, a way of self-regulation. J. Habermas believed that technology unites everything “material” that opposes the world of ideas. O. Toffler substantiated the wave-like nature of the development of technology and its impact on society.
The way technology manifests itself is technology. If what a person influences with is technology, then how he influences is technology.
Technosphere- this is a special part of the Earth’s shell, which is a synthesis of artificial and natural, created by society to satisfy its needs.
Classification of equipment:
By type of activity distinguished: material and production, transport and communications, scientific research, the learning process, medical, sports, household, military.
By type of natural process used There are mechanical, electronic, nuclear, laser and other types of equipment.
By level of structural complexity The following historical forms of technology arose: guns(manual labor, mental labor and human activity), cars And machine guns. The sequence of these forms of technology, in general, corresponds to the historical stages of the development of technology itself.
Trends in technology development at the present stage:
The sizes of many are constantly growing technical means. So, an excavator bucket in 1930 had a volume of 4 cubic meters, and now it is 170 cubic meters. Transport planes already carry 500 or more passengers, and so on.
A tendency of the opposite nature has emerged, towards a reduction in the size of equipment. For example, the creation of microminiature personal computers, tape recorders without cassettes, etc. has already become a reality.
Increasingly, technical innovations are achieved through the application of scientific knowledge. A striking example of this is space technology, which has become the embodiment of scientific developments of more than two dozen natural and technical sciences. Discoveries in scientific creativity give impetus to technical creativity with its characteristic inventions. The fusion of science and technology into unified system, which radically changed the life of man, society, and the biosphere is called scientific and technological revolution(NTR).
The merging of technical means in complex systems and complexes: factories, power plants, communication systems, ships, etc. The prevalence and scale of these complexes allows us to speak about the existence of a technosphere on our planet.
The information field is becoming an important and constantly growing area of application of modern technology.
Informatization - is the process of production, storage and dissemination of information in society.
Historical forms of informatization: colloquial speech; writing; typography; electrical - electronic reproductive devices (radio, telephone, television, etc.); Computers (computers).
The widespread use of computers marked a special stage of informatization. Unlike physical resources, information as a resource has unique property- when consumed, it does not contract, but, on the contrary, expands. The inexhaustibility of information resources sharply accelerates the technological cycle “knowledge - production - knowledge”, causes an avalanche-like growth in the number of people involved in the process of obtaining, formalizing and processing knowledge (in the USA, 77% of employees are involved in the field of information activities and services), and has an impact on the prevalence of systems mass media and manipulation of public opinion. Based on these circumstances, many scientists and philosophers (D. Bell, T. Stoneier, Y. Masuda) proclaimed the onset of the information society.
Signs of the information society:
Free access for anyone anywhere, at any time to any information;
The production of information in this society must be carried out in the volumes necessary to ensure the life of the individual and society in all its parts and directions;
Science should occupy a special place in the production of information;
Accelerated automation and operation;
Priority development of the sphere of information activities and services.
Undoubtedly, the information society brings certain advantages and benefits. However, one cannot fail to note its problems: computer theft, the possibility of an information-based computer war, the possibility of establishing an information dictatorship and terror of provider organizations, etc.
Human attitude towards technology:
On the one hand, facts and ideas of mistrust and hostility to technology. In Ancient China, some Taoist sages denied technology, motivating their actions by the fact that when using technology you become dependent on it, you lose freedom of action and you yourself become a mechanism. In the 30s of the twentieth century, O. Spengler, in his book “Man and Technology,” argued that man became a slave to machines and would be driven to death by them.
At the same time, the apparent indispensability of technology in all spheres of human existence sometimes gives rise to an unbridled apology for technology, a kind of ideology of technicalism. How is it shown? Firstly. In exaggerating the role and importance of technology in human life and, secondly, in transferring the characteristics inherent in machines to humanity and personality. Supporters of technocracy see the prospects for progress in the concentration of political power in the hands of the technical intelligentsia.
Consequences of the influence of technology on humans:
Beneficial component includes the following:
the widespread use of technology has contributed to an almost doubling of the average human life expectancy;
technology freed man from constraining circumstances and increased his free time;
new information technology has qualitatively expanded the scope and forms of human intellectual activity;
technology has brought progress to the educational process; technology has increased the efficiency of human activity in various spheres of society.
Negative the impact of technology on humans and society is as follows: some of its types of technology pose a danger to the life and health of people, the threat of environmental disaster has increased, the number of occupational diseases has increased;
a person, becoming a particle of some technical system, is deprived of his creative essence; an increasing amount of information causes a decreasing trend in the share of knowledge that one person is able to possess;
technology can be used as an effective means of suppression, total control and manipulation of a person;
The impact of technology on the human psyche is enormous, both through virtual reality and through the replacement of the “symbol-image” chain with another “image-image”, which leads to a halt in the development of figurative and abstract thinking, as well as the appearance of neuroses and mental illnesses.
Engineer(from French and Latin means “creator”, “creator”, “inventor” in a broad sense) is a person who mentally creates a technical object and controls the process of its production and operation. Engineering activities - This is the activity of mentally creating a technical object and managing the process of its production and operation. Engineering activity emerged from technical activity in the 18th century during the Industrial Revolution.
REPORT
On the topic: “Ideals of scientific knowledge, scientific traditions, discoveries, revolutions. (Character traits modern stage scientific and technological progress. Methodology of science.) »
Performed:
Student of group 366-M2
J.M. Kurmasheva
"__" __________2016
Checked:
Doctor of Physics and Mathematics sciences, professor
M.M.Mikhailov
"__" __________2016
Introduction
The report examines the main scientific revolutions, scientific traditions, and scientific methodology. From what is said below, it is obvious that science is usually presented as a sphere of almost continuous creativity, a constant striving for something new. However, in modern scientific methodology it is clearly understood that scientific activity can be traditional.
Science is also a form of spiritual activity of people, aimed at producing knowledge about nature, society and knowledge itself, with the immediate goal of comprehending the truth and discovering objective laws based on a generalization of real facts in their interrelation, in order to anticipate trends in the development of reality and contribute to its change. Science is a creative activity to obtain new knowledge and the result of this activity is a body of knowledge brought into an integral system based on certain principles, and the process of their reproduction. Scientific knowledge is nothing more than human activity in developing, systematizing, and testing knowledge for the purpose of its effective use.
Scientific revolutions are stages in the development of science when there is a change in research strategies set by its foundations. The foundations of science include several components: the goals and methods of research; scientific picture of the world; philosophical ideas and principles that justify goals, methods, norms and ideals scientific research.
Methodology of science is a scientific discipline that studies methods of scientific and cognitive activity. Methodology in a broad sense is a rational-reflective mental activity, aimed at studying the ways in which a person transforms reality - methods.
Features of scientific knowledge
Scientific knowledge– knowledge obtained and recorded by specific scientific methods and means (abstraction, analysis, synthesis, conclusion, proof, idealization, systematic observation, experiment, classification, interpretation, formed in a particular science or field of study, its special language, etc. .). The most important species and units of scientific knowledge: theories, disciplines, areas of research (including problematic and interdisciplinary), fields of science (physical, mathematical, historical, etc.), types of sciences (logical-mathematical, natural science, technical and technological ( engineering), social, humanitarian). Their bearers are organized into appropriate professional communities and institutions that record and disseminate scientific knowledge in the form of printed materials and computer databases.
Knowledge characterizes a person’s possession of certain information and partial awareness of this information. Knowledge in the form of delusion is information about something that does not exist in reality, but that a person thinks or imagines as existing. It is wrong to equate true and scientific knowledge. Science, focusing on obtaining objective true knowledge, includes many false ideas. Hypothetical scientific knowledge, theorems, and paradoxes are also untrue (unproven). Science develops through hypothetical, paradoxical knowledge that requires additional verification and clarification. Truth can exist not only in the form of scientific knowledge, but also in a non-scientific form (science is only one of the ways to comprehend the world.)
Elements of scientific knowledge (structural components)
1. facts (must be established);
2. law (a set of similar facts) – is a universal, essential, necessary, recurring connection between the parties to the phenomenon in relation to which this law is established;
3. scientific problem - always associated with some contradictions that are found in the operation of almost any law;
4. hypothesis – speculative knowledge aimed at explaining the problem;
5. methods (analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction);
6. theory – highest form organization of scientific knowledge, which, with the help of a system of laws, more or less fully explains this or that aspect of the objective world;
7. the scientific picture of the world is a generalized idea formed by the totality of the most general knowledge of all sciences existing at a particular moment;
8. philosophical foundations of science;
9. norms (samples, standards) of scientific research;
10. levels of scientific knowledge: empirical and theoretical knowledge.
Levels of scientific knowledge:
1) empirical level
2) theoretical level
3) metatheoretical level
a) sublevel general scientific knowledge
b) sublevel of the philosophical foundations of science.
The empirical and theoretical levels deal with different environments the same reality. E. research studies phenomena and their interactions. At the level of E. cognition, essential connections are not yet identified in their pure form. The task of the theoretical level is to understand the essence of phenomena, their law. E. research is based on the direct practical interaction of the researcher with the object being studied. In theoretical research, there is no direct practical interaction with objects of reality.
At the empirical level, living contemplation (sensory cognition) predominates; the rational element and its forms (judgments, concepts, etc.) are present here, but have a subordinate significance. Therefore, the object under study is reflected primarily from its external connections and manifestations, accessible to living contemplation and expressing internal relationships. Collection of facts, their primary generalization, description of observed and experimental data, their systematization, classification and other activities recording facts are characteristic features of empirical knowledge.
Empirical, experimental research is aimed directly (without intermediate links) at its object. It masters it with the help of such techniques and means as description, comparison, measurement, observation, experiment, analysis, induction, and its most important element is fact.
The theoretical level of scientific knowledge is characterized by the predominance of the rational element - concepts, theories, laws and other forms of thinking and “mental operations”. Living contemplation, sensory cognition is not eliminated here, but becomes a subordinate (but very important) aspect of the cognitive process. Theoretical knowledge reflects phenomena and processes from their universal internal connections and patterns, comprehended through rational processing of empirical knowledge data.
A characteristic feature of theoretical knowledge is its focus on oneself, intrascientific reflection, i.e., the study of the process of knowledge itself, its forms, techniques, methods, conceptual apparatus, etc. On the basis of theoretical explanation and known laws, prediction and scientific foresight of the future is carried out.
Truth of knowledge- its correspondence to the cognizable object. Any knowledge must be subject knowledge. However, truth is not unique to scientific knowledge. It can also be characteristic of pre-scientific, practically everyday knowledge, opinions, guesses, etc. In epistemology, the concepts of “truth” and “knowledge” are distinguished.
Scientific knowledge - not only communicates the truth of a particular content, but provides reasons why this content is true (for example, the results of an experiment, proof of a theorem, logical conclusion, etc.). Therefore, as a sign characterizing the truth of scientific knowledge, they point to the requirement of its sufficient validity. In contrast to the lack of justification for the truth of other modifications of knowledge.
Therefore, the principle of sufficient reason is the foundation of any science: every true thought must be justified by other thoughts, the truth of which has been proven. Its formulation belongs to G. Leibniz: “Everything that exists has a sufficient basis for its existence.”
The structure of scientific knowledge.
The structure of scientific knowledge.
1) Subject of scientific knowledge (individual, group, collective, scientific community, all of humanity as a whole).
2) Object and subject of scientific knowledge.
3) Methods of cognition, which are explained by the specifics of science itself and the subject of cognition.
4) Means of cognition (microscopes, etc.).
5) Specific language.
General model of the development of scientific knowledge. Every science goes through certain stages in its development:
1) Reliably established facts taken from empirical observations.
2) Initial generalization of the totality of facts and the creation of hypotheses.
3) Formation of a scientific theory, including a series or system of laws that describe or explain certain phenomena of reality.
4) Creation of a scientific picture of the world, i.e. a generalized image of all reality, which brings together the main theories for a given historical period.
There is a general scientific picture of the world, which includes nature, society, human consciousness and the natural scientific picture of the world.
Speaking about the levels distinguished by human cognitive activity, we noted sensory and rational knowledge. These levels are equally characteristic of all types of human cognitive activity (both everyday and artistic), and not just scientific. In scientific knowledge there are two main levels - empirical and theoretical. There are fundamental differences between them due to the fact that empirical and theoretical knowledge are not the original properties of a person; They are the achievement of culture the result of a philosophical analysis of the methods of scientific knowledge. In this sense, the empirical level is not just sensory contemplation. It is aimed at fixing a certain character of reality, certain of its aspects and the relationship between them. Thus, it includes a developed categorical apparatus and rational knowledge, which fixes an empirical fact on the basis of observation. Equally, theoretical knowledge cannot do without visual images, which are called ideal objects, with which the researcher conducts thought experiments, modeling the properties and behavior of ideal objects in various respects. Examples of such ideal objects: an absolutely rigid body, a material point, an ideal pendulum.
So, scientific knowledge can be most broadly structured into empirical and theoretical levels. The result empirical research is an empirical fact. The result theoretical research– theory – a holistic description of a certain part of reality in a system of patterns and relationships. Theory is the most perfect and developed result of scientific knowledge. Therefore, more specific results of theoretical research are also highlighted, for example, a model or a scientific law.
Related information.
Science is a sociocultural creative activity to obtain new knowledge and the result of this activity: a body of knowledge brought into an integral system based on certain principles, and the process of their reproduction. The main aspects of the existence of science: 1) Science as a cognitive activity; 2) the result of the cognition process; 3)how social institution; 4) as a special sphere of culture. The problem of distinguishing science from other forms of cognitive activity is the problem of demarcation (criteria of scientific/non-scientific):
1) the main task of scientific research is the discovery of objective laws of nature - natural, social, laws of knowledge
2) on the basis of knowledge of the laws of functioning and development of the objects under study, science predicts the future with the aim of further practical development of reality.
3) the immediate goal and highest value of scientific knowledge is objective truth, comprehended primarily by rational means and methods.
4) an essential feature is its systematic nature, i.e. body of knowledge put in order on the basis of certain theoretical principles, combining individual knowledge into a holistic system.
5) science is characterized by constant methodological reflection.
6) strict evidence, validity of the results obtained, and reliability of the conclusions are inherent.
7) scientific knowledge is a complex, contradictory process of production and reproduction of new knowledge.
8) scientific knowledge must allow the fundamental possibility of empirical verification.
9) in the process of scientific knowledge, such specific material means as devices, instruments and other scientific equipment are used.
10) the subject has specific characteristics scientific activity– individual researcher, scientific community, collective subject.
All human cognitive activity can be divided into two types:
The everyday is carried out spontaneously by all people throughout life. Such knowledge is aimed at acquiring the skills that a person needs to adapt to conditions. real life
Scientific – involves the study of phenomena whose mechanism of action has not yet been fully revealed. The information obtained is fundamentally new.
Scientific knowledge is a system of knowledge about the surrounding world (laws of nature, man, society, etc.), obtained and recorded using specific means and methods (observation, analysis, experiment, etc.). It has its own characteristics and criteria.
Features of scientific knowledge:
Universality. Science studies the general laws and properties of an object, reveals the patterns of development and functioning of an object in a system. Knowledge is not focused on the unique features and properties of an object.
Necessity. The main, system-forming aspects of the phenomenon are recorded, and not random aspects.
Systematicity. Scientific knowledge is an organized structure, the elements of which are closely interconnected. Outside a specific system, knowledge cannot exist.
The signs or criteria of scientific knowledge were developed by representatives of the logical positivism of the Vienna Circle under the leadership of Moritz Schlick in the 1930s. The main goal that scientists pursued when creating them was to separate scientific knowledge from various metaphysical statements, mainly due to the ability to verify scientific theories and hypotheses. According to scientists, in this way scientific knowledge was deprived of emotional coloring and unfounded faith.
As a result, representatives of the Vienna Circle developed the following criteria:
Objectivity: scientific knowledge must be an expression of objective truth and be independent of the subject knowing it, his interests, thoughts and feelings.
Validity: knowledge must be supported by facts and logical conclusions. Statements without evidence are not considered scientific.
Rationality: Scientific knowledge cannot rely only on people's faith and emotions. It always provides the necessary reasons to prove the truth of a particular statement. The idea of a scientific theory should be quite simple.
Use of special terms: scientific knowledge is expressed in concepts formed by science. Clear definitions also help to better describe and classify observed phenomena.
Consistency. This criterion helps to eliminate the use of mutually exclusive statements within the same concept.
Verifiability: facts of scientific knowledge must be based on controlled experiments that can be repeated in the future. This criterion also helps to limit the use of any theory by showing in which cases it is confirmed and in which its use would be inappropriate.
Mobility: Science is constantly evolving, so it is important to acknowledge that some statements may be incorrect or inaccurate. It should be recognized that the conclusions obtained by scientists are not final and can be further supplemented or completely refuted.
Sometimes the historical criterion for the development of science is highlighted separately. All types of knowledge and various theories could not exist without previous hypotheses and obtained data. The solution to the problems and scientific paradoxes of the present time is carried out by relying on the results of the activities of predecessors. But modern scientists take existing theories as a basis, supplement them with new facts and show why old hypotheses do not work in the current situation and what data should be changed.
The sociological criterion is also sometimes highlighted separately in the structure of scientific knowledge. Its main property is the formulation of new tasks and issues that should be worked on. Without this criterion there would not be possible development not only science, but also society as a whole. Science is the main engine of progress. Each discovery raises many new questions that scientists will need to answer.
Sociological and historical characteristics occupy an important place in the structure of scientific knowledge.
The structure of scientific knowledge also has its own properties:
The highest value is objective truth. That is, the main goal of science is knowledge for the sake of knowledge itself.
For all areas of science there are a number of significant requirements that are universal for them
Knowledge is systematic and clearly organized.
These properties partly generalize the characteristics identified in scientific knowledge back in the 30s.
Scientific knowledge today is a dynamically developing area. Knowledge has long gone beyond closed laboratories and is becoming more accessible to everyone every day. In recent years, science has acquired a special status in public life. But at the same time, the significantly increased flow of information has led to the growth of pseudoscientific theories. It can be quite difficult to distinguish one from the other, but in most cases using the above criteria will help. It is often enough to check the logical validity of the assumptions, as well as the experimental basis, in order to assess the reliability of the proposed theory.
Any science has the most important property: it has no boundaries: neither geographical nor temporal. You can study a variety of objects anywhere in the world for many years, but the number of questions that arise will only increase. And this is perhaps the most wonderful gift science has given us.
2. What are the features of scientific knowledge (scientific criteria)?
The problem of distinguishing science from other forms of cognitive activity is the problem of demarcation, i.e. this is a search for criteria for distinguishing between scientific knowledge itself and non-(extra) scientific constructions. What are the main features of scientific knowledge? Such criteria include the following:
1. The main task of scientific knowledge is the discovery of objective laws of reality - natural, social (public), laws of knowledge itself, thinking, etc. Hence the orientation of research mainly on the general, essential properties of an object, its necessary characteristics and their expression in a system of abstraction, in the form of idealized objects. If this is not the case, then there is no science, because the very concept of scientificity presupposes the discovery of laws, a deepening into the essence of the phenomena being studied. This is the main feature of science, its main feature.
2. Based on knowledge of the laws of functioning and development of the objects under study, science predicts the future with the aim of further practical development of reality. The focus of science on studying not only objects that are transformed in today's practice, but those that may become the subject of practical development in the future, is an important distinctive feature of scientific knowledge.
Prominent creators of science drew attention to the fact that deep fundamental theories should potentially contain “entire constellations of future new technologies and unexpected practical applications.” In other words, science is obliged to provide ultra-long-range forecasting of practice, going beyond the existing stereotypes of production and everyday experience. Science should be aimed not only at studying objects that are transformed in today's practice, but also those objects that may become the subject of mass practical development in the future.
3. The immediate goal and highest value of scientific knowledge is objective truth, comprehended primarily by rational means and methods, but, of course, not without the participation of living contemplation and non-rational means. From here characteristic scientific knowledge - objectivity, elimination of subjectivist aspects not inherent in the subject of research to realize the “purity” of its consideration. At the same time, it must be borne in mind that the activity of the subject is the most important condition and the premise of scientific knowledge. The latter is impossible without a constructive-critical and self-critical attitude of the subject to reality and to himself, excluding inertia, dogmatism, apologetics, and subjectivism.
4. An essential feature of cognition is its systematic nature, i.e. a body of knowledge put in order on the basis of certain theoretical principles, which combine individual knowledge into a holistic organic system. A collection of disparate knowledge (and even more so their mechanical aggregate, a “summative whole”), not united into a system, does not yet form a science. Knowledge turns into scientific knowledge when the purposeful collection of facts, their description and generalization are brought to the level of their inclusion in a system of concepts, in the composition of a theory. Science is not only an integral, but also a developing system, as such are specific scientific disciplines, as well as other elements of the structure of science - problems, hypotheses, theories, scientific paradigms, etc.
Today, the idea that science is not only an organic developing system, but also an open, self-organizing system is becoming more and more firmly established. Modern (post-non-classical) science is increasingly assimilating the ideas and methods of synergetics, which is becoming the fundamental basis of science in the 21st century. Science, as an integral, developing and self-organizing system, is an integral part of a broader whole, being the most important organic element of universal human culture.
5. Science is characterized by constant methodological reflection. This means that in it the study of objects, the identification of their specificity, properties and connections is always accompanied - to one degree or another - by an awareness of the methods and techniques by which these objects are studied. It should be borne in mind that although science is essentially rational, there is always an irrational component in it, including in its methodology (which is especially typical for the humanities). This is understandable: after all, a scientist is a person with all his advantages and disadvantages, passions and interests, etc. That is why it is impossible to express his activity only with the help of pure rational principles and techniques, he, like any person, does not fit completely within their framework.
6. Scientific knowledge is characterized by strict evidence, validity of the results obtained, and reliability of the conclusions. Knowledge for science is demonstrative knowledge. In other words, knowledge (if it claims to be scientific) must be confirmed by facts and arguments. At the same time, science contains many hypotheses, conjectures, assumptions, probabilistic judgments, misconceptions, etc. That is why the most important thing here is the logical and methodological training of researchers, their philosophical culture, the constant improvement of their thinking, and the ability to correctly apply its laws and principles.
Specific means of substantiating the truth of knowledge in science are experimental control over the acquired knowledge and the deducibility of some knowledge from others, the truth of which has already been proven.
7. Scientific knowledge is a complex, contradictory process of production and reproduction of new knowledge, forming an integral and developing system of concepts, theories, hypotheses, laws and other ideal forms, enshrined in language - natural or (more typically) artificial: mathematical symbolism, chemical formulas and so on. Development of specialized (and above all artificial) scientific language- the most important condition successful work in science.
Scientific knowledge does not simply record its elements in language, but continuously reproduces them on its own basis, forms them in accordance with its norms and principles. The process of continuous self-renewal by science of its conceptual and methodological arsenal is an important indicator (criterion) of scientific character.
8. Knowledge that claims to be scientific must allow the fundamental possibility of empirical verification. The process of establishing the truth of scientific statements through observations and experiments is called verification, and the process of establishing their falsity is called falsification. Statements and concepts that cannot in principle be subjected to these procedures are generally not considered scientific.
In other words, knowledge can be considered scientific when it: a) allows for constant verification “for truth”; b) when its results can be repeated and reproduced empirically at any time, by any researcher, in different countries.
An important condition for this is the focus of scientific activity on criticizing one’s own results.
Considering falsifiability to be a more important criterion for scientificity than verification, Popper noted: “I recognize a certain system as scientific only if it is possible to test it experimentally.”
9. In the process of scientific knowledge, such specific material means as instruments, instruments, and other so-called “scientific equipment” are used, often very complex and expensive (synchrophasotrons, radio telescopes, rocket and space technology, etc.). In addition, science, to a greater extent than other forms of knowledge, is characterized by the use of ideal (spiritual) means and methods such as modern logic, mathematical methods, dialectics, systemic, cybernetic, synergetic and other techniques to study its objects and itself. and methods. The widespread use of experimental means and systematic work with idealized objects are characteristic features of developed science.
A necessary condition scientific research is the development and widespread use of a special (artificial, formalized) language suitable for strict, accurate description its objects, unusual from the point of view of common sense. The language of science is constantly evolving as it penetrates into ever new areas of the objective world.
10. The subject of scientific activity has specific characteristics - an individual researcher, a scientific community, a “collective subject”. Engaging in science requires special training of the cognizing subject, during which he masters the existing stock of knowledge, means and methods of obtaining it, a system of value orientations and goals specific to scientific knowledge, and its ethical principles. This preparation should stimulate scientific search, aimed at studying more and more new objects, regardless of the current practical effect of the acquired knowledge.
These are the main criteria of science in the proper sense, which allow, to a certain extent, demarcation (draw boundaries) between science and non-science. These boundaries, like all others, are relative, conditional and mobile, for even in this sphere “nature does not arrange its creatures in ranks” (Hegel). These criteria, thus, perform a “protective function”, protecting science from unsuitable, untenable, “delusional” ideas.
Since knowledge is limitless, inexhaustible, and is in development, the system of scientific criteria is concrete-historical, open system. And this means that there is not and cannot exist a once and for all complete, complete “list” of these criteria.
In modern philosophy of science, other criteria of scientific character are also called, in addition to the above mentioned. This, in particular, is the criterion of logical consistency, the principles of simplicity, beauty, heuristics, coherence and some others. At the same time, it is noted that the philosophy of science rejects the presence of definitive criteria for scientificity.
1. How do philosophy and science relate?
An analysis of the relationship between philosophy and special sciences shows that no sphere of the human spirit, including philosophy, can absorb the entire body of special scientific knowledge about the universe. A philosopher cannot and should not replace the work of a physician, biologist, mathematician, physicist, etc.
Philosophy cannot be the science of all sciences, that is, stand above private disciplines, just as it cannot be one of the private sciences among others. The long-term dispute between philosophy and science about what society needs more - philosophy or science, what their actual relationship is, has given rise to many positions and interpretations of this problem. What is the relationship between science and philosophy?
Special Sciences serve the specific specific needs of society: technology, economics, education, legislation, etc. They study their specific slice of reality, their fragment of existence, and limit themselves to certain parts of the world. Philosophy is interested in the world as a whole; it strives for a holistic comprehension of the universe. She thinks about the all-encompassing unity of all things, looking for an answer to the question: “What is existence, since it is.” In this sense, the definition of philosophy as a science “about principles and primary causes” is correct.
Special sciences are addressed to phenomena that exist objectively, i.e. outside of man, independent of either man or humanity. Science formulates its conclusions in theories, laws and formulas, putting aside the personal, emotional attitude of the scientist to the phenomena being studied and the social consequences to which this or that discovery can lead. The figure of the scientist, the structure of his thoughts and temperament, the nature of his confessions and life preferences also does not arouse much interest. Law of gravitation, quadratic equations, the Mendeleev system, the laws of thermodynamics are objective. Their action is real and does not depend on the opinions, moods and personality of the scientist.
The world in the eyes of a philosopher is not just a static layer of reality, but a living dynamic whole. This is a variety of interactions in which cause and effect, cyclicality and spontaneity, orderliness and destruction, the forces of good and evil, harmony and chaos are intertwined. The philosophizing mind must determine its relationship to the world. That is why the main question of philosophy is formulated as a question about the relationship of thinking to being (man to the world). Taking into account scientific data and relying on them, she goes further, considering the question of the essential meaning and significance of processes and phenomena in the context of human existence.
Representatives of science usually do not ask the question of how their discipline arose, what is its own specificity and difference from others. When these issues are raised, the scientist enters the realm of history and philosophy of science. Philosophy has always sought to clarify the initial premises of all knowledge, including philosophical knowledge itself. It is aimed at identifying such reliable foundations that could serve as a starting point and criterion for understanding and evaluating everything else (the difference between truth and opinion, empiricism from theory, freedom from arbitrariness, violence from power). Limit and boundary questions, with which a separate cognitive area either begins or ends, are a favorite topic of philosophical reflection.
Science occupies a priority place as a field of activity aimed at developing and systematizing strict and objective knowledge about reality. Science is a form of social consciousness aimed at substantive comprehension of the world, identifying patterns and obtaining new knowledge. The purpose of science has always been associated with the description, explanation and prediction of processes and phenomena of reality on the basis of the laws it discovers.
Philosophy is based on the theoretical-reflexive and spiritual-practical relationship of the subject to the object. It has an active impact on social life through the formation of new ideals, norms and cultural values. Its main, historically established sections include: ontology, epistemology, logic, dialectics, ethics, aesthetics, as well as anthropology, social philosophy, history of philosophy, philosophy of religion, methodology, philosophy of science, philosophy of technology, etc. The main trends in the development of philosophy are associated with understanding the place of man in the world, the meaning of his existence, the destinies of modern civilization.
Cognition is a specific type of human activity aimed at understanding the world around us and oneself in this world. “Knowledge is, determined primarily by socio-historical practice, the process of acquiring and developing knowledge, its constant deepening, expansion, and improvement.”
A person comprehends the world around him, masters it different ways, among which two main ones can be distinguished.
The first (genetically original) is material and technical - the production of means of subsistence, labor, practice.
The second is spiritual (ideal), within which the cognitive relationship of subject and object is only one of many others. In turn, the process of cognition and the knowledge obtained in it in the course of the historical development of practice and cognition itself is increasingly differentiated and embodied in its various forms.
Each form of social consciousness: science, philosophy, mythology, politics, religion, etc. correspond to specific forms of cognition.
Usually the following are distinguished: ordinary, playful, mythological, artistic and figurative, philosophical, religious, personal, scientific. The latter, although related, are not identical to one another; each of them has its own specifics.
We will not dwell on the consideration of each of the forms of knowledge. The subject of our research is scientific knowledge. In this regard, it is advisable to consider the features of only the latter.
Distinctive features of scientific knowledge
The main features of scientific knowledge are:
1. The main task of scientific knowledge is the discovery of objective laws of reality - natural, social (public), laws of cognition itself, thinking, etc. Hence the orientation of research mainly on the general, essential properties of an object, its necessary characteristics and their expression in a system of abstractions. “The essence of scientific knowledge lies in the reliable generalization of facts, in the fact that behind the random it finds the necessary, natural, behind the individual - the general, and on this basis carries out the prediction of various phenomena and events.”
Scientific knowledge strives to reveal the necessary, objective connections that are recorded as objective laws. If this is not the case, then there is no science, because the very concept of scientificity presupposes the discovery of laws, a deepening into the essence of the phenomena being studied.
2. The immediate goal and highest value of scientific knowledge is objective truth, comprehended primarily by rational means and methods, but, of course, not without the participation of living contemplation. Hence, a characteristic feature of scientific knowledge is objectivity, the elimination, if possible, of subjectivist aspects in many cases in order to realize the “purity” of consideration of one’s subject.
Einstein also wrote: “What we call science has as its exclusive task to firmly establish what exists.” Internet link: http://www.twirpx.com/files/physics/periodic/es/. Its task is to give a true reflection of processes, an objective picture of what exists. At the same time, it must be borne in mind that the activity of the subject is the most important condition and prerequisite for scientific knowledge. The latter is impossible without a constructive-critical attitude to reality, excluding inertia, dogmatism, and apologetics.
3. Science, to a greater extent than other forms of knowledge, is focused on being embodied in practice, being a “guide to action” for changing the surrounding reality and managing real processes. The vital meaning of scientific research can be expressed by the formula: “To know in order to foresee, to foresee in order to practically act” - not only in the present, but also in the future. All progress in scientific knowledge is associated with an increase in the power and range of scientific foresight. It is foresight that makes it possible to control and manage processes. Scientific knowledge opens up the possibility of not only predicting the future, but also consciously shaping it. “The orientation of science towards the study of objects that can be included in activity (either actually or potentially, as possible objects of its future development), and their study as subject to objective laws of functioning and development is one of the most important features scientific knowledge. This feature distinguishes it from other forms of human cognitive activity.” An essential feature of modern science is that it has become such a force that predetermines practice. From the daughter of production, science turns into its mother. Many modern production processes born in scientific laboratories. Thus, modern science not only serves the needs of production, but also increasingly acts as a prerequisite for the technical revolution. Great discoveries over the past decades in leading fields of knowledge have led to scientific and technological revolution, covering all elements of the production process: comprehensive automation and mechanization, development of new types of energy, raw materials and materials, penetration into the microworld and into space.
As a result, the prerequisites were created for the gigantic development of the productive forces of society.
- 4. Scientific knowledge in epistemological terms is a complex contradictory process of reproduction of knowledge that forms an integral developing system of concepts, theories, hypotheses, laws and other ideal forms, enshrined in language - natural or - more characteristically - artificial (mathematical symbolism, chemical formulas, etc.) .P.). Scientific knowledge does not simply record its elements, but continuously reproduces them on its own basis, forms them in accordance with its norms and principles. In the development of scientific knowledge, revolutionary periods alternate, the so-called scientific revolutions, which lead to a change in theories and principles, and evolutionary, quiet periods, during which knowledge deepens and becomes more detailed. The process of continuous self-renewal by science of its conceptual arsenal is an important indicator of scientific character.
- 5. In the process of scientific knowledge, such specific material means as instruments, instruments, and other so-called “scientific equipment” are used, often very complex and expensive (synchrophasotrons, radio telescopes, rocket and space technology, etc.). In addition, science, to a greater extent than other forms of knowledge, is characterized by the use of ideal (spiritual) means and methods such as modern logic, mathematical methods, dialectics, systemic, hypothetico-deductive and other general scientific techniques to study its objects and itself. and methods (see below for details).
- 6. Scientific knowledge is characterized by strict evidence, validity of the results obtained, and reliability of the conclusions. At the same time, there are many hypotheses, conjectures, assumptions, probabilistic judgments, etc. That is why the logical and methodological training of researchers, their philosophical culture, constant improvement of their thinking, and the ability to correctly apply its laws and principles are of utmost importance.
In modern methodology, various levels of scientific criteria are distinguished, including, in addition to those mentioned, such as the internal systematicity of knowledge, its formal consistency, experimental verifiability, reproducibility, openness to criticism, freedom from bias, rigor, etc. In other forms of knowledge considered criteria may exist (to varying degrees), but they are not decisive there.
1. Science as a special kind of knowledge has a number of characteristics. main feature scientific knowledge - rationality . In science new information is formulated and expressed in the form of consistent principles and laws. Ideas about rationality, of course, change, however, criterion of logical consistency, component the core of ideas about rationality, always remains the same.
2. Another feature of scientific knowledge is objectivity . Science strives comprehend reality as fully and accurately as possible , if possible excluding subjectivist moments . The requirement for objectivity of knowledge in the case humanities and social sciences has its own specifics , since the subject of the sciences of the spirit is cultural and human reality, the comprehension of which is inevitably associated with subjective aspects. But subjectivity and subjectivity - different properties, That's why the requirement of objectivity, being transformed in a certain way, nevertheless remains in the sciences of the spirit.
3. Scientific knowledge is not limited to stating facts; scientific knowledge has explanatory character . Scientific knowledge, in contrast to ordinary, artistic, religious or mythological knowledge, is knowledge evidentiary . Science strives to substantiate its provisions. This, however, does not negate the fact that in scientific knowledge there are hypotheses, unproven theorems, paradoxes, etc.
4. Science behind the singular and random strives to discover the general and necessary. The purpose of science is discovery of patterns and general principles . However, it should again be noted that in the case of humanitarian and social knowledge the very idea of cognizable patterns changes. The sciences of the spirit, as well as the sciences of nature, are studied general and typical , but so general and typical that manifests itself through the individual and unique, through a person and his activities .
5. The special task of science is prediction of unknown phenomena and facts or determination of development trends of already known ones . Predictive power or heuristic scientific theories are one of the most important criteria by which new knowledge in science is assessed. A feature of scientific knowledge is also its systematic organization . All science data are organized into theories and concepts, which in turn are consistent with each other.
At 49. Empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge. Methods of scientific research.
In the structure of scientific knowledge, they distinguish primarily two levels of knowledge - empirical and theoretical. Them match two interconnected, but at the same time specific type cognitive activity: empirical and theoretical research.
Before talking about these levels, we note that in this case we are talking about scientific knowledge, and not about the cognitive process as a whole. The categories “sensual” and “rational”, on the one hand, and “empirical” and “theoretical” - on the other, are quite close in content . But at the same time, they should not be identified with each other.
Firstly, empirical knowledge can never be reduced only to pure sensibility. Even the primary layer of empirical knowledge - observational data - is always recorded in a specific language: moreover, it is a language that uses not only everyday concepts , but also specific scientific terms . These observations cannot be reduced only to forms of sensuality - sensations, perceptions, ideas. Already here a complex interweaving of the sensual and rational arises.
Forms of rational knowledge (concepts, judgments, conclusions) dominate in the process of theoretical development of reality. But when constructing a theory, visual model representations, which are forms of sensory knowledge, are also used. Even complex and highly mathematical theories include concepts such as an ideal pendulum, absolutely solid, ideal exchange of goods, when goods are exchanged for goods strictly in accordance with the law of value, etc. All these idealized objects are visual model images (generalized feelings) with which thought experiments are performed. The result of the experiments is the clarification of those essential connections and relationships, which are then recorded in concepts. Thus, the theory always contains sensory-visual components.
Loading...