Words in Russian have 2 meanings: lexical and grammatical. If the second type is abstract, then the first is individual. In this article, we will present the main types of lexical meanings of a word.
The lexical meaning or, as it is sometimes called, the meaning of the word, shows how the sound shell of the word relates to objects or phenomena of the world around us. It is worth noting that it does not contain the whole complex of features characteristic of a particular subject.
What is the lexical meaning of a word?
The meaning of the word reflects only features that make it possible to distinguish some objects from others. Its center is the stem of the word.
All types of lexical meanings of a word can be divided into 5 groups depending on:
- correlation;
- origin;
- compatibility;
- functions;
- the nature of the connection.
This classification was proposed by the Soviet scientist Viktor Vladimirovich Vinogradov in the article "The main types of lexical meanings of a word" (1977). Below we will take a closer look at this classification.
Types by correlation
From the nominative point of view (that is, according to correlation), all meanings of the word are divided into direct and figurative. Direct the meaning is basic. It is directly related to how this or that letter and sound form relates to the concept that has developed in the minds of native speakers.
So, the word "cat" denotes a small predatory animal from the feline family, belonging to the order of mammals that exterminate rodents. A "knife" is a tool that is used to cut; consists of a blade and a handle. Green adjective indicates the color of the growing foliage.
Over time, the meaning of the word can change, obeying the currents characteristic of a particular time in the life of the people. So, back in the 18th century, the word "wife" was used in the sense of "woman." It began to be used much later to designate a "spouse" or "a woman who is married to a man". Similar changes have occurred with the word "husband".
Figurative meaning the word is derived from the main one. With its help, one lexical unit is endowed with the properties of another on the basis of common or similar features. Thus, the adjective "dark" is used to characterize a space that is immersed in darkness or in which there is no light.
But at the same time, this token is often used in a figurative sense. So, the adjective "dark" can characterize something unclear (for example, manuscripts). It can also be used in relation to a person. In this context, the adjective "dark" would indicate that a person in question, uneducated or ignorant.
As a rule, value transfer occurs according to one of the following characteristics:
As you can see from the examples given, the figurative meanings developed in words are somehow connected with the main one. Unlike the author's metaphors, which are widely used in fiction, figurative lexical meanings are stable and are found in the language much more often.
It is worth noting that in the Russian language there is often a phenomenon when figurative meanings lose their figurativeness. Thus, the combinations "teapot spout" or "teapot handle" have become closely included in the Russian language and are familiar to its speakers.
Lexical meanings by origin
All lexical units existing in the language have their own etymology. However, upon careful examination, you will notice that the meaning of some units is easily deduced, while in the case of others it is rather difficult to understand what a particular word means. Based on this difference, a second group of lexical meanings is distinguished - by origin.
From the point of view of origin, two types of meanings are distinguished:
- Motivated;
- Unmotivated.
In the first case, we are talking about lexical units formed by adding affixes. The meaning of a word is derived from the meaning of the stem and affixes. In the second case, the meaning of the lexeme does not depend on the meaning of its individual components, that is, it is non-derivative.
So, the words "run", "red" are classified as unmotivated. Their derivatives are motivated: "run", "escape", "blush". Knowing the meaning of the lexical units underlying them, we can easily deduce the meaning of the derivatives. However, the meaning of motivated words is not always so easy to deduce. Sometimes an etymological analysis is required.
Lexical meanings depending on collocation
Each language imposes certain restrictions on the use of lexical units. Some units can only be used in a specific context. In this case, we are talking about the compatibility of lexical units. From the point of view of compatibility, two types of values are distinguished:
- free;
- not free.
In the first case, we are talking about units that can be freely combined with each other. However, such freedom cannot be absolute. It is very arbitrary. So, with the verb “open” such nouns as “door”, “window”, “cover” can be freely used. At the same time, the words "packaging" or "crime" cannot be used with it. Thus, the meaning of the lexeme "open" dictates to us the rules, by which certain concepts may or may not be combined with it.
Unlike free ones, the compatibility of units with a non-free value is severely limited. As a rule, such lexemes are part of phraseological phrases or are syntactically conditioned.
In the first case, the units are related phraseological meaning... For example, the words “play” and “nerves”, taken separately, lack the semantic component of “intentionally annoy”. And only when these lexemes are combined in the phraseological unit "to play on the nerves", they acquire this meaning. The adjective "bosom" cannot be used together with the word "enemy" or "comrade". According to the norms of the Russian language, this adjective is combined only with the noun "friend".
Syntactic meaning is acquired by a word only when it performs an unusual function in a sentence. So, a noun can sometimes act in a sentence as a predicate: "And you are a hat!"
Functional types of lexical values
Each lexical meaning carries a specific function. With the help of some units of language, we simply name objects or phenomena. We use others to express some kind of assessment. There are two types of functional values:
- nominative;
- expressive and semantic.
Lexemes of the first type do not carry additional (evaluative) features. As an example, we can cite such linguistic units as “look”, “person”, “drink”, “make noise”, etc.
Lexemes related to the second type, on the contrary, contain an evaluative attribute. They are separate linguistic units, stand out in a separate dictionary entry and act as expressively colored synonyms to their neutral equivalents: "look" - "stare", "drink" - "plump".
Lexical meanings by the nature of the relationship
Another important aspect of the meaning of a word is its relationship with other lexical units of the language. From this point of view, the following are distinguished types of lexical meanings:
- correlative (lexemes that are opposed to each other on the basis of some attribute: "big" - "small");
- autonomous (independent from each other lexical units: "hammer", "saw", "table");
- determinatives (lexemes with expressive meaning, conditioned by the meaning of other lexical units: "huge" and "hefty" are determinants for the adjective "big").
Given by V.V. Vinogradov's classification quite fully reflects the system of lexical meanings in the Russian language. However, the scientist does not mention another equally important aspect. In any language, there are words that have more than one meaning. In this case, we are talking about unambiguous and ambiguous words.
Unambiguous and ambiguous words
As mentioned above, all words can be divided into two large groups:
- unambiguous;
- ambiguous.
Unambiguous lexemes are used to refer to only one specific object or phenomenon. Often the term "monosemantic" is used to denote them. The category of unambiguous words includes:
However, there are not many such lexemes in the Russian language. Polysemantic or polysemantic words are much more widespread.
It is important to note that the term "polysemy" should in no way be confused with "homonymy". The difference between these linguistic phenomena lies in the presence of a connection between the meanings of words.
For example, the word "escape" can mean:
- leaving the place of serving a sentence (imprisonment) of their own free will, thanks to a well-developed plan or by chance.
- young plant stem with buds and leaves.
As you can see from this example, the given values are not related. Thus, we are talking about homonyms.
Let's give another example - "paper":
- material that is made from cellulose;
- document ( transfer).
Both meanings have one semantic component, therefore this lexeme belongs to the category of polysemantic ones.
Where can you find the lexical meaning of a word?
In order to find out what a particular word means, you need to refer to the explanatory dictionary. They give the exact definition of the word. Turning to the explanatory dictionary, you can not only find out the meaning of the lexical unit of interest, but also find examples of its use. In addition, describing the meaning of a word helps to understand the difference between synonyms. All vocabulary in the explanatory dictionary is arranged alphabetically.
Such dictionaries are usually intended for native speakers. However, foreigners studying Russian can also use them.
As an example, you can cite the following dictionaries:
- "Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" - V.I. Dahl;
- "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" - S.I. Ozhegov;
- "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" - D.N. Ushakov;
- "Dictionary of Russian onomastic terminology" - A.V. Superanskaya.
As mentioned above, in the explanatory dictionary you can find the lexical meanings of words in the Russian language and examples of their use. However, this is far from all the information that this type of dictionaries provides. They also provide information on the grammatical and stylistic features of lexical units.
10. Concept of vocabulary, word.
LEXICO is the vocabulary of a language.
LEXICOLOGY is a branch of linguistics that deals with the study of vocabulary.
WORD is the main structural and semantic unit of the language, which serves to name objects, phenomena, their properties and which has a set of semantic, phonetic and grammatical features. The characteristic features of the word are integrity, distinguishability and integral reproducibility in speech.
The main ways of replenishing the vocabulary of the Russian language.
The vocabulary of the Russian language is replenished in two main ways:
Words are formed on the basis of derivational material (roots, suffixes and endings),
New words come to the Russian language from other languages because of the political, economic and cultural ties of the Russian people with other peoples and countries.
11. LEXICAL MEANING OF THE WORD- the correlation of the sound design of a linguistic unit with one or another phenomenon of reality, fixed in the speaker's mind.
Unambiguous and ambiguous words.
Words are unambiguous and ambiguous. Unambiguous words are words that have only one lexical meaning, regardless of the context in which they are used. There are few such words in Russian, it is
- scientific terms (bandage, gastritis),
- proper names (Petrov Nikolay),
- newly emerged words that are still rarely used (pizzeria, foam rubber),
- words with a narrowly subject meaning (binoculars, cans, backpack).
Most words in Russian are polysemantic, i.e. they are capable of several meanings. In each individual context, one meaning is actualized. A polysemantic word has a basic meaning, and the meanings derived from it. The main meaning is always given in the explanatory dictionary in the first place, followed by derivatives.
Many words that are now perceived as polysemous initially had only one meaning, but since they were often used in speech, more meanings began to appear in them, in addition to the main one. Many words that are unambiguous in modern Russian can become polysemantic over time.
Direct and figurative meaning of the word.
Direct meaning is the meaning of a word that directly correlates with the phenomena of objective reality. This value is stable, although it can change over time. For example, the word "table" in Ancient Rus meant "reign, capital", and now it means "piece of furniture".
A figurative meaning is such a meaning of a word that arose as a result of transferring a name from one object of reality to another on the basis of some similarity.
For example, the word "sediment" has a direct meaning - "solid particles that are in a liquid and settle on the bottom or on the walls of a vessel after settling", and the figurative meaning is "a heavy feeling that remains after something."
12. OMONIMS- these are words that are different in meaning, but the same in pronunciation and spelling. For example, a club is a "spherical flying smoky mass" (a cloud of smoke) and a club is a "cultural and educational institution" (a club of railway workers). The use of homonyms in the text is a special stylistic device.
13. SYNONYMS- these are words that are close to each other in meaning. Synonyms form a synonymous series, for example, assumption - hypothesis - guess - assumption.
Synonyms can vary slightly in sign or stylistically, sometimes both. Synonyms that completely coincide in meaning are called absolute synonyms. There are few of them in the language, these are either scientific terms (for example, spelling - spelling), or words formed using synonymous morphemes (for example, guard - guard).
Synonyms are used to make speech more varied and avoid repetitions, and to give a more accurate description of what is being said.
14. ANTHONYMS- these are words that are opposite in meaning.
Antonyms are words that are correlative in meaning; you cannot put in an antonymic pair words that characterize an object or phenomenon from different sides (early - late, fall asleep - wake up, white - black.).
If the word is polysemantic, then each meaning is matched with its own antonym (for example, for the word "old" in the phrase "old man" the antonym is the word "young", and in the phrase "old carpet" - "new").
Like synonyms, antonyms are used to make speech more expressive.
15. Categories of words by origin.
All words in Russian are divided into:
- primordial Russians, which include Indo-European peisms (oak, wolf, mother, son), common Slavic peksika (birch, cow, friend), East Slavic vocabulary (boot, dog, village), Russian vocabulary proper (bricklayer, leaflet);
- borrowed words, which include borrowings from Slavic languages (finger, mouth - Old Slavicisms, borsch - Ukrainian borrowing, monogram - Polish borrowing) and non-Slavic languages (Scandinavian - anchor, hook, Oleg; Turkic - hut, chest; Latin - audience, administration ; Greek - cherry, lantern, history; German - sandwich, tie; French - battalion, buffet, etc.)
16. Obsolete words and neologisms.
The vocabulary of the Russian language is constantly changing: some words that were used very often before are now almost inaudible, while others, on the contrary, are used on the web more and more often. Such processes in language are associated with changes in the life of the society that it serves: with the emergence of a new concept, a new word appears; if a society no longer refers to a certain concept, then it does not refer to the word that this concept designates either.
Words that are no longer used or are used very rarely are called obsolete (for example, child, right hand, mouth, Red Army soldier, People's Commissar.
Neologisms are new words that have not yet become familiar and everyday names. The composition of neologisms is constantly changing, some of them take root in the language, some do not. For example, in the middle of the 20th century, the word "satellite" was a neologism.
From stylistic angst of sight, all words of the Russian language are divided into two large groups:
- stylistically neutral or common (can be used in all styles of speech without restriction);
- stylistically colored (they belong to one of the styles of speech: book: scientific, official-business, journalistic - or colloquial; their use "not in their style" violates the correctness, purity of speech; you need to be extremely careful in their use); for example, the word "hindrance" belongs to the colloquial style, and the word "banish" belongs to the book style.
8. In the Russian language, depending on the nature of the functioning, there are:
Common vocabulary (used without any restrictions),
- vocabulary of a limited scope.
17. Vocabulary of a limited scope of use:
- dialectisms are words that belong to a particular dialect. Dialects are Russian folk dialects that contain a significant number of original words known only in a certain area. Dialectisms can be
- lexical (known only in the territory of distribution of this dialect): sash, tsibula,
- morphological (characterized by a special inflection): in me,
- phonetic (characterized by a special pronunciation): [tsai] - tea, [hverma] - farm, etc.
- professionalism are words that are used in various spheres of production, technology, etc. and which have not become common; terms - words that name special concepts of any sphere of production or science; professionalisms and terms are used by people of one profession, in one field of science (for example, abscissa (mathematics), affricates (linguistics)),
LEXICOLOGY AND LEXICOGRAPHY
Lexicography- theory and practice of compiling dictionaries.
Word as a unit of vocabulary. Meaning of the word
Word Is a linguistic unit that serves to designate (name) objects and attributes (actions, relationships, qualities, quantities).Under value words understand the reflection in the word of the realities of reality (objects, signs, relationships, processes, etc.). The main function of the word is to name the realities of reality (the so-called nominative function). But the word not only names, but also generalizes: calling table objects of different sizes, shapes, purposes, we distract from the individual characteristics of specific objects and focus on their main features, reflecting not all, but only essential features of reality, which make it possible to distinguish one phenomenon from another (for example, objects called the word table, from things called by the word stool). The meaning of the word may include emotional and evaluative components. So, for example, the words book and little book call the same object, but the second word also has an additional emotional-evaluative component of meaning - it expresses a dismissive assessment of the speaker.
The meanings of words are recorded in explanatory dictionaries.
Dictionary- a book containing a list of words or other linguistic units (morphemes, phrases, phraseological units), arranged in a certain order, most often alphabetically. There are encyclopedic and linguistic dictionaries.
Encyclopedic dictionaries describe the object of extra-linguistic reality itself and try to present the maximum number of features of this object.
Linguistic dictionaries describe linguistic units. Linguistic dictionaries can be divided into two groups: explanatory, describing the lexical meaning of words (along the way also reflecting its spelling, stress, part of speech, individual grammatical forms), and aspect, describing words in terms of their spelling (spelling), pronunciation (orthoepic), morphemic composition (morphemic), derivational derivation (derivational), grammatical forms (grammatical), origin (etymological, foreign words), as well as in terms of their relationship with other words (dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, compatibility, etc.).
Unambiguous and ambiguous words. Direct and figurative meanings of the word. Types of portable values
Words are unambiguous(having the same lexical meaning) and ambiguous(having multiple meanings).
Unambiguous words are most of the terms, some names of tools, professions, varieties of trees, etc. Unambiguous, for example, words stool, sugar bowl, huge, suffix.
A large number of words have several (two or more) meanings. So, for example, for the word head in the Explanatory Dictionary of S. I. Ozhegov 6 meanings are given: 1) part of the body of a person or animal,
2) mind, reason ( He's a man with a head),
3) a person as a bearer of ideas ( He's the head!),
4) the front of something ( column head, train),
5) livestock counting unit ( herd of 100 heads),
6) food product in the form of a ball, cone ( head of cheese, sugar). All meanings of a polysemantic word are related (although sometimes not all at once).
In a polysemantic word, the main (original, primary) meaning of the word and its derived meanings are highlighted. New meanings arise for a word as a result of the transfer of the name (the outer shell of the word - sound and letter sequences) from one object of reality to other objects.
There are two types of name transfer: 1) by similarity (metaphor), 2) by contiguity - the real connection of objects (metonymy).
Let us characterize these types of transfer.
Similarity carry(metaphor).
Something similar to each other objects begin to be called one word.
The similarities between items can be
1) external: a) form: ribbon roads, pot-bellied kettle;
b) color: copper hair, collect chanterelles,
;
c) location: throat bay, chain mountains;
d) size, quantity: sea tears mountain of things;
e) the degree of density: wall rain, jelly roads;
f) degree of mobility: quick mind, machine creeps
;
g) the nature of the sound: rain drumming, creaky voice; 2) functional: wipers marriage cars fetter
;
3) in human perception: cold sight, sour facial expression,
Adjacency carry(metonymy).
Two phenomena that are actually connected with each other (spatially, situationally, logically, etc.), receive one name, are called one word. The connection of phenomena is:
1) spatial - a room and people in it: Class late Hall applauded;
2) temporal - an action and an object - the result of this action: gift edition, kit instruments;
3) logical: a) the action and place of this action: entrance, stop;
b) the action and the people performing it: defense, attack(defenders, attackers);
c) material and product made of this material: wear gold, fur, win gold, silver, bronze;
d) the author and his works: to put Chekhov, enjoy Ozhegov
... A variation of this type of transfer is the transfer of the name from part to whole and from whole to part (synecdoche):
1) from part to whole: an extra one has been added to the family mouth
(= person), a herd of one hundred heads cattle(= animals), room at the hotel(= room), the first violin, the first racket
;
2) from whole to part: neighbors bought car
(= car); but by car a whole class of mechanisms is also called: washing, sewing and other machines.
The degree of imagery and prevalence in the language for different meanings figurative by origin is different.
Some of the figurative uses are not used by us in speech and exist only in the text of a certain author. These are individual (author's) metaphors and metonyms: copper intestines car(I. Ilf and E. Petrov), cheekbone apples(Yu. Olesha). Their imagery is maximal, their use is associated only with the author's text; these figurative meanings are not reflected in dictionaries.
Other metaphors and metonyms are common, they are not "tied" to a specific text and are used by native speakers in different situations (usually in colloquial speech): wall forests, sea tears star screen, saw(to scold). Their imagery is less than that of the author's, but is clearly felt by native speakers; they are reflected in the dictionary and have a label portable.
The third type of meaning, figurative by origin, is characterized by the fact that their imagery is not felt (in linguistics they are called "dry"): leg chair, hat mushroom, caterpillars tractor, sun gone, watch go ... These meanings are the main, dictionary names of a certain object, feature or action: they are portable in origin, they are direct from the point of view of functioning in a modern language and do not have labels in the dictionary portable.
Thus, a word can have several direct meanings - initial and not figuratively figurative in origin ("dry").
Consider as an example the meaning structure of the above word head: 1) part of the body of a person or animal, 2) mind, reason ( He's a man with a head), 3) a person as a bearer of ideas ( He's the head!), 4) the front of something ( column head, train), 5) livestock counting unit ( herd of 100 heads), 6) food product in the form of a ball, cone ( head of cheese, sugar).
The original and direct meaning of this word is the meaning of ‘part of the body of a person or animal’ (in linguistics, the sign ‘’ denotes the meaning of a linguistic unit).
Based on the similarity (metaphorical transfer), the values 4 and 6 are formed: ‘the front of something’ (similarity in location) and ‘food product in the form of a ball, cone’ (similarity in shape). Moreover, both of these meanings are also direct and used in a neutral style of speech. On the basis of contiguity (metonymic transfer) on the basis of the initial value, the figurative meaning 2 ‘mind, reason’ was formed. On the basis of meaning 2, the figurative meaning 3 ‘person as a bearer of ideas’ is formed - the name of the whole by part (synecdoche). On the basis of 1 of the initial value, a direct value 5 ‘cattle counting unit’ is formed - also a transfer from part to whole (synecdoche). Thus, the word head 4 direct meanings that do not have figurativeness - values 1, 4, 5, 6, and 2 figurative - values 2 and 3.
As we can see, the concept of metaphorical transfer in linguistics is broader than in literary criticism, where such linguistic ("dry") metaphors that perform only the function of naming and do not possess imagery are not considered as metaphors.
Different meanings of one word are placed in one dictionary entry of the explanatory dictionary.
Homonymy – it is a coincidence in the sound and writing of linguistic units, the meanings of which are not related to each other.
The main type of homonyms are lexical homonyms- words of the same part of speech that have the same sound, spelling and grammatical design, but different meanings. If between the meanings of a polysemous word there are semantic connections based on different types of transfer of the name, then the meanings of homonyms are not related to each other, they do not have common semantic components (in contrast to different meanings of a polysemantic word). Homonyms are different words.
Lexical homonyms can have the same or different number of grammatical forms; the first are called complete, the second incomplete. So, for example, full homonyms are the words vulture('bird'), vulture(‘Seal’) and vulture(‘Part of a string instrument’); interfere(‘Shuffle’) and interfere(‘To be a nuisance’). Incomplete homonyms are words onion‘Weapon’ (I) and onion‘Plant’ (II): at bow I has both singular and plural forms, bow II there are no plural forms, but in the singular their forms are completely the same.
The emergence of homonyms may be associated with an accidental coincidence in the language of the original Russian and the borrowed word ( smoke puff- Russian and club‘Society’ - English) or several borrowings from different languages ( focus‘Trick’ - it. and focus optical- lat.), As well as with the peculiarities of word formation ( critical from a crisis and critical from criticism) and with the decay of polysemy ( syllable‘Part of a word’ and syllable'style').
In contrast to the meanings of a polysemantic word, which are placed in explanatory dictionaries in one dictionary entry, homonyms, being different words, are allocated to different dictionary entries.
It is necessary to distinguish from lexical homonymy related phenomena - phonetic, grammatical and graphic homonymy.
Phonetic homonyms(homophones) are words that are spelled differently, but pronounced in the same way (due to reduction and stunning / voicing), for example, code - cat, pond - twig, weaken - weaken, stay - arrive.
Grammatical homonyms(homoforms) are different words that coincide in separate grammatical forms. So, for example, the verbs fly and treat match in the form of 1 person singular present tense - flying; my- the form of the imperative mood of the verb wash and possessive pronoun; bake- verb and noun.
Graphic homonyms(homographs) - words that are spelled in the same way, but pronounced differently due to the difference in stress: castle - castle, flour - flour, steam - steam.
In works of fiction (especially in poetry), as well as in a newspaper headline, in advertising, homonymy and related phenomena are often used as a means of a language game to create a special expressiveness of the text (for example: Legs are pressed by narrow chrome - On the day you will get skinny and become chrome... V. Mayakovsky; restaurant advertisement: There is time!).
Synonyms
Synonymy - the phenomenon of complete or partial coincidence of the meaning of linguistic units with their different sound and spelling.Lexical synonyms - these are words that sound differently, but have similar or coinciding meanings. In most cases, synonyms, denoting the same thing, characterize it from different points of view.
The words denoting genus-specific relations are not synonyms: flower - chamomile... Words that denote related concepts are not synonyms: house - apartment.
Synonyms can differ:
1) components of the lexical meaning (for example, greedy - stingy: the common component of meaning is ‘obsessed with a passion for money’, but greedy has another component ‘striving to seize someone else’s’, and stingy- ‘reluctant to give up his’); Wed also words go - walk, open - open;
2) the style of use: a stylistically neutral word can have bookish, high or, conversely, reduced synonyms, for example: sleep - rest - take a nap, eat - eat - eat, hello - hello - great;
3) and both at the same time (for example, talk and chatter: word chatter has an evaluative component of the meaning 'empty, frivolous', not contained in the word talk, while the word chatter has a reduced in comparison with the word talk coloring); Wed also go - drag - march - shuffle;
4) compatibility with different words: compatibility may not coincide in part ( open your eyes, mouth, book, etc. - open your mouth) or completely (positional synonyms - words with the same conceptual content, but with a complete mismatch of lexical compatibility): the set of animals in the language is called differently, depending on what animals are in question : herd of cows; flock of sheep; a flock of birds, wolves; school of fish; a pack of dogs; herd of horses;
5) the degree of modernity: neck - vyya, fisherman - fisherman, helicopter - helicopter;
6) scope of application: cook - cook(prof.), rooster - cocks(dial.), parents - ancestors, laces(jarg.). Some researchers do not consider words that differ in the degree of modernity and scope of use as synonymous;
7) management: characteristic for whom / what - peculiar to whom; to what.
Synonyms between which there are no specified differences are called full (absolute) synonyms, or doublets ( linguistics - linguistics, throw - throw, extinguish - extinguish, during - in continuation, hippopotamus - hippo). There are not very many complete synonyms in the language.
Synonyms are combined into synonymous series, for example: doctor - doctor - doctor - aesculapius... As part of the synonymous series, a dominant stands out - a word that, in comparison with other members of the series, has the most general meaning, stylistically neutral, having the most free compatibility (in this synonymous series, this word doctor). Synonymous series can be different in the number of words: from two to three to ten or more. Words can have stable combinations synonymous with them - phraseological units: die - give your soul to God... Phraseologisms can enter into synonymous relationships not only with words, but also with each other: give your soul to God - go to the next world - play the box - drop your skates.
In addition to linguistic synonyms, which were mentioned above, contextual synonyms are also distinguished - words that enter into synonymous relations only in a certain context (for example, say - whisper - blurt out - bark - stutter).
The main functions synonyms are clarification, substitution, euphemization and opposition.
Clarification is based on incomplete coincidence of the meanings of synonymous words: synonyms allow you to "add" missing meanings, to reveal new sides in the designated ( He ran, or rather rushed.).
Replacement is based on the fact that in a number of contexts the differences between synonyms are erased, and this allows you to avoid repetitions of the same words ( He made a mistake, but his mistake was not noticed.).
Euphemization is a deliberately inaccurate designation of reality ( the boss is delayed (= is late), he is not far off (= stupid).
Contrasting synonyms highlights the differences between synonyms ( She did not walk, but walked).
Synonyms are recorded in special dictionaries - dictionaries of synonyms.
Antonyms
Antonyms - words of the same part of speech that have opposite meanings relative to each other, for example: young - old, friendship - enmity, good - bad, leave - come, from - to.In this definition, it is important to note the following:
1) words of the same part of speech are called antonyms, therefore such words expressing opposite concepts as ugly - handsome;
2) antonyms should have meanings that are related to each other; this means that antonyms are words denoting logically compatible concepts that have a common part in their meanings, relative to which a number of features are opposed. So, for example, antonyms get up and to go down have a common element of meaning ‘move on an inclined or vertical plane’. These words are contrasted with elements of the meaning ‘up’ and ‘down’. Words that do not have a common component of meaning are not opposed in the language, For example, it is absurd to oppose words book and spoon, boot and table etc.
Thus, not all words have antonyms, but only those that have a qualitative or quantitative attribute in their meaning (as a rule, words with a qualitative, quantitative, spatial, temporal meaning). The most common antonymic relations are among qualitative adjectives and qualitative adverbs, less among verbs and nouns. There are no antonyms among nouns with a specific meaning ( door, TV), numerals, most pronouns. Proper names do not have antonyms.
The meanings of antonyms are opposite. It follows from this that antonyms are mutually exclusive when characterizing the same object: an object cannot be at the same time, for example, hot and cold, big and small, true and false.
By structure, antonyms can be single-rooted ( kind angry) and multi-root ( come - leave).
Some words can enter into antonymic relations only in a certain context, not being linguistic antonyms, not being realized as words with the opposite meaning outside this context. Such antonyms are called contextual, for example: And we hate and we love by chance, / Without sacrificing anything malice nor love... / And reigns in the soul of some cold secret, / When Fire boils in blood(Lerm.); underlined words outside this context are not antonyms: the word love antonym hatred, at the word heat - cold; the words hate and be in love from the first line given - language antonyms.
Functions the use of antonyms and antonyms in the text are as follows:
1) antithesis - opposition-contrast ( I am stupid and you are smart. Alive, and I'm dumbfounded by M. I. Tsvetaeva) or in the title (“ Thick and thin"A. P. Chekhova," The living and the dead"K. M. Simonov).
2) oxymoron - a combination into a whole of opposite in meaning units of different parts of speech ( dead souls, living corpse, grown children).
Antonyms are recorded in special dictionaries - dictionaries of antonyms.
Outdated vocabulary
Outdated vocabulary includes historicisms and archaisms.
Histories- these are words denoting objects that have disappeared from modern life, phenomena that have become irrelevant concepts, for example: chain mail, corvee, horse tram; modern Saturday, Sunday; socialist competition, Politburo... These words fell out of use, together with the objects, concepts they designated, and passed into passive vocabulary: we know them, but we do not use them in our everyday speech. Histories are used in texts that deal with the past (fiction, historical research).
Archaisms- these are outdated names of phenomena and concepts existing in our time, for the designation of which other, modern names have arisen.
There are several types of archaisms:
1) the word can become completely obsolete and completely go out of use: Lanites- 'cheeks', ya- 'neck', right hand- 'right hand', shuytsa- 'left hand', so that- 'to', ruin- ‘doom’;
2) one of the meanings of a word may become outdated, while the rest continue to be used in the modern language: stomach- 'life', thief- ‘state criminal’ (False Dmitry II was called “Tushinsky thief”); at the word to give over the past 10 years, the meaning of 'sell' has disappeared, and the word throw away- value 'put on sale';
3) 1-2 sounds and / or the place of stress may change in a word: room- room, library- library, mirror - mirror, cord - lace;
4) the obsolete word may differ from the modern one by the prefix and / or suffix ( friendship - friendship, restaurant - restaurant, fisherman - fisherman);
5) certain grammatical forms of a word may change (cf .: the title of A. Pushkin's poem “ Gypsies»
- modern form gypsies) or the belonging of this word to a certain grammatical class (words piano, hall were used as feminine nouns, and in modern Russian these are masculine words).
Obsolescence of words is a process, and different words may be at different stages. Words that have not yet gone out of active use, but are already used less often than before, are called obsolete (voucher).
Functions obsolete words are varied. First, they can be used directly to name, designate the corresponding objects, phenomena. Thus, obsolete words are used, for example, in scientific and historical works. In works of art on historical themes, this vocabulary is used not only to denote obsolete realities, outdated concepts, but also to create a certain flavor of the era. Obsolete words can be used in fictional text to indicate the time at which an action takes place. Obsolete words (mainly archaisms) can also perform their own stylistic functions - they can be used to create the solemnity of the text.
Neologisms
Outdated words opposed neologisms - new words whose novelty is felt by the speakers.
Linguistic neologisms- these are words that arise as names for new objects, phenomena, concepts that do not yet have names in the language, or as new names for already existing objects or concepts.
Linguistic neologisms arise in the following ways:
1) a new word appears in the language, a new lexical unit. It appears through borrowing ( shopping tour, charter, shaping, image) or the emergence of a new word according to the derivational models existing in the language from the "old" word ( geography®
lunography) or a borrowing neologism ( marketing®
marketing, computer®
computer, geek, computerization);
2) a word already existing in the language has a new meaning, for example, kettle- ‘layman with poor skills’, hatch- ‘text correction paste’, round- ‘negotiation phase’, pirate- ‘unlicensed’, shell- 'garage'. In the future, this meaning can come off and form a new homonym word.
If an object, concept, phenomenon called a neologism quickly becomes irrelevant, the neologism may not have time to become a common word, master the language, and this word can immediately go into a passive vocabulary, becoming historicism. Such a fate befell many neologisms of the NEP times, the first years of perestroika ( cooperator, gekachepist, voucher).
Linguistic neologisms are used by native speakers in their everyday speech, many are known and understandable. If the existence of a linguistic neologism is justified, pretty soon the neologism enters the active vocabulary and ceases to be understood as a new word. However, the creation of new words, word creation is also possible in other situations: an artistic word, a situation of friendly communication, the speech of a child who has not yet fully mastered the lexical stock of the Russian language. An adult, poet, writer consciously resorts to word creation in order to make his speech more expressive or to play with the rich word-formation possibilities of the language, the child does this unconsciously. The results of such word creation are called individual (contextual, copyright) neologisms... So, we find in A.S. Pushkin the words fired, küchelbekkerno, V.V. Mayakovsky: love, pedestrian, turn blue, light up.
Sometimes the author's neologisms become real words, are included in the literary language, such as words pendulum, pump, attraction, constellation, mine, blueprint, included in the Russian language from the works of M.V. Lomonosov, industry, falling in love, absent-mindedness, touching- from the works of N.M. Karamzin, fade away- from F.I.Dostoevsky), mediocrity- from I. Severyanin.
Common vocabulary and vocabulary of limited use
TO common vocabulary includes words used (understood and used) in different linguistic spheres by native speakers regardless of their place of residence, profession, lifestyle: these are the majority of nouns, adjectives, adverbs, verbs ( blue, bonfire, grumble, ok), numerals, pronouns, most of the official words.
TO restricted vocabulary includes words whose use is limited to some locality (dialectisms), profession (special vocabulary), occupation or interests (slang vocabulary).
Dialectisms
Dialectisms - these are features of dialects, dialects that do not correspond to the norms of the literary language. Dialecticism is a dialectal inclusion in the Russian literary language. The phonetic, derivational, grammatical features of the dialect can be reflected in the speech of people, but for lexicology, dialectisms associated with the functioning of words as lexical units are most important - lexical dialectisms, which are of several types.First, dialecticism can denote realities that exist only in a given area and do not have names in the literary language: tyes- ‘a vessel for liquid from birch bark’, crumbs- ‘wooden shoulder device for carrying weights’.
Secondly, dialectisms include words that are used in a certain area, but have words with the same meaning in the literary language: hefty - very, rolling - duck, basque - beautiful.
Thirdly, there are such dialectisms that coincide in spelling and pronunciation with the words of the literary language, but have a different meaning that does not exist in the literary language, but is characteristic of a certain dialect, for example, plow -‘Revenge the floor’, fireman -‘Burned out’, thin in the meaning of ‘bad’ (this meaning was in the past inherent in the literary language, hence the comparative degree worse from adjective bad) or weather- ‘bad weather’.
Dialectal traits can also manifest themselves at other linguistic levels - in pronunciation, inflection, collocation, etc.
Dialectisms are outside the literary language, but can be used in fiction to create local color, for the speech characteristics of characters.
Dialectisms are recorded in special dictionaries of various dialects, the most common of them can be reflected in the explanatory dictionary with the mark regional.
Special vocabulary
Special vocabulary associated with the professional activities of people. It includes terms and professionalisms.Terms- these are the names of special concepts of science, art, technology, agriculture, etc. The terms are often artificially created using Latin and Greek roots and differ from the "ordinary" words of the language in that they, ideally, are unambiguous in this terminology and do not have synonyms , that is, only one object of a given science should correspond to each term. Each word-term has a strict definition, recorded in special scientific research or terminological dictionaries.
Distinguish between generally understandable and highly specialized terms. Meaning generally understood terms are also known to a non-specialist, which is usually associated with the study of the basics of various sciences at school and with their frequent use in everyday life (for example, medical terminology) and in the media (political, economic terminology). Highly specialized the terms are clear only to specialists. Here are examples of linguistic terms of different types:
common terms: subject, predicate, suffix, verb;
highly specialized terms: predicate, phoneme, submorph, suppletivism.
Terms belong to the literary language and are recorded in special terminological dictionaries and explanatory dictionaries marked special.
It is necessary to distinguish from the terms professionalism- words and expressions that are not scientifically defined, strictly legalized names of certain objects, actions, processes associated with the professional, scientific, production activities of people. These are semi-official and unofficial (they are sometimes called professional jargon) words used by people of a certain profession to denote special objects, concepts, actions, often having names in the literary language. Jargon-professionalisms exist exclusively in the oral speech of people of this profession and are not included in the literary language (for example, among printing workers: a cap- ‘big heading’, turn- ‘marriage in the form of a square’; at the chauffeurs: steering wheel- 'steering wheel', brick- no-entry sign). If professionalisms are included in dictionaries, they are accompanied by an indication of the scope of use ( in the speech of sailors, in the speech of fishermen etc.).
Slang vocabulary
Restricted vocabulary also includes jargon- words used by people of certain interests, occupations, habits. So, for example, there are jargons for schoolchildren, students, soldiers, athletes, criminals, hippies, etc. For example, in student jargon tail- ‘failed exam, test’, hostel- 'hostel', spur, bomb- ‘varieties of cribs’, in the jargon of schoolchildren laces, ancestors, rodaki- parents, cupcake, bobblehead, bump, pepper, man, dude, cartilage, shnyaga- guy. Words that are included in different jargons form an interjargon ( schmuck, funny, cool, party).
Besides the term jargon, there are also the terms "argo" and "slang". Argo Is a specially classified language. In previous centuries in Russia there were argos of wandering merchants - peddlers, professional fundraisers, etc. Now we can talk about thieves argos ( feather- knife, a gun- gun). Slang- this is a linguistic environment of oral communication that is different from the norm of the literary language, uniting a large group of people. A significant difference between slang and jargon is the increased emotionality of slang and the lack of selectivity in it of objects for naming with the help of special words: we use slang in almost all speech situations in informal oral communication of people. So, we can talk about youth slang - a means of informal communication between young people aged approximately 12 to 30 years. Slang is updated quite quickly, and the sources of constant updating of slang are jargon units (over the past few years, youth slang has switched from thieves 'jargon as the main "supplier" of vocabulary to drug addicts' jargon), borrowings ( rudder‘Correct’ - from the English. rule, gerla‘Girl’ - from the English. girl), pun playful rethinking of the words of the literary language ( claudia'keyboard', ancestors‘Parents’), as well as derivatives from these units ( cool, cool). At the same time, the meaning of the units used (jargon, borrowings) is usually expanded, rethought in relation to other areas of activity. For example, a drug addict will say: I'm rushing from this dope, - and from a young man you can hear: This Mouzon rushes me.
Slang and argotic vocabulary is outside the literary language and is recorded only in special dictionaries.
Words related to vocabulary of limited use are often used in fiction for the speech characteristics of heroes, creating a certain flavor.
Stylistic layers of vocabulary
The words of the language are heterogeneous in terms of expressive and stylistic possibilities. In vocabulary, there are such units, the choice of which depends on the situation of verbal communication, on the goals and topic of the statement. With regard to the Russian language, this question was raised by MV Lomonosov, who developed the "theory of three calm": high, medium and low.
The basis of the vocabulary of the language is stylistically neutral(interstyle) vocabulary (bed, sleep, big, fun, if, because of). These are words that are not assigned to any particular style and can be used in any situation. Neutral vocabulary is the starting point, relative to which the assignment of some words to the "high" style is determined (cf. bed - bed, sleep - rest, large - titanic), and some - to "low" (cf .: sleep - sleep, if - if only).
The "high style" refers to words that are used primarily in writing and in special situations that require the creation of an unusual, solemn atmosphere. High vocabulary includes book vocabulary, high vocabulary and official vocabulary. High vocabulary is characterized by solemnity, poetry, it is used mainly in oratory and poetic speech ( titanic, elect, creator, demise). Book words are called that are not assigned to any type of written speech ( unprecedented, view, declare, extremely). TO official vocabulary includes words used in clerical and administrative documents ( certify complicity due to). The words "high style" belong to the literary language and are placed in explanatory dictionaries with marks high, bookish or official.
The "low style" refers to the vocabulary of oral speech, used in a casual conversation, but not used, as a rule, in written genres (scientific, official business speech). Within the framework of the "low style" there are colloquial vocabulary that does not go beyond the literary language ( hard worker, train, take a nap, careless, most interjections: eh yeah etc.) and vernacular vocabulary outside the literary language; colloquial vocabulary can be rude and expressive, which leads to its frequent use in oral speech by many native speakers ( dunce, talker, dreary, lousy, get in) and rough, including abnormal (obscene). If words of this kind are placed in explanatory dictionaries, then with marks colloquial and colloquially reduced.
The definition of vocabulary as bookish or colloquial does not mean that bookish vocabulary is not used in oral speech, and colloquial - in writing. The point is that, being used, for example, in everyday colloquial speech, the book word is all the more perceived by the speakers as stylistically colored, foreign.
Primordially Russian vocabulary
The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has evolved over the centuries. The vocabulary is based on native Russian words... The original word is considered to be a word that arose in the Russian language according to the models existing in it or that passed into it from an older predecessor language - Old Russian, Proto-Slavic or Indo-European.
The history of the development of languages is the history of their separation. In ancient times (in the VI-V millennium BC) there was an unwritten Indo-European language... Subsequently, the language of a group of European tribes that settled in different territories and spoke their own dialects of the Indo-European language was sufficiently isolated from the language of other tribes. The language of the tribes that are the ancestors of the Slavic peoples is also unwritten, they call proto-Slavic... In the 1st millennium AD, the tribes that spoke the Proto-Slavic language widely settled in Central, Eastern and Southeastern Europe and gradually lost their linguistic unity. The disintegration of the Proto-Slavic language into South Slavic, West Slavic and East Slavic (Old Russian language) language groups. The Old Russian language becomes the language of the Old Russian nationality, which united in the 9th century into a single state - Kievan Rus. In the XIV century, the Old Russian language splits into Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian, the Russian language becomes the language of the Russian people, and then the Russian nation.
TO native vocabulary include all words that came to modern Russian from ancestral languages. Therefore, the primordial Russian vocabulary breaks down into 4 layers, belonging to different eras:
- Indo-European layer... This layer includes words that have correspondences in the roots of words in many other Indo-European languages. These are, for example, words such as mother, son, brother, wolf, water, nose(compare with English: mother, son, brother, wolf, water, nose), three, four, take, be etc. These words are native not only for Russian, but also for many other Indo-European languages.
- Proto-Slavic (all-Slavic) layer. The words of this layer have correspondences in many Slavic languages, are primordial for them, for example: heart, spring, rain, grass(compare with Polish: serce, wiosna, deszcz, trawa but in english heart, spring, rain, grass), grandson, aunt, drive, kind.
Only about two thousand words belong to the Indo-European and Proto-Slavic layers, but they make up 25% of the words of our everyday communication. This is easy to understand: the first, naturally, to emerge words, reflecting urgent human needs.
- Old Russian layer... To him belong the words that arose during the period of the unity of Kievan Rus and are common for the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages: forty, ninety etc. (in Ukrainian the same, but in Polish czterdziеšсi, that is, * fourty, dziewięčziesiąt, that is * ninety), spoon, wander, brown, together, squirrel, lump.
- The Russian layer itself unites words that arose after the XIV century, that is, after the collapse of Kievan Rus. These are almost all words with suffixes -chik / -master, -study, -lk (a), -ness and many others, complex and abbreviated words: grandmother, pilot, steamer, Moscow State University... It also includes words that changed their meaning during this period, for example, Red in the meaning of a certain color (in the Proto-Slavic and Old Russian languages, the word Red mattered ‘good’, which is preserved in the phrases red girl and the Red Square).
Borrowed vocabulary
In different eras, Russian vocabulary penetrated borrowing from other languages. For borrowing, a condition is necessary - the presence of linguistic contacts between peoples due to trade, wars, cultural interaction, etc.
Borrowings are used to name new realities and to rename old ones.
The reasons for borrowing words are:
1) the need to name a new reality: leggings, grant, digest, skateboard, scotch tape;
2) the need to distinguish between meaningfully close, but still different concepts: image - image(the second word has a semantic component not contained in the first word ‘purposefully create’), killer - killer('payed assassin');
3) the tendency to replace a word combination with a word: summit- ‘summit’, know-how- 'Hi-tech', electorate- ‘the totality of voters’;
4) striving for uniformity of terminology or jargon according to the source of origin (in Russian there were words Computer, ewemschik, but with the spread of personal computers and the appearance of a large number of computer terms borrowed from the English language, these words were replaced by words computer, geek);
5) striving for an increase in the status of the named object; in certain periods, a great social prestige of a foreign-language word arises, as if raising the called phenomenon in rank, cf. synonymous words presentation - presentation, exclusive - exclusive, consulting - consulting, shop - shop; Borrowings from the Slavic languages (in particular, from the Old Slavic language) and from non-Slavic languages are distinguished.
In different historical periods, borrowings from different languages became more active. So, in connection with the Tatar-Mongol yoke in the XIV-XV centuries and with the cultural and trade contacts of the Slavs and Turkic peoples, borrowings from the Turkic languages appeared, for example, sheepskin coat, herd, horse, chest other.
During the period of the transformations of Peter I, words related to navigation, shipbuilding, military affairs, from the Dutch ( lock, harbor, boatswain), German ( soldier, storm, bayonet) languages.
In the 18th - 19th centuries, a large number of words were borrowed from French, Italian, Spanish, Polish, which are associated, first of all, with the secular nature of the culture of that time: ballet, partner, veil(from French), aria, baritone, impresario(from Italian), guitar, cigar, serenade(from Spanish), monogram(from Polish).
In Russian, borrowings from the Scandinavian languages are presented ( hook, pood, herring), from Finnish ( blizzard, flounder, walrus, tundra), single borrowings from Chinese ( tea), Japanese ( karate, ivashi), Hungarian ( goulash).
In the twentieth century, the main source of borrowing is the English language, and the process of borrowing becomes more active in the second half of the twentieth century. In the 50s. borrowed words jeans, shorts, hobby, camping, motel... In the early 90s. political, economic and cultural conditions arose that predetermined the predisposition to borrowing: the awareness of the country as part of the civilized world, the desire to overcome alienation from other countries, an open orientation towards the West in various areas.
In connection with the change in the political system, new realities and concepts arise, which causes the transfer of names from a foreign linguistic environment to Russian soil: parliament, prime minister, mayor, prefect, press secretary, press attaché, press release.
The literary language includes a new terminology:
computer: computer, display, file, hard drive, printer;
sports: windsurfing, freestyle, bobsleigh, kickboxing;
financial, commercial: barter, voucher, dealer, distributor, investor, marketing;
political and social: image, consensus, summit, electorate;
cultural: sponsor, underground, remake, thriller, showman.
In different historical periods, including through the mediation of other languages, Greekisms penetrated into the Russian language ( philosophy, geometry, politics, democracy) and Latinisms ( republic, dictatorship, student). Most of the borrowings from the Greek and Latin languages are included in the international language fund of scientific vocabulary.
When borrowing a word mastered in Russian: begins to be written in Russian letters, acquires pronunciation and grammatical design characteristic of the Russian language. The degree of mastery of borrowed words may vary. Most of the borrowed words are fully mastered in the Russian language, and nothing reminds of their non-Russian origin. However, borrowed words may not be fully mastered: they may not change ( subway, coffee) and not even completely obey the phonetic laws of the Russian language, making up a special phonetic subsystem (for example, the word cocoa we pronounce with an unstressed [o] at the end; we firmly pronounce the consonants before [e]: pace, test, mayor and others, which is also unusual for native Russian words).
You can talk about specific signs of borrowing in Russian. So, for example, the initial [a] and [e] ( am6ar, era), a combination of vowels in the root ( theater, poet), some segments in the root, which are by origin suffixes or endings of a word in the language - the source of the borrowing: - ent- from Latin ( assistant), -wasps- from Greek ( space), -ing- from English ( rally).
Information about the origin of words can be obtained from etymological dictionaries and dictionaries of foreign words.
Old Slavicisms
One of the most powerful borrowing strata is the stratum Old Slavisms - borrowings from the Old Church Slavonic language. The Old Church Slavonic language is not the ancestor language of the Russian language, it is the language of the South Slavic group.
In the 9th century AD, there was the Slavic principality of Great Moravia, which included Moravia, Slovakia, part of the Czech Republic and Poland. The central regions were Moravia proper and western Slovakia. In 863, the Moravian prince Rostislav turned to the emperor of Byzantium, which at that time was the center of Orthodox culture, with a request to send people to him to preach Christianity in the Slavic language. The Byzantine Emperor Michael sent two brothers: Constantine (in the monasticism of Cyril) and Methodius, natives of the city of Solunia (Thessalonki), which at that time was a Greek colony on Slavic territory and was surrounded by Slavic settlements. The brothers spoke both Slavic languages and Greek, in which Orthodox liturgical books were written. Constantine compiled the Slavic alphabet (Glagolitic) and translated the Greek liturgical texts into the Slavic (Old Bulgarian) language. Thus, the Old Slavonic language is the first literary, written language of the Slavs, based on the Bulgarian-Macedonian dialects, which belonged to the southern group of Slavic languages. Ancient liturgical books in Old Church Slavonic are written in two alphabets - Cyrillic and Glagolitic. It is now recognized that the oldest, compiled by Constantine, is the Glagolitic alphabet. Only later, at the end of the 9th - beginning of the 10th centuries, an alphabet similar to the Greek was created. It is assumed that its creator was the disciple of Methodius Constantine, who over time began to be identified by the Slavic scribes with the first teacher Constantine-Cyril. The alphabet itself received the name of the Cyrillic alphabet and formed the basis of the Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian and other alphabets.
In 988, under Prince Vladimir, the baptism of Rus took place, and the Eastern Slavs began to use the Old Slavonic (later Church Slavonic) language for divine services, while the Old Russian language was used in speech practice and business writing. Old Russian and Church Slavonic were close enough that allowed the Church Slavonic language to take an important place in Russian culture. However, there were still differences between these languages, and in the course of centuries of coexistence, the Church Slavonic language could not help but influence the Russian language: gradually, many Church Slavonic elements penetrated into non-Church written styles and into oral speech.
Old Slavonic words that are part of the vocabulary of the Russian language are called Old Slavs... These words are distinguished by a number of signs (phonetic, derivational and lexical), in connection with which several groups of Old Slavic signs in Russian are distinguished:
- Phonetic signs are associated with the fact that the same sounds and sound combinations of the Proto-Slavic language gave different results (reflexes) in the South Slavic (Old Slavic) and East Slavic (Old Russian) languages:
1) incomplete Old Church Slavonic combinations ra, la, re, le correspond to Russian full-voiced combinations oro, olo, ere, ate; therefore, the inconsistencies that have full-voiced correspondences in the roots of words in the Russian language are a sign of Old Slavicisms: hail- town, voice- voice, Wednesday- middle, attraction- drag... Likewise with prefixes pre-, pre- having correspondences re-, before– (to transgress- overstep);
2) Old Church Slavonic ra-, la- and ro-, lo-: equal- even, rook- a boat;
3) railway according to Russian f: alien- stranger;
4) SCH according to Russian h (illuminate- candle); Old Church Slavonic in origin are participle suffixes yusch / yusch, asch / yasch: primordially Russian participle suffixes were uch / uch, ach / uch, which later became adjective suffixes: current- fluid, burning- hot;
5) a at the beginning of a word in accordance with Russian I am: lamb- lamb, az- I am;
6) e at the beginning of a word in accordance with Russian O: unit- one;
7) NS at the beginning of a word in accordance with Russian at: holy fool- freak. - Word-building signs of Old Slavicism are prefixes or suffixes of Old Slavonic origin; some of them have Russian equivalents, for example: from- according to Russian you- (pour out- pour out), bottom- according to Russian with- (fall- subside), while other Russian matches do not have: - stij- (action), -know (life), -tv- (battle) other.
- Group lexical Old Slavicisms make up words borrowed from Old Church Slavonic entirely. As a rule, these are words denoting religious concepts: lord, sin, creator, prophet, saint, resurrection... Such words may not have external distinctive signs. Lexical Old Slavicisms also include words with roots good-, god-, good-, super- Old Slavic origin ( prudence, superstition).
One should not think that all words with Old Slavonic omens have a tinge of bookishness or belong to high vocabulary. Many Old Slavicisms are stylistically neutral and are neither bookish nor outdated: time, wednesday, hello, brave... There are roots of old Slavic origin, which in some words are neutral, while in others they are outdated or stylistically colored: cool - cold, agree - read.
Phraseologisms
Phraseologism- a stable combination of words, constant in composition and meaning, reproduced in speech as a ready-made unit.Phraseological units are studied in lexicology, and not in syntax, because in many respects phraseological units are closer to a word than to a phrase: in most cases, a phraseological unit is equal to a word in its meaning, is its equivalent ( order to live long = die), phraseological units are a single member of the sentence ( He came to the nodding analysis - circumstance, compare: He came late), and most importantly, as part of a free phrase, each word retains its meaning, the words in them can be rearranged or replaced with others, the phraseological unit is distinguished by the constancy of its composition, is reproduced in speech as a ready-made unit, the meaning of most phraseological units does not equal the sum of the meanings of its constituent components.
The degree of cohesion of words and the dependence of the meaning of the entire phraseological unit on the values of its constituent components can be different. In this regard, from the point of view meaning phraseological units can be divided into the following groups:
1) phrases that are indecomposable in meaning, the meaning of which cannot be inferred from the values of their components: eat the dog‘Have rich experience’, stay off your nose‘Get nothing’ rubbing glasses'deceive' how to drink give‘For sure’. Phraseological splices also include phraseological units containing obsolete words or grammatical forms: byword‘The subject of general discussion’ not hesitating‘Not in the least doubt’ , you can’t see'very dark' sharpen the fringes‘Talk’ , beat your thumbs'sit back';
2) combinations, the meanings of which can be understood figuratively from the meanings of their constituents: to make mountains out of molehills(make something big out of something small, that is, exaggerate), White crow(black crows, white crow - something that stands out from others, a deviation from the norm), similarly, you can understand the meaning of phraseological units fly in the ointment, wind up the fishing rods and etc.;
3) combinations, each word in which has an independent meaning, but:
a) one of the words is used only in this combination: bosom friend(can not be * bosom enemy), isosceles triangle;
b) one of the words is used in this meaning only in this combination, in free phrases it has a different meaning: right angle(word straight means ‘90 degrees’ only in combination with the word injection), white poetry(white- here ‘non-rhymed’) , cracked voice(cracked- here ‘squeaky’).
This classification of phraseological units belongs to Academician V.V. Vinogradov. He called the phraseological units of the first group phraseological adhesions, the second - phraseological unities, the third - phraseological combinations.
By structure phraseological units can be phrases ( sit in a galosh, without a king in your head) or sentences ( grandma said in two when the cancer on the mountain whistles).
Phraseologisms, like words, can be characterized in terms of their meaning (unambiguous and ambiguous), the relationships in which they enter with each other and with words, origin, stylistic coloring.
Most of the words of the Russian language, as already mentioned, are polysemantic; most phraseological units, on the contrary, are unambiguous, but polysemous ones are extremely rare, for example: gather strength: 1) relax, 2) overcome fear.
Homonym phraseological units are also rare; as an example, homonymy phraseological units can be cited let the cock go: let the rooster I -'Fake' let the rooster II- ‘set on fire’. Both phraseological units belong to the second group, that is, their meaning is due to a metaphorical rethinking of the meaning of a free phrase; the original is the same object, however, the basis of the rethinking was formed by its different characteristics - the voice in the first case and the color in the second.
Phraseologisms are sometimes homonymous with free combinations of words (cf .: He has money chickens do not peck. – Chickens do not peck this feed).
Like words, phraseological units can enter into synonymous and antonymic relations with each other, for example: not to see and gouge out your eyes‘Very dark’ are synonyms the cat cried‘Little’ and endless end'many' – antonyms.
By origin, phraseological units can be originally Russian ( neither fish nor meat, nor zgi can be seen) and borrowed ( byword- Old Church Slavonic; blue stocking- from English, word-by-word translation - tracing paper; terra incognita- from Latin).
Most of the phraseological units are stylistically colored, and most of the phraseological units belong to colloquial ( bite your elbows, grated roll, the first pancake is lumpy) and vernacular ( discard hooves, rage with fat, the gut is thin), however, there are also high-style phraseological units ( without hesitation, give God your soul, sink into oblivion).
Phraseologisms are reflected in special dictionaries that interpret their meaning and indicate the scope of use, as well as in explanatory dictionaries at the end of a dictionary entry after the à sign. The largest number of phraseological units is reflected in the "Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" by V. I. Dal.
Sometimes they also allocate phraseological expressions... These are segmented and decomposable phrases and sentences, the meaning of which is made up of the meanings of the words that make them up, but they have one similarity with phraseological units - the constancy of the composition, reproducibility in speech as ready-made units. These are proverbs, sayings, "winged words", quotes from famous works of art, for example: " Happy hours are not observed"- from" Woe from Wit "by A. Griboyedov.
Speech. Text
Speech Is a speaking process carried out orally or in writing. The result of this speaking is a speech work, or text.Speech is an implementation of a language that only through speech can fulfill its main function - to serve as a means of communication.
Speech happens
- by the nature of speech activity: monologic (utterance of one person) / dialogical (conversation of two or more persons),
- by the form of language use: oral / written,
- according to the conditions and tasks of communication: colloquial (colloquial style) / book (scientific, official-business, journalistic, artistic style).
The main unit of speech is text. Text - it is a group of sentences, united into a whole by the theme and the main idea. The main features of the text:
- thematic and compositional unity of its parts,
- the presence of a grammatical connection between its parts (sequential or parallel),
- semantic integrity,
- relative completeness.
In rare cases, the text may consist of one sentence; an example of this is the poem by Alexander Pushkin "To the portrait of Zhukovsky":
His poems are captivating sweetnessTheme- what the text says. In addition to the topic (or several topics), the text may contain author's deviations.
The envious distance will pass for centuries,
And, heeding them, youth will sigh for glory,
Silent sorrow will be comforted
And the high-spirited joy will think.
Main thought the text usually conveys the author's attitude to the subject of speech, his assessment of the depicted (through the disclosure of the topic, lyrical digressions, the use of various linguistic means).
Part of the topic is called subtopic or a microtheme that forms a paragraph - a passage of text between indents at the beginning of a line. Within a paragraph, sentences are linked logically and grammatically. In a paragraph, you can distinguish the paragraph opening (the beginning of the paragraph) and the commenting part (clarification of what is contained in the first sentences of the paragraph, the development of thought), sometimes the micro theme included in the paragraph gets permission - the end.
In texts of a large volume of all styles of speech, except for colloquial speech, division into larger parts is possible - paragraphs, sections, chapters.
Different semantic relationships are established between sentences in the text: opposition, explanation, purpose, condition.
The offer contains “ given " and " new"; the new one contains the main message, is highlighted with logical stress, and in a calm monologue speech is usually found at the end of a sentence.
There are two ways communication proposals in the text: serial communication (the new of one sentence becomes the data of the next) and parallel communication (this is common for several sentences).
Communication means of proposals in the text:
Lexical: words of one thematic group, direct repetition, synonyms, antonyms.
Morphological: conjunctions, allied words, particles, tense forms of the verb, the degree of comparison of adjectives and adverbs.
Syntactic: parallelism (several sentences have the same structure in terms of the order of the members of the sentence), parceling (allocation of a member, more often of a secondary one, after a point in the form of an independent sentence), juxtaposition of sentences (combining several sentences with one typical meaning into a syntactic whole by parallel connection - usually in the descriptions of the environment).
Consider, for example, the means of connecting sentences in a poem by A. Blok:
Singing dream, blooming colorThe following means are used in this text: direct lexical repetition ( day), contextual synonyms ( disappearing, fading away, flying away), contextual antonyms ( disappear - engage), the same tense forms of the verb, syntactic parallelism.
A fading day, a fading light.
Opening the window, I saw a lilac.
It was in the spring - on a flying day.
Flowers breathed - and on the dark cornice
The shadows of the jubilant robes moved.
The longing was choking, the soul was engaged,
I opened the window, trembling and trembling.
And I don't remember - where did I breathe in the face,
Singing, burning, went up the porch.
Styles of speech. Genres of speech
Speech styles - systems of linguistic elements within the literary language, delimited by the conditions and tasks of communication; the form of our statements depends on where, with whom and why we are talking.There are five styles; four bookstores: scientific, official-business, journalistic, artistic - and colloquial style. Each style is characterized by certain language means: words, their forms, phrases, types of sentences, and their belonging to the colloquial or book style is recognized when compared with neutral means.
Speech styles are implemented in specific forms, or types of texts, called genres of speech. Genres of speech- a typed form of speech organization, which determines the types of texts that differ in the given nature of speech activity (compare the monologue genre of journalistic articles and dialogical genre interview) and the form of language use (compare oral genre report and written genre articles). Basically, each genre of speech belongs to a certain style of speech, but there are also interstyle genres, for example: article, feature article, essay(scientific and journalistic), interview(journalistic and official-business).
Scientific style
Scientific style - one of the book styles that is used in scientific works, textbooks and teaching aids, oral presentations on scientific topics.The task of the scientific style is to communicate scientific information, explain it by presenting a system of scientific argumentation. Used in an official setting, it is characterized by consistency, objectivity, semantic accuracy.
In the scientific style, the following varieties can be distinguished:
1) the scientific style itself (inherent in scientific works - monographs, dissertations, articles in scientific journals, books, encyclopedias, scientific reports),
2) popular science style (inherent in texts intended to popularize scientific knowledge, i.e., popular science literature, articles in non-specialized magazines, newspapers, radio and television appearances, public lectures in front of a mass audience),
3) scientific and educational style (used in textbooks, teaching aids, reference books intended for students). The scientific style is characterized by the use of the following linguistic means:
at the level vocabulary:
- saturation with the terms of this science;
- using words with abstract meaning: law, number, limit, property; verbal nouns with the meaning of action: processing, landing, use;
- the use of words in direct meanings, the lack of imagery (metaphors, metonymy, interjections, exclamation points);
- frequent use of lexical means indicating connection and sequence of thoughts: first, first of all, first, therefore, vice versa, because, therefore;
- rare use of personal pronouns I am and you and verbs in the form of 1 and 2 persons singular;
- special authorization techniques: copyright we", Vaguely personal ( Think that...) and impersonal constructs ( It is known that...; It seems necessary ...),
- the use of participles and participles and phrases with them;
on syntactic level: - the use of complex sentences using conjunctions indicating a connection between phenomena;
- non-use of exclamation sentences, insignificant use of interrogative sentences;
- frequent quotes, links;
- use of formulas, graphs, diagrams as text components.
The main genres are textbook, article, report, dissertation, scientific monograph, encyclopedic article, patent application, abstract, resume, review.
We will cite as example an excerpt from a speech work of a scientific style of its own scientific variety - a monograph on linguistics:
Rule 3 (optional coloring of presumptions). If a component with a potential presumption P is a syntactic actant of a world-generating predicate, then there are two possibilities: change of content - modal "coloration" (the term "coloration" - from Schiebe 1979); b) P remains a presumption in the real world. The difference between the understandings of a) and b) does not have a regular semantic expression [E. Paducheva... Statement and its correlation with reality. M., 2001. p. 77].
This passage reflects the following features of the scientific style:
- linguistic terms presumption, syntactic, actant, predicate, modal, semantic;
- symbol R(presumption) as a component of the text;
- words with abstract meaning component, opportunity, judgment, change, understanding, expression;
- lack of words in a figurative meaning: word coloration used as a term, enclosed in quotation marks and provided with an appropriate reference;
- words indicating objective criteria for assessing the situation: potential, appropriate, true, regular;
- lack of references, interjections, modal particles, interrogative and exclamatory sentences and other means of imagery;
- a complex sentence with a conditional subordinate union if ... then indicating a causal relationship;
- making the text clearer by dividing into paragraphs: a) and b);
- a reference to another work of scientific literature, a full description of which is presented in the bibliography: Schiebe 1979.
Formal and business style
Official business style - one of the book style, used in the field of business relations, business papers, i.e. laws, documents, acts, contracts, regulations, statutes, official correspondence, etc.The task of this style is to communicate information, give instructions. The official business style is characterized by accuracy, unambiguity, impersonal character, standardized construction of the text, and the prescriptive character of the text.
The formal business style is characterized by the use of the following linguistic means:
at the level vocabulary:
- the use of full names, exact dates;
- book vocabulary ( due to, during, due to the fact that, be characterized);
- the use of words in direct meanings;
- lack of expressive and evaluative vocabulary;
- frequent use of verbal nouns ( approbation, use, implementation);
- availability of standardized revolutions ( after the expiration of the period, in the prescribed manner, enter into legal force);
- limited possibilities of synonymous substitution, frequent lexical repetitions;
- lack of personal pronouns, especially 1st and 2nd persons, instead of which proper names, proper names or special designations are used ( Customer executive), as well as verbs in the form of 1 and 2 persons;
on syntactic level: - complication of a simple sentence with separate turns, homogeneous members;
- clear division of the text into semantic blocks, usually with the use of subheadings and digital design of paragraphs.
The main genres are: monologue - order, official order, instruction, statement, request, complaint (complaint), recommendation, report, review; polylogical genres - meeting, meeting, negotiations, interviews.
As an example, we will give an excerpt from a standard contract:
AGREEMENT No. 7
On the transfer of non-exclusive property rights
| Moscow city | March 23, 2002 |
Citizen of the Russian Federation Anna Ilyinichna Ruzheva, hereinafter referred to as the Author, - on the one hand, and Aranta LLC, hereinafter referred to as the Firm, represented by General Director Sergei Ivanovich Bozin, acting on the basis of the Charter, - on the other hand, entered into this Agreement on the following:
1. Definitions used in the Agreement
1.1. The work - "Russian for schoolchildren and those entering universities", prepared by the Author. Description of the Work - the manual contains the basic theoretical concepts of the school course of the Russian language and explains the procedure for parsing language material, is addressed to students and especially graduates of secondary school due to the lack of a single set of textbooks on the Russian language for secondary educational institutions... This excerpt reflects the following features of the formal business style:
- lack of personal pronouns;
- full naming of characters with an indication of their social status;
- replacing them in the future with special designations Author, Firm;
- standardized turnovers: this Agreement on the following, hereinafter referred to as, acting on the basis of;
- an exact indication of the place and time of the conclusion of the contract;
- complication of a simple proposal by various separate members - see the first proposal of the treaty;
- dividing the text into blocks using subheadings and digital notation.
Journalistic style
Journalistic style - one of the book style, is used in publicistic and literary critical literature, the media, at meetings and rallies.The task of this style is to influence the mass consciousness through socially significant information. The characteristic features of the journalistic style are consistency, imagery, emotionality, evaluativeness, appeal.
linguistic means:
at the level vocabulary:
- widespread use of socio-political, economic, general cultural vocabulary;
- use of solemn vocabulary ( yardstick, view, exude, incomparable), often in combination with colloquial;
- the use of figurative means: epithets, comparisons, metaphors, phraseological units and "catch phrases";
- accentuation of the author's "I", personal assessment of the situation;
- frequent language play, puns, parodying (especially in headlines);
- active use of personal pronouns 1 and 2 persons and the corresponding forms of the verb;
- non-use of participial and adverbial expressions, their replacement with subordinate clauses;
- the use of incentive and exclamation sentences, rhetorical questions;
- use of appeals;
- frequent lexical and syntactic repetitions
As an example of a speech work of publicistic style, we will cite an excerpt from an article by A. Arkhangelsky, published in the newspaper Izvestia on April 6, 2002:
Cultures and Cultures
During the whole past week, Duma passions were seething, newspapers and television were heatedly discussing who would get which committee and what would eventually happen to the communists. Meanwhile, in this discussion, one motive was completely absent, which, to a certain extent, can be considered the key one. Namely: which two committees were offered to the Bolshevik comrades as a consolation prize for reasons of political insignificance? What offices has none of the new majority ever coveted - not faceless YEDIOTs, not the glittering right?
That's right, children. Sit down, five. These were committees for culture and religious associations ...
I am afraid that the people's representatives are once again making a very serious mistake. Not cultural. And not religious. And quite a political one. Because a politician is not a political scientist. He doesn't have to be too smart. But he must have a good sense of smell. And always keep your nose to the wind: where does the wind of the era blow? As for the wind of the era, it blows away from direct (more precisely, quite mediocre) politics.
This passage reflects the following features of the journalistic style:
- political vocabulary: committees, cabinets (ministers), Duma, Bolsheviks, communists, rightists, politician, political scientist;
- colloquial and vernacular vocabulary, including phraseological units: clean, covet, scent, shiny, keep your nose to the wind;
- language play: secondary play in title ( Cultures and Cultures- paraphrase of a known repetition-echo cultures-cultures), direct as an antonym to the word mediocre, YEDIOTS- block "Unity and Fatherland", pseudosyllabic abbreviated word, graphically and phonetically consonant with the word idiots;
- the expression of the author's "I" - a verb in the form of 1 person singular with an estimated value afraid;
- lack of participles, an insignificant number of participles;
- interrogative sentences;
- "simple" syntax;
- an expressive method of addressing readers: ... what two committees were proposed to the Bolshevik comrades ...? That's right, children. Sit down, five;
- parceling: are making a very serious mistake. Not cultural. And not religious. And quite a political one.
Art style
Art the style is used in works of fiction, refers to book speech.The task is to paint a picture in words, to express an attitude towards what is depicted, to influence the feelings and imagination of the reader. Feature - the unity of the communicative and aesthetic functions, high imagery.
The artistic style is characterized by the following expressive means:
- tropes - turns in which a word or expression is used in a figurative sense: metaphor, metonymy, personification, comparison, epithet, etc.;
- figures of speech: anaphora, antithesis, gradation, inversion, parallelism, rhetorical question;
- rhythm, rhyme, mainly in a poetic work.
As example Here is an excerpt from a poetic text - a poem by A. Blok:
Autumn is late. The sky is openThe following linguistic means characteristic of the artistic style are used here:
And the woods shine with silence.
Lay down on the blurry shore
Sick mermaid head.
- rhythm, rhyme;
- inversion - an adjective after a noun: late autumn, open sky, blurry shore, sick mermaid;
- trails: open sky, forests shine with silence, the mermaid's head lay on the shore;
- syntactic parallelism in the first line;
- nominative sentences that create a feeling of static, immobility.
Conversational style
Colloquial the style is opposed to the book style and is used in casual conversations, more often in an informal setting. The main form of existence is oral, but it can also be carried out in writing (notes, private letters, fixing the speech of characters, and sometimes the author's speech in works of art).The task of speech is communication, exchange of impressions. The hallmarks of a conversational style are informality, ease, unpreparedness, emotionality, the use of facial expressions and gestures.
The journalistic style is characterized by the use of the following linguistic means:
on phonetic level:
- greater degree of vowel reduction, pronunciation compression of words ( now[right now], Hello[(h) dras't'i]);
- varied intonation with a relatively free word order;
at the level vocabulary and word formation: - use of colloquial and colloquial vocabulary, jargon ( hard worker, electric train, meticulous, on the sly, fawning);
- predominant use of specific vocabulary, minor use of abstract, terminological words;
- expressiveness and evaluativeness in vocabulary and word formation ( awesome, boo, little book, hefty);
- frequent use of phraseological units;
at the level morphology: - the most frequent use of personal pronouns of all styles;
- the predominance of the use of verbs over the use of nouns;
- rare use of participles and short adjectives, non-use of gerunds;
- the inflexibility of complex numerals, the inflexibility of abbreviations;
- the use of particles, interjections;
- frequent portable use of morphological means (for example, the use of tenses and moods in a meaning unusual for them in book styles);
on syntactic level: - the use of one-part and incomplete sentences;
- lack of complex syntactic structures;
- non-union of a complex sentence;
- frequent use of incentive, interrogative and exclamation sentences;
- the use of appeals.
– Open it, damn it! How long will I have to numb in this throughwind? If you knew that it is twenty degrees below zero in your corridor, you would not have made me wait so long! Or maybe you don't have a heart?
This short excerpt reflects the following features of the conversational style:
- interrogative and exclamation sentences,
- conversational style interjection damn it,
- personal pronouns of 1 and 2 persons, verbs in the same form.
Another example is an excerpt from A.S. Pushkin's letter to his wife, N.N. Pushkina, dated August 3, 1834:
It's a shame, little wife. You are angry with me, not making out who is to blame, me or the post office, and you leave me for two weeks without news about yourself and about the children. I was so embarrassed that I didn't know what to think. Your letter has reassured me, but not. The description of your trip to Kaluga, no matter how funny, is not at all funny for me. What kind of hunt is it to be dragged into a nasty county town to see nasty actors playing nasty old, nasty opera?<...>I asked you not to drive around Kaluga, yes, apparently, you already have such a nature.
In this passage, the following linguistic features of the spoken style appeared:
- use of colloquial and vernacular vocabulary: wife, to drag around, nasty, to drive around, what a hunt, union Yes in the sense of ‘but’, particles already and not at all, introductory word it is seen,
- a word with an evaluative derivational suffix town,
- inverted word order in some sentences,
- lexical word repetition bad,
- appeal,
- the presence of an interrogative sentence,
- the use of personal pronouns 1 and 2 singular,
- use of verbs in the present tense,
- the use of the absent in the language of the plural form of the word Kaluga (drive around Kaluga) to denote all small provincial towns.
Types of speech
Types of speech- differentiation of speech according to the generalized (typical) meaning into narration, description and reasoning.Narration describes sequential actions, talks about events in their temporal sequence.
Narrative texts include components such as the beginning (the beginning of the action), the development of the action, the climax (the most important point in the development of the action) and the denouement (end of the action). At the same time, the sequence of these components may be disrupted in the narrative, which is often presented in works of art (for example, in "A Hero of Our Time" by M. Yu. Lermontov).
"New" in the sentences of the narrative text is the message about successive events.
The story can be descriptive and informative. In the narrative text, lexical means are often used, denoting a temporal sequence of actions ( then, then, after a while), verbs are usually used in the past tense.
As an example, we will give an excerpt from the story of A.P. Chekhov "Living goods":
Filling his pockets and his wallet, Bugrov hid the forms in the table and, having drunk half a carafe of water, rushed out into the street.
At night, at half past eleven, he drove up to the entrance of the Hotel Paris. With a noise he entered up the stairs and knocked on the room in which Grokholsky lived. They let him in. Grokholsky was packing his things into suitcases. Lisa was sitting at the table trying on bracelets. Both of them were frightened when Bugrov entered them..
Description depicts any phenomenon through the listing and disclosure of its signs. A text of this kind can describe a person's appearance, object, place, state of a person or the environment. In the "given" the object or its parts is called, in the "new" the attributes of the object are communicated.
Descriptive text is characterized by the use of adjectives, verbs in the present tense.
Description is used in different styles of speech, but more often in scientific and fiction.
In a scientific style, the description of an object includes essential features that are called adjectives or verbal nouns, for example: Giraffe (giraffe), ruminant mammal. The body is 3-4 meters long (1/3 is the neck), the height to the crown is 4.5-5.8 m, the tail is about 1 m long, and the weight is 550-750 kg. Lives in the savannas of Africa. Due to hunting (for meat and skins), the number is small. They breed well in captivity. They live up to 20-30 years.
In the description of the artistic style, the most striking features that create the image are highlighted; they can be conveyed by comparisons, words in a figurative sense, words with evaluative suffixes. As an example, let us give the beginning of the story of A. P. Chekhov "The Baron":
The Baron is a small, slender old man of about sixty. His neck gives an obtuse angle with the spine, which will soon become straight. He has a large angular head, sour eyes, a bumpy nose and a purple chin..
Reasoning describes the causes of properties and phenomena. It can be evidence, explanation, reflection (the difference is in the degree of categorical judgments). The reasoning usually contains a thesis (what needs to be proved), arguments and a conclusion. Here are two examples of reasoning used in different styles of speech:
- On camels, of course, you can go through the desert without stopping much farther than on horses, but the transition is not far off, time is expensive, and you have no experience with camels, so we will take horses in the town.
- Based on the need to mobilize and deploy human resources, before starting the construction of engineering structures, it is necessary to provide for the construction of a comfortable temporary residential town, including power supply systems, communications, water treatment, sewerage, recreational and sports facilities.
The old steamer rolled away from the pier at Ascension and went out to Lake Onega.
The white night spread all around. For the first time I saw this night not over the Neva and the palaces of Leningrad, but among wooded spaces and lakes.
A pale moon hung low to the east. She gave no light.
Waves from the steamer ran silently into the distance, swaying pieces of pine bark. On the shore, probably in some ancient churchyard, the watchman struck the clock on the bell tower - twelve beats. And although it was far from the shore, this ringing reached us, passed the steamer and went along the water surface into the transparent dusk, where the moon hung.
I do not know how to better name the languid light of the white night. Mysterious? Or magical?
These nights always seem to me to be an excessive generosity of nature - there is so much of a pale air and a ghostly shine of foil and silver in them.
Man cannot come to terms with the inevitable disappearance of this beauty, these enchanted nights. Therefore, it must be that white nights cause a slight sadness with their fragility, like everything beautiful when it is doomed to live for a short time..
In the presented excerpt, all types of speech successively replace each other - narration, description and reasoning.
Deals with speech and text problems stylistics- a section of linguistics that studies the use of language in different conditions of speech communication.
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