Fortified Russia in the second half of the 18th century
In the 2nd half of the XVIII century. Russia expanded its borders in the south and west, annexing the Black Sea and Azov regions, the Bug-Dniester lands, Belarus, and part of the Baltic territory.
Compared with the first half of the XVIII century. by the end of the century, the population had doubled and amounted to 36 million people, with only 4% of the population living in cities, in Russia the predominant population was rural. Up to half of the population are privately owned peasants.
The development of the annexed territories was accompanied by the growth of feudal-serf relations in breadth and depth.
For 1783–1796 serfdom spread to the Ukrainian lands, Crimea and Ciscarpathia. Agriculture developed mainly extensively, at the expense of new Russian lands and advancement to suitable regions of the Urals and Siberia.
As the exploitation of the peasants intensified, serfdom expanded in depth. By a decree of 1765, landowners were allowed to exile their peasants without trial or investigation to hard labor in Siberia, which was counted as the fulfillment of recruitment duty. The sale of peasants was widespread, cruel punishments. By decree of 1763, the peasants themselves paid the expenses, if they were recognized as instigators, for the suppression of unrest. Finally, in 1767, Catherine II issued a decree forbidding peasants to complain about their masters.
In the second half of the 18th century, two large regions with various forms of feudal exploitation were identified in Russia. Corvee prevailed in the black earth provinces with fertile soil and in the south. Sometimes the landowner took away the land from the peasant, and he actually turned into a farm laborer working for meager wages. In areas with infertile soil, cash dues prevailed. Some landlords sought to increase the profitability of their estates, applied technical devices, introduced crop rotations, introduced new crops imported from other countries - tobacco, potatoes, sunflowers, built manufactories, then using the labor of their serfs for them. All these innovations were a sign of the beginning of the disintegration of serfdom relations.
In 1785, a special "handicraft provision" (from the "Letter of Letters to Cities") regulated the development of crafts in cities. Craftsmen were grouped into workshops that elected foremen. Such an organization of the life of artisans created the best conditions for their work and apprenticeship. With this provision, the government hoped to turn urban artisans into one of the estates of feudal society.
Along with the city, handicrafts were widely developed in industrial villages. So, Ivanovo was famous for textile production, Pavlovo - for metal products, Khokhloma - for woodworking, Gzhel - for ceramics, etc.
Second half of the 18th century for Russia it is the further growth of manufactory production. If in the middle of the century there were more than 600 manufactories, then at the beginning of the 19th century. until 1200. Manufactories with the labor of serfs prevailed. But manufactories appeared with the use of free labor, in particular in textile production. In the role of civilians were serfs released for quitrent. The relations of free hire were capitalist relations.
In 1762, it was forbidden to buy serfs for factories, and manufactories founded after that year already used civilian labor.
In 1775, peasant industry was allowed, which led to an increase in the number of business owners from merchants and peasants.
The process of folding capitalist relations became more and more noticeable and irreversible. A freelance labor market emerged and began to grow. However, new relations appeared in a country where serfdom dominated, which influenced this process.
In the 2nd half of the XVIII century. continued to form the all-Russian market. The specialization of the regions became more noticeable: the Black Earth Center and Ukraine produced bread, the Volga region supplied fish, leather, wool, the Urals - iron, Novgorod and the Smolensk lands - flax and hemp, the North - fish, furs, Siberia - furs, etc. All this was exchanged at auctions and fairs, the number of which grew. Through the ports of the Baltic and the Black Sea, Russia conducted an active foreign trade, exporting its goods - metal, flax, hemp, sailcloth, timber, leather, bread. Russia imported sugar, cloth, silk, coffee, wine, fruits, tea, etc. Russia's leading trading partner at that time was England.
Trade primarily served the needs of the state and the ruling class. But she contributed to the formation of the capitalist way of life in the country.
In the 2nd half of the XVIII century. the estate system of the country is being strengthened. Each category of the population - the nobility, the clergy, the peasantry, the townspeople, etc. - received rights and privileges by the relevant laws and decrees.
In 1785, in the development of the Manifesto on the Liberty of the Nobility (1762), a Letter of Complaint to the Nobility was issued, which confirmed the exclusive right of landlords to own land and peasants. The nobles were freed from compulsory service and personal taxes, received the right to special representation in the county and province in the person of the leaders of the nobility, which increased their role and importance in the field.
Strengthening the estate system in the XVIII century. was an attempt to retain the power of the ruling class, to conserve the feudal system, especially since this happened on the eve of the Great French Revolution.
Thus, in the second half of the XVIII century. the reserves of feudalism in the country were not yet exhausted, and it could still ensure progress, despite the development of capitalist relations.
Catherine II. Enlightened absolutism 60s–80s XVIIIin. Catherine II (1762 - 1796), having taken the throne at a difficult time, showed remarkable abilities as a statesman. Indeed, her inheritance was not easy: the treasury was practically empty, the army had not received money for a long time, and the manifestations of the ever-growing protest of the peasants were a great danger to the ruling class.
Catherine II had to develop a policy that would meet the needs of the time. This policy was called enlightened absolutism. Catherine II decided to rely in her activities on certain positions of the ideologists of the Enlightenment - a well-known philosophical trend of the 18th century, which became the ideological basis of the Great French Bourgeois Revolution (1789–1794). Naturally, Catherine II set out to use only those ideas that could help strengthen serfdom and feudal orders in the country.
In Russia, apart from the nobility, there were no other forces capable of embodying social progress.
The French encyclopedists Voltaire, Diderot, Montesquieu, Rousseau developed the main provisions of enlightenment that touched upon the problems of social development. At the center of their thoughts was the theory of "natural law", according to which all people by nature were free and equal. But human society in its development deviated from the natural laws of life and came to an unjust state, oppression and slavery. In order to return to just laws, it was necessary to enlighten the people, the encyclopedists believed. An enlightened society will restore fair laws, and then freedom, equality and fraternity will be the main meaning of society's existence.
Philosophers assigned the realization of this goal to enlightened monarchs, wisely using their power.
These and other ideas were adopted by the monarchs of Prussia, Austria, Russia, but approached them from the standpoint of serfdom, linking the demands of equality and freedom with the strengthening of the privileges of the ruling class.
Such a policy could not be long-term. After the Peasants' War (1773 - 1775), and also in connection with the revolution in France, the end of enlightened absolutism came, the course towards strengthening internal and external reaction became too obvious.
Since 1763, Catherine II has been in correspondence with Voltaire and his like-minded people, discussing with them the problems of Russian life and creating the illusion of interest in applying their ideas.
In an effort to calm the country, to strengthen her position on the throne, Catherine II in 1767 created a special commission in Moscow in order to draw up a new code of laws of the Russian Empire to replace the "Council Regulations" of 1649.
573 deputies were involved in the work of the Commission - from nobles, various institutions, townspeople, state peasants, Cossacks. The serfs did not participate in this Commission.
The commission collected orders from the localities to determine the needs of the people. The work of the Commission was built in accordance with the "Instruction" prepared by Catherine II - a kind of theoretical justification for the policy of enlightened absolutism. The order was voluminous, contained 22 chapters with 655 articles, most of the text was a quote from the writings of the Enlighteners with the rationale for the need for a strong monarchical power, serfdom, and class division of society in Russia.
Having begun its meetings in the summer of 1767, the Commission solemnly awarded Catherine II the title of "great, wise mother of the Fatherland", thereby declaring her recognition by the Russian nobility. But then, unexpectedly, the peasant question came into the spotlight. Some deputies criticized the system of serfdom, there were proposals to attach the peasants to a special collegium, which would pay salaries to the landlords from peasant taxes, this hinted at the desire to free the peasants from the power of the landowners. A number of deputies demanded a clear definition of peasant duties.
The commission worked for more than a year and was dissolved under the pretext of starting a war with Turkey, without creating a new code.
Catherine II learned from parliamentary speeches about the mood in society and in further legislative practice proceeded from her "Instruction" and the materials of this Commission.
The work of the Legislative Commission showed a growing critical, anti-serfdom attitude in Russian society. Pursuing the goal of influencing public opinion, Catherine II took up journalism, and in 1769 began publishing the satirical magazine Vsyakaya Vsyachina, in which, in an effort to divert attention from criticism of serfdom, she offered criticism of human weaknesses, vices, and superstitions in general.
The Russian educator N.I. Novikov. In the journals "Truten" and "Painter" published by him, he spoke, defending a specific criticism of vices, namely, he scourged the unlimited arbitrariness of the landowners, the lack of rights of the peasants. N.I. cost a lot. Novikov this position, he had to spend more than 4 years in the Shlisselburg fortress,
Criticism of serfdom and Novikov's social activities contributed to the formation of anti-serfdom ideology in Russia.
The first Russian revolutionary - Republican is considered to be A.N. Radishchev (1749 - 1802). His views were formed under the strong influence of internal and external circumstances. These are the Peasant War of E. Pugachev, and the ideas of the French and Russian enlighteners, and the revolution in France, and the war for independence in North America (1775 - 1783), and the work of Novikov, and the statements of the deputies of the Legislative Commission.
In the work "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow", the ode "Liberty" and others, Radishchev called for the abolition of slavery and the transfer of land to the peasants, for the revolutionary overthrow of the autocracy.
Catherine II called Radishchev "a rebel worse than Pugachev." He was arrested and sentenced to death, replaced by a 10-year exile in Siberia (Ilim prison).
So, Catherine II is a traditional figure, despite her negative attitude towards the Russian past, the fact that she introduced new methods of management, new ideas into public circulation. The duality of the traditions that she followed determines the dual attitude of her descendants towards her. The historical significance of the Catherine's era is extremely great precisely because in this era the results of previous history were summed up, historical processes that developed earlier were completed.
The development of culture in the second half of the XVIII century
The development of Russian culture in the second half of the 18th century was influenced by the reforms of Peter the Great at the beginning of the century. The following trends.
Strengthening Western influence. Imitation of Western culture.
Reducing the sphere of cultural influence of the church. Culture became increasingly secular. Her further secularization took place.
Deepening the rationalism of the worldview.
The beginning of the formation of the Russian intelligentsia, to which in the XVIII century. could include officers, government officials, professional educators, scientists, actors.
Preservation of the traditionalism of folk culture.
Ideological factors that influenced the development of the culture of this period.
The ideology of "enlightenment" with its preaching of natural human rights, freedom and equality.
Freemasonry with its search for ways of moral perfection.
Freemasons (from French - freemasons) - an international religious and philosophical movement that set itself the goal of "morally ennobling people, uniting them on the basis of brotherly love, equality and mutual assistance." In the Masonic movement of the XVIII century. many prominent educators of the West took part.
The first information about Freemasonry in Russia refers to the years 1730-1740. Freemasons were well-known figures of their time, Count R.I. Vorontsov, princes Golitsyn, Trubetskoy, Meshchersky, prince M.M. Shcherbatov, poet A.P. Sumarokov, writer and historian I.P. Elagin, director and then curator of Moscow University M.M. Kheraskov, educator N.I. Novikov and others. In the XVIII century. Freemasonry was an extremely narrow and limited in number of participants social phenomenon and could not significantly affect the situation in the country.
The growing needs of the state for qualified specialists have led to transformations in education. In 1731, the Cadet Corps for the nobility was established - a military educational institution of a closed type. He trained future officers of the Russian army and civil officials. In 1764, the Educational Society for Noble Maidens (Smolny Institute) was opened in St. Petersburg, which became the first secular institution for girls from noble families. For children of other classes, closed educational establishments. For example, in 1779, a Commercial School was opened in Moscow for the children of merchants and philistines. The children of the clergy studied at theological seminaries and theological academies. Recruiting children - in soldiers' schools. The nobles were educated with the help of private teachers, and studying abroad became common. Education was class-based. For the majority of the population, it remained inaccessible.
In the second half of the XVIII century. system began to take shape general education school. In 1786, the Charter of public schools was approved, according to which the main four-class schools were created in the provincial cities, and small two-class schools in the county towns. The schools taught reading, writing, sacred history, the basics of arithmetic and grammar. For the first time, unified curricula, a class-lesson system were introduced, and teaching methods were developed.
In the XVIII century. was the beginning of the formation of university education in Russia. AT 1755 Empress Elizaveta Petrovna approved the submitted I.I. Shuvalov organization project Moscow University. The main role in the development of the plan for the creation of the university belonged to M.V. Lomonosov. In accordance with the ideas of Lomonosov, education in it was classless. The university was under the patronage of the Empress,
subordinated only to the Senate, exempted from all kinds of taxes and other fees. In 1757, the Academy of Arts was opened at the university.
Middle, second half of the 18th century. were the time geographical discoveries, success in the development of scientific and technical thought.
In 1733-1741. the Second Kamchatka expedition under the direction of IN AND. Bering(1681-1741), during which the strait between Chukotka and Alaska (Bering Strait) was discovered. Explorer of Siberia and Kamchatka S.P. Krasheninnikov(1711-1755) compiled a "Description of the Land of Kamchatka". The names of brave Russian polar explorers are inscribed in the history of geographical discoveries S.I. Chelyuskin(c.1704-1764), after whom the northernmost point of the Eurasian continent, Cape Chelyuskin, is named, cousins D.Ya. and H.P. Laptev, after which one of the seas of the Northern Arctic Ocean- Laptev sea.
An invaluable contribution to the development of world and domestic science was made by M.V. Lomonosov(1711-1765) - the first Russian academician, a person who possessed encyclopedic knowledge. His genius manifested itself in all branches of knowledge of that time: chemistry, physics, astronomy, mineralogy, geology and soil science, geography, cartography. Along with the natural sciences, he was also engaged in the humanities: grammar, stylistics of the Russian language, and history. By the middle of the XVIII century. historical knowledge turned into a science, which was largely facilitated by the works V.N. Tatishcheva(1686-1750). M.V. Lomonosov in his writings on history focused on the ancient period of Russian history and the time of Peter I. He was the first to speak out against the Norman theory of the origin of the Old Russian state.
Important technical inventions were made I.I. Polzunov(1728-1766) and I.P. Kulibin(1735-1818). I.I. Polzunov was the first in the world to develop a project for a universal steam engine. However, he created steam machine in the conditions of serfdom turned out to be unnecessary and forgotten. Self-taught mechanic inventor I.P. Kulibin invented many original devices and instruments, improved glass polishing for optical instruments, created a semaphore telegraph, a “lifting chair” - an elevator. The most fundamental work of Kulibin was the project of a single-arch 300-meter bridge across the Neva. But his inventions also did not find application. It is truly said that there are no prophets in one's own country.
Architecture has been further developed. Until the 1760s the prevailing style was baroque, whose greatest master was F.B. Rastrelli. The Winter Palace and the Smolny Monastery, the Catherine Palace in Tsarskoye Selo and the Grand Palace in Peterhof were built in this style.
Baroque has been replaced classicism. Distinctive features classicism - clarity and simplicity of forms while maintaining monumentality. The style was based on an appeal to the laws of classical architecture of Greece and Rome. Classicism provided for the symmetry of the layout, the selection of the main parts of the building, the clarity of the lines. The founders of classicism in Russia are IN AND. Bazhenov(1737-1799) - Pashkov's house in Moscow, Engineering Castle in St. Petersburg, I.E. Starov(1745-1808) - the building of the Tauride Palace, the Trinity Cathedral of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra. With the name of a student of Bazhenov F.M. Kazakov(1738-1812) associated with the creation of a large number of buildings and mansions in Moscow. These are the Senate building in the Kremlin, the old building of Moscow University, the Golitsin Hospital, the house of the Dolgoruky princes, transferred to the noble assembly, etc. A prominent representative of Russian classicism was D. Quarenghi(1744-1817), who worked in Russia since 1780 - the building of the Academy of Sciences, the Alexander Palace in Tsarskoye Selo, the Smolny Institute, etc. Wonderful Russian architect Yu.M. Felten(c.1730-1801) together with P.E. Egorov(1771-1784) designed the Neva embankment and the lattice of the Summer Garden.
In the second half of the XVIII century. in painting a system of genres is taking shape: portrait, monumental and decorative painting, landscape, historical painting. The first Russian historical painter was A.P. Losenko(1737-1773). One of his most famous paintings is Vladimir in front of Rogneda. Worked in the historical genre G.I. Ugryumov(1764-1823) - "The election of Mikhail Fedorovich to the kingdom", "The capture of Kazan". However, the greatest development in painting was the portrait. Created a gallery of beautiful portraits A.P. Antropov (1716-1795), I.P. Argunov(1729-1802), F.S. Rokotov(c.1735-1808), D.G. Levitsky (1735-1822), V.L. Borovikovsky(1757-1825) and others.
During the period under review, the foundations of the secular sculptures. F.I. Shubin(1740-1805) - a fellow countryman of Lomonosov, a native of Pomeranian peasants - created a gallery of sculptural portraits - M.V. Lomonosov, A.M. Golitsyna, G.A. Potemkin and others.
The monument to Peter I is rightfully classified as a masterpiece of world sculpture (“ Bronze Horseman”) by the French master EM. Falcone In Petersburg. M.I. Kozlovsky(1753-1802) glorified himself with a monument to A.V. Suvorov on the Field of Mars in St. Petersburg. He is also the author of the main statue of the Peterhof cascade of fountains - "Samson tearing apart the mouth of a lion."
Mid 18th century is an important milestone in theatrical culture of Russia. In 1750, the first professional theater appeared in Yaroslavl. The merchant was the initiator F.G. Volkov(1728-1763). Rumors about him reached St. Petersburg and Yaroslavl was summoned to the capital. In 1756 it was transformed into a public theater "for the presentation of tragedies and comedies."
culture Russia XVIII in. prepared an extraordinary entry into the national culture of the first half of the 19th century.
Issues for discussion
1. What are the reasons for Peter's modernization and what were its
conflicting consequences?
2. Why did the palace coups of 1725-1762 could not change the creatures of the system?
3. Could Catherine II abolish serfdom in Russia?
4. What was the significance of the annexation of the Crimea to Russia in 1783?
5. What were the features of territorial acquisitions
Anisimov E.V. State transformations and autocracy of Peter the Great in the first quarter of the 18th century. St. Petersburg: Dmitry Bulanin, 1997. 331 p.
Brikner A.G. History of Peter the Great. History of Catherine II: a complete edition in one volume. M.: Alfa-Kniga, 2015. 1047 p.
Story foreign policy of Russia. 18th century / J.A. Ananyan [and others] M.: International relations, 1998. 302 p.
Kamensky A.B.Russian empire in the 18th century: traditions and modernization. M.: New lit. Review, 1999. 326 p.
Klyuchevsky V.O. historical portraits. Moscow: Pravda, 1990. 624 p.
Moryakov V.I. Russian enlightenment in the second half of the 18th century. M.: MGU, 1994. 215 p.
Musskaya I.A. The most famous businessmen of Russia. M.: Veche, 2003. 412 p.
Pavlenko N.I. Peter the Great. M.: World of Avanta+ Encyclopedias: Astrel, 2009. 829 p.
Semin V.P. History: Russia and the world: tutorial. –M.: KNORUS, 2012. 544 p.
Fortunatov V.V. History of world civilizations. St. Petersburg: Piter, 2014. 528 p.
Main questions:
Definition of "Enlightened Absolutism";
Social politics and reforms of Catherine II;
Foreign policy;
The results of the reign of Catherine II;
The coming to power of Paul I.
18th century - Age of Enlightenment in world history - an era of rapid development natural sciences, widespread secular knowledge. The Enlightenment is a powerful ideological current. The main ideas of the Enlighteners ("reason rules the world", "the theory of natural law", the principles of legality and separation of powers, etc.). Outcomes of the American and French Revolutions. Revolutionaries are followers of the enlighteners.
The essence of the policy of "Enlightened absolutism". Second half of the 18th century called the "Age of Enlightened Absolutism". Enlightened absolutism was formed in countries with a relatively slow development of bourgeois relations, where the nobility retained their political rights and economic privileges.
Social policy and reforms of Catherine II. The golden age of Catherine II (1762-1796). Like Peter I, Catherine II went down in history under the name of Catherine the Great. Her reign became a new era in the history of Russia.
The beginning of the reign for Catherine II was difficult, especially in moral terms. No matter how unpopular Peter III was in Russia, he was a legitimate (by God's grace) sovereign, besides, the grandson of Peter the Great, albeit insufficient. Catherine was a purebred German who, in the eyes of society, had usurped the ancient throne of Moscow tsars. The role of Catherine II in the murder of her husband was also unclear.
First of all, Catherine II hurried with the coronation, which was supposed to legitimize her accession to the throne. The solemn ceremony took place on September 22, 1762. in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. Catherine generously rewarded everyone who contributed to her victory. The main participants in the coup (40 people) received ranks, land holdings with serfs and large sums of money. The Empress ordered the return from exile of those who "innocently" suffered, including the former Grand Chancellor Count Bestuzhev-Ryumin, the former Prosecutor General Shakhovsky.
Wanting to win over the influential Orthodox clergy in Russia, Catherine II canceled the decree of Peter III on the seizure of land property and peasants from monasteries. True, having strengthened her position, the empress already in 1764. nevertheless, it took away 990 thousand peasants from the monasteries in favor of the state. Former monastic peasants (there were about 1 million male souls) began to be called economic, since the College of Economy was created to manage them. The number of monasteries in Russia decreased from 881 to 385.
Acting cautiously, avoiding dangerous conflicts, Catherine II made it clear from the very beginning that she did not intend to give up autocratic power.
"Manifesto on Liberty to the Nobility"(1762) and "Charter to the nobility"(1785) Catherine II finally secured the privileges of the nobility. The nobles were exempted from taxes and duties. Noble landownership increased markedly. The landowners were given state and palace peasants, as well as uninhabited lands. The reign of Catherine II in historical science is called the golden age of the Russian nobility.
Anti-peasant decrees were issued in the 1760s: permission for landlords to exile peasants to Siberia and hard labor without trial, a ban on complaining about landlords, maintenance of military teams in case of an uprising at their own expense, mass distributions of state peasants (300 thousand in 34 years), permission trade by peasants without land.
In 1985 - The letter of grant gave the right to cities for local self-government, the exemption of the merchants of the 1st and 2nd guild from the poll tax and recruitment duty.
By the time of her accession to the throne, Catherine II was well acquainted with the liberal ideas of European philosophical, political and economic thought. Even in her youth, she read the works of the French Enlightenment - Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot, D'Alembert– and considered myself their student. In 1763 Catherine began a correspondence with Voltaire, which continued until 1777, i.e. almost until the death of the famous French enlightener. In letters to Voltaire, Catherine told the “teacher” about activities for the benefit of her subjects and about military events, and Voltaire showered the “student” with flattery and compliments. Catherine II emphasized that the book of the French educator Montesquieu became her guide in politics. In the countries of Western Europe, they started talking about the "great Semiramis of the North."
Based on the ideas of European enlighteners, Catherine had a certain idea of what needs to be done for the prosperity of the state. In conjunction with the knowledge of Russian reality, these ideas influenced the formation of the political program of the empress. How Catherine imagined the tasks of an enlightened monarch, which she sincerely considered herself, can be seen from her draft note: “1. It is necessary to educate the nation, which must govern. 2. It is necessary to introduce good order in the state, to support society and force it to comply with the laws. 3. It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police in the state. 4. It is necessary to promote the flowering of the state and make it abundant. 5. It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and inspire respect for its neighbors ”(“ Notes ”).
Since ideologically this program, and consequently, Catherine’s internal policy, was based on the principles of the Enlightenment, this period of Russian history itself was called “enlightened absolutism” in the literature (E.V. Anisimov, A.B. Kamensky).
The largest event of enlightened absolutism was the convocation in 1767. commission on the drafting of a new code (Laid Commission). It should be noted that the convening of the Legislative Commission was preceded by study trips of Catherine II across Russia. “After Peter the Great, Catherine was the first empress who undertook travels in Russia for government purposes” (S.M. Solovyov).
Catherine II decided to give Russia a legislative code based on the principles of the new philosophy and science discovered by the modern Age of Enlightenment.
As a guiding document for the commission, the Empress prepared "Order", which consisted of 22 chapters and was divided into 655 articles. Almost a quarter of the text of the "Instruction" was made up of quotations from the writings of the enlighteners (Beccaria, Bielfeld, Montesquieu, Justi). These quotations were carefully selected, and the "Order", thus, was an integral work, which proved the need for a strong autocratic power in Russia and the estate structure of Russian society.
Catherine's commission failed to draw up a new code of laws, since it was difficult to bring the old legislation into agreement, on the one hand, with the liberal "Order" of Catherine (built on book theories, without taking into account the real facts of Russian life), and on the other hand, with conflicting needs , wishes and many individual orders from different groups population.
Two events of the 18th century influenced the curtailment of the policy of enlightened absolutism: the peasant war led by E. Pugacheva in Russia and the French Revolution in Europe.
Foreign policy. The transformation of Russia into a great European power. In the second half of the XVIII century. Russia played an increasingly active role in international relations. It is a member of European military-political unions and, thanks to a strong army, has significant influence in them.
The influence of foreign officers is falling. In their place come Russian officers and generals. Russian army is getting more and more national character.
Foreign policy objectives:
First, the struggle for access to south seas- Cherny and Azov;
Secondly, the liberation of the lands of Ukraine and Belarus from foreign domination and the unification in one state of all the Eastern Slavs;
Thirdly, the struggle with revolutionary France in connection with the beginning in 1789. Great French Revolution;
Fourth, asserting its interests in European politics, Russia sought to play the role of a guarantor of the independence of the British colonies in North America; observance of Russia's interests in this region - participation in the colonization of North America.
Russian-Turkish war 1768-1774. In the 60s of the XVIII century. Europe is going through a difficult political game. The degree of convergence of certain countries was determined by the strength of the contradictions between them. The strongest contradictions in Russia were with France and Austria.
The Russian government was prompted to take active steps in the south by the interests of the country's security, and the need of the nobility, who sought to obtain the richest southern lands, and the developing industry and trade, which dictated the need for access to the Black Sea coast.
Turkey, instigated by France and England, in the autumn of 1768. declared war on Russia. After the capture of Azov and Taganrog, Russia began building a fleet. Brilliant victories were won on land: in 1770. under the command of a talented commander P.A. Rumyantsev, in 1771. under the command of the prince V.A. Dolgoruky, in 1774 - major general A.V. Suvorov. In the famous Chesme battle at sea under the command of admirals G.A. Spiridonova, A.G. Orlov and S.K. Greig was also won.
Terms Kuchuk-Kaynarji world(1774) Russia received:
Access to the Black Sea;
The steppes of the Black Sea region - Novorossia;
The right to have your own fleet on the Black Sea;
Right of passage through the Bosporus and Dardanelles;
Azov and Kerch, as well as Kuban and Kabarda, passed to Russia;
The Crimean Khanate became independent from Turkey;
Turkey paid an indemnity in the amount of 4 million rubles;
The Russian government sought the right to act as a defender of the legitimate rights of the Christian peoples of the Ottoman Empire.
For brilliant victories in the Russian-Turkish war, Catherine II generously awarded her commanders with orders and nominal weapons. In addition, A.G. Orlov became known as Chesmensky, V.M. Dolgorukov - Krymsky, P.A. Rumyantsev - Zadunaisky. A.V. Suvorov received a golden sword with diamonds.
Russian-Turkish war 1787-1791. Since 1780, Russia began to draw closer to Austria on the basis of common interests in relation to Turkey and Poland.
Turkey did not want to come to terms with the assertion of Russia in the Black Sea. In response to Turkey's attempt to return Crimea under its rule, Russian troops occupied the Crimean peninsula, which became part of Russia. Sevastopol was founded as a support base for the fleet (1783). G.A. Potemkin for the successes and annexation of the Crimea (the old name of Taurida) received a prefix to his title "Prince of Tauride".
In 1787 Turkey presented an ultimatum with a number of unacceptable demands. The second Russian-Turkish war proceeded in a difficult international situation for Russia. At this time, an alliance between England, Prussia and Holland took shape, aimed at undermining Russia's positions in the Baltic. these countries provoked Sweden, and the war with it in 1788-1790. weakened the forces of Russia, although the peace treaty of 1790. did not make any territorial changes between Russia and Sweden. Russia was supported at that time only by Austria, and even then by insignificant forces. Nevertheless, this war also showed the superiority of the Russian army.
During these years, leadership talent was especially manifested. A.V. Suvorov. In 1787 he defeats the Turks during their siege of Kinburn, then in 1788. takes a powerful fortress Ochakov, and in 1789. wins two convincing victories over the many times superior enemy forces at Focsani and on the river. Rymnik, for which he receives the title of Count Rymninsky.
Of particular importance was the taking Ishmael(1790) - citadels of Turkish rule on the Danube. After a 10-hour assault, Ishmael was taken. In battle, the student A.V. glorified himself. Suvorov - the future commander M.I. Kutuzov.
Along with the ground forces, the fleet, commanded by Admiral F.F. Ushakov. In the battle at Cape Kalpakria in 1791. Turkish fleet was destroyed.
By Yassy peace treaty(signed in Iasi) Turkey recognized Crimea as a possession of Russia; the border between the two countries became the Dniester River; Russia included the territory between the rivers Bug and Dniester; Turkey recognized the Russian patronage of Georgia, established by the Treaty of St. George in 1783.
As a result of the Russian-Turkish wars, the economic development of the steppe south of Russia accelerated. Russia's ties with the countries of the Mediterranean expanded. The Crimean Khanate was liquidated - a constant center of aggression against Ukrainian and Russian lands in the south of Russia, Nikolaev (1789), Odessa (1795), Ekaterinodar (1793, now Krasnodar) and others were founded.
Russia and US education. One of the significant international events was the struggle of the North American colonies for independence from England - the bourgeois revolution that led to the creation of the United States of America.
Disagreements between England and Russia had a favorable effect on the course of the American Revolution. In 1780 the government has taken Declaration of Armed Neutrality supported by most European countries. The ships of neutral countries had the right of armed protection if they were attacked by the belligerent fleet. This caused England to abandon attempts to organize a naval blockade of the American coast and objectively contributed to the victory of the American Revolution.
At the same time, Russia participated in colonization of North America. The movement of the Cossacks and Russian settlers in the XVI-XVII centuries. through Siberia and Far East led in 1784. to the landing of G.I. Shelekhov in Alaska and the appearance Russian America- permanent settlements of Russians on Alaska and later in California.
Partitions of Poland. The strengthening of Prussia, Austria, Russia and the constant weakening of the Commonwealth led to its divisions.
For the first section(1772) The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth ceded part of eastern Belarus to Russia.
For the second section(1793) - Russia received the rest of eastern and central Belarus with Minsk, Volhynia and Podolia.
For the third section(1795) western Belarus, western Volhynia, Lithuania, Courland went to Russia.
under power Russian emperors almost all the lands of the Eastern Slavs, who were part of Kievan Rus, excluding the Galician lands with Lvov (Galicia), which became part of Austria.
The significance of these events has been controversial. On the one hand, it raised the political prestige of Russia. In addition, Russia has become one of the most populated countries in Europe. But, on the other hand, the divisions of the Commonwealth led to an aggravation of national problems in the Russian Empire. The Polish nobility, fighting for national independence, became a destabilizing factor in the life of the country. His activity provoked a response in the form of the Russification policy of the government.
War with revolutionary France. The French Revolution of 1789 created a new political situation in Europe. and the execution of King Louis XVI. Relations between Russia and France were severed. Russia entered into an alliance with Prussia, England and Austria for a joint struggle against revolutionary France. It was an alliance of the reactionary forces of Europe against the hearth of the ideas of freedom and democracy, which was France.
Thus, thanks to the active foreign policy of Russia in the second half of the XVIII century. became a great European power. This was a victory for the policy of adaptation (adaptation) to Europe, begun by Peter the Great. However, Russia's political role in Europe far exceeded its economic position in the European market, similar to that of Prussia, Spain, Italy, Portugal, and the Commonwealth. Russia remained a backward country in socio-economic terms, which made its position in the system of European civilization unstable and contradictory.
The results of the reign of Catherine II.
1. Imperial measures in foreign and domestic policy.
2. Strengthening absolutism by reforming government institutions and a new administrative structure of the state, protecting the monarchy from any encroachment.
3. Socio-economic measures for the further "Europeanization" of the country and the finalization and strengthening of the nobility.
4. liberal educational initiatives, care of education, literature and arts.
5. The unpreparedness of Russian society not only for the abolition of serfdom, but even for more moderate reforms.
In addition, the country waged continuous wars, as a result - a sharp increase in tax oppression and exploitation, which led to numerous popular uprisings: 1771. - Plague riot, 1773-1775. - peasant war under the leadership of E. Pugachev.
Should be pointed to common features peasant wars in Russia:
Started on the outskirts;
The main driving force is the Cossacks;
Passed under the tsarist slogans.
Contradictions of personality and politics of Paul I (1796-1801). In historical studies, there is no unity in assessing the reign of Paul I. Some historians call his reign "unenlightened absolutism", others - "military-police dictatorship", others consider Paul "Russian Hamlet", others - "romantic emperor".
The educator D'Alembert found in Pavel Petrovich an "exalted character" and education.
According to researchers, the main motives Paul were as follows:
Firstly, the desire to oppose oneself to the mother, to change everything Catherine did and build her reign in defiance of the traditions laid down by her. government controlled;
Secondly, fear, fear of aristocratic opposition, peasant unrest, French republican ideas.
Paul I came to the throne at the age of 42, already a mature, mature person. He removed from power the former favorites of Catherine, whom he hated and accused of sweeping his father.
Paul I introduced a military-police regime in the country and at the same time returned Radishchev, Novikov, Kosciuszko from exile, laid the foundation for the University of Dorpat, the Pavlovsky Corps (a school for military orphans in St. Petersburg), and granted amnesty to the living Pugachevites. Ideal liberal politics based on the self-government of the estates, their rights and privileges, Paul I opposed the ideal care policy, based on the strong power of the king and his concern for his people.
In general, the policy of Paul I was, in spite of everything, a direct continuation of Catherine's reign.
Struggling with the influence of the French Revolution, Paul I introduced the most severe censorship and banned all private printing presses.
Towards nobility Contradictory tendencies also clashed in Paul's politics. One side - the king's concern for strengthening the economic position of the nobility, which was expressed in material assistance through the credit and banking system, the creation of a regime of maximum favored status for the nobility in the service (decrees of 1797 and 1798). Another trend emerged in limitation of estate self-government and its absorption by the bureaucracy.
The most unacceptable for the nobility were transformation of Paul I in the army. An ardent admirer of the Prussian military doctrine of Frederick II, he issued new infantry and equestrian charters three weeks after his accession; the basic principles of the strategy and tactics of Russian military art were forgotten.
Ultimately, it was the infringement of the interests of the nobility that became the decisive moment that determined the fate of Paul I.
Foreign policy of Paul I. Three stages need to be distinguished:
1st stage 1796-1797. - the proclamation of peaceful coexistence with all countries, an attempt to develop an ideological counterbalance to the ideas of the French revolution;
2nd stage 1798-1799- Russia's entry into the second anti-French coalition, Suvorov's Italian and Swiss campaigns, Ushakov's amphibious assaults in Greece and Italy; indicate the reasons for the break with England (failure to provide assistance to Suvorov and refusal to liberate the island of Malta).
3rd stage 1800-1801- rapprochement with France and preparation of a joint campaign with her in India against England. However, his assassination thwarted the plans of the coalition of France and Russia.
On the night of March 12, 1801, Paul I was killed in the Mikhailovsky Castle by a group of conspirators, to which belonged the former favorites of Catherine II: the Zubov brothers, General L.L. Bennigsen, commanders of the guards regiments P.A. Talyzin and F.P. Uvarov, St. Petersburg Governor P.A. Palen, Senator D.P. Troshchinsky. The conspiracy was supported by the heir to the throne Grand Duke Alexander Pavlovich.
100 r first order bonus
Select the type of work Course work Abstract Master's thesis Report on practice Article Report Review Examination Monograph Problem solving Business plan Answers to questions creative work Essay Drawing Essays Translation Presentations Typing Other Increasing the uniqueness of the text Candidate's thesis Laboratory work On-line help
Ask for a price
The reforms of Peter the Great strengthened the feudal-serf system in Russia, but at the same time they gave a great impetus to the development of an internal socio-economic crisis. The reforms of Peter I were the beginning of the process of decomposition of the feudal-serf system of the national economy, gave impetus to the formation and development of capitalist relations. Criticism of the vices of serfdom begins, and then of the serf system itself.
The economic development of Russia in the middle of the 18th century reached its peak in the conditions of feudal-serf relations. Feudalism, growing in depth and breadth, began to collapse from within. Commodity economy could not get along with serfdom, and as a result, both landowners and serfs found themselves in contradictory relations. The material interest of the manufacturer was needed, and it was inherent only to a free, free person.
The accession to Russia in the 18th century of vast territories required their development. And serfdom was a brake on the rapid development of these territories.
The Russian bourgeoisie was constrained in its aspirations, at the same time it was generated by the socio-economic development of Russia and was dependent on the monarchy.
After the death of Peter I, between his followers and the old Russian nobility, also, by the way, followers of Peter, a struggle began for influence on power. In a short time there was a change in the faces of political figures.
After the death of Peter I, the favorite of his wife Menshikov came to the fore. In 1727 Catherine I dies and the grandson of Peter I, Peter II Alekseevich, enters the throne. But he was only 14 years old and a supreme secret council was created to govern the country (Menshikov, Prince Dolgoruky, etc.). But there was no unity within this council, and a struggle ensued between Menshikov and Dolgoruky, the winner of which was the latter, but he did not have to take advantage of this, since in 1730. Peter II dies. The throne is free again.
At this time, the guards, dissatisfied with the policy of the Privy Council, make a coup, enthroning the niece of Peter I Anna Ioannovna, who lived in Jelgava (near Riga).
Anna Ioannovna was offered some conditions, which she signed, which stipulated that her power was limited in favor of the large Russian aristocracy (Privy Council). The nobles were unhappy and Anna Ioannovna dispersed the Privy Council, restoring the Senate. She ruled for 10 years.
The reign of Anna Ioannovna is characterized by mass terror against the Russian nobility (Dolgoruky, Golitsin and many others suffered). Rising at the court of Biron, who rose from a groom to the chancellor of Russia.
Under Anna Ioannovna, a war was waged with Turkey.
Arbitrariness was unbearable, and only after the death of Anna Ioannovna in Russia does calm come. Dying, Anna Ioannovna leaves a will, which stated that the Russian throne should pass into the hands of Ioann Antonovich, Anna Ioannovna's nephew (grandson of Peter I and Charles III, former enemies), while still an infant.
Naturally, his mother ruled for him - Anna Leopoldovna and regent Biron. But November 25, 1741. there was a coup. Biron and Munnich were arrested and exiled. The coup was carried out by the guards, dissatisfied with the dominance of foreigners.
Elizabeth ascends the throne, declaring that the death penalty is cancelled. This ban was in effect throughout the 25 years of her reign.
In 1755 opened a Russian university.
Elizabeth surrounds herself with a group of advisers, among whom were Shuvalov, Panin, Chernyshov and others.
Under Elizabeth, a 7-year war was waged against Prussia (Frederick II), which led to the victory of Russian weapons. Subsequently, Frederick II said that "It is not enough to kill a Russian soldier, he and the dead one must also be thrown down."
The years of Elizabeth's reign were called best years Russia.
After Elizabeth, Peter III came to the throne, whose reign characterizes the dominance of the military. Peter III abolished all restrictions for the nobility. The peasants under him became the likeness of slaves. The landowner received the right to exile the peasant to Siberia for hard labor.
The activities of Peter III caused a storm of discontent and in June 1762. there was a coup d'état. Peter III was removed from power, and Catherine II the Great came to the throne.
The distribution of state lands begins, serfdom goes in breadth.
Catherine II, again using the nobility, secularized church lands in 1764. All lands owned by churches and monasteries were confiscated and transferred to the College of Economics. Church peasants were transferred to quitrent (that is, about 1,000,000 peasants received freedom); part of the land was transferred to the landowners.
Catherine signed a decree on the ownership of their land.
In 1767 adopted a decree on the attachment of peasants. Peasants were forbidden to complain about their landowners. The complaint was regarded as a serious state crime. Decree of January 17, 1765. peasants could be sent to hard labor by their landowner. Decree of May 3, 1783. Ukrainian peasants were assigned to their landlords.
The domestic policy of Catherine II was aimed at strengthening serfdom. Code of 1649 already hopelessly outdated. In this regard, Catherine II convenes the established commission to adopt new laws. As a reaction to the policy of Catherine, numerous peasant unrest and uprisings begin, which later develop into a peasant war led by Emelyan Pugachev of 73-75. The uprising showed that the administration of the state did not correspond to the times.
After the suppression of the uprising, Catherine begins new reforms. In 1775 By decree of Catherine II, regional reforms were carried out. In Russia, provinces and districts have been created, governors have been appointed, nobility supervision has been created, noble corporate and class institutions are being created, and the staff of officials, police and detectives is being increased.
In the same 1775. Decree on freedom of entrepreneurship and merchants was adopted. This decree led the need for reform in the cities. The process of registration of the privileges of the nobility and the merchants ends with two letters of liberties and advantages of the Russian nobility and a letter of commendation to the cities (1785). The first letter was aimed at consolidating the forces of the nobility, and the second met the interests of the merchants. The purpose of issuing charters is to strengthen power, create new groups and layers on which the Russian monarchy could rely.
Catherine decides to increase censorship after the French Revolution. Novikov and Radishchev were arrested.
In 1796 Catherine II died and Paul I came to the throne.
The character of the new emperor was largely contradictory. He did many things contrary to his mother's. Paul demanded that the nobility return to their regiments.
Some time later, by decree of April 5, 1797. approved that the peasants should work for the landowner no more than 3 days a week, banned the sale of peasants.
Paul broke off trade relations with England.
The higher nobility created a conspiracy against Paul, and on March 12, 1801. he was killed in the Mikhailovsky Castle.
The foreign policy of Russia in the 18th century was characterized by the struggle for access to the Black Sea, Azov was captured in 1736, Kabardino-Balkaria was completely annexed, in 1731. Kazakhstan voluntarily joins Russia. During the 7-year war, Berlin and Konigsberg were captured.
During the reign of Catherine II, Poland was partitioned three times, and Poland itself ceased to exist as an independent state.
During the reign of Paul I, great heroic deeds take place Russian troops under the leadership of Suvorov.
Economic development. In the second half of the 18th century, Russia continued to be an agrarian country, but its economy gradually evolved towards the capitalist model. During this period, serious contradictions emerged between the new methods of management in industry and trade, and the state system of serfdom, which hampered the economic development of the country.
Agricultural production remained the leading branch of the economy. It has changed little compared to the previous century, it continued to develop in an extensive way - due to the inclusion of new territories in the crop rotation. In the second half of the XVIII century. increased exploitation of the peasants. In the Non-Black Earth region for 50 years, quitrent has increased by 3-5 times, corvee in some parts of the country was 6 days a week. Taxes in favor of the state increased by 4.3 times. There was a gradual transition from corvée to cash dues.
New developments in agriculture become otkhodnichestvo and month. Otkhodnichestvo is the departure of peasants to the city to earn money with the permission of the landowner. As a rule, such peasants were employed by the owners of manufactories or in craft workshops. The month appeared in the 80s. XVIII century: the landowner took away his land allotment from the peasant, and he worked for a monthly allowance (usually a small one).
The expansion of the sphere of commodity-money relations led to the destruction of the natural isolation of the landlord and peasant economy. Produced products were increasingly exported for sale.
Industry developed much more intensively than agriculture. For the second half of the XVIII century. the number of manufactories doubled. On the one hand, this was due to the military needs of the country, and on the other hand, the interest of foreign consumers in cheap Russian goods.
The vast majority of manufactories used serf peasant labor. At the same time, the number of manufactories that used freelance labor also grew. In the second half of the XVIII century. the number of civilian workers doubled, and they prevailed in the cotton, leather, haberdashery and glass industries.
The impetus for the development of handicrafts and industry was given by a decree of 1775, which allowed the opening of enterprises without the consent of the authorities. This led to an increase in the number of breeders from wealthy peasants and merchants. Metallurgy developed especially rapidly. Iron smelting has increased 5 times in 50 years. The main base of Russian metallurgy was the Urals. The manufacturing industry experienced a rise, working not only for the domestic, but also for the foreign market.
Advances in industry contributed to the development of internal and foreign trade. In 1754, internal customs duties were abolished, which contributed to the revival of trade relations between individual parts of the country. The number of rural auctions and fairs has increased. The exchange of goods between town and country increased. Stationary shops and shops appeared in the cities.
Foreign trade was still in the hands of foreign merchants. The largest Russian exports were iron, grain, hemp, linen and linen fabrics. In trade with the East, Russia exported the products of its manufactories, while in trade with the West it imported higher quality European industrial products.
The chronic budget deficit, caused by the constant conduct of hostilities, was covered by the entry into circulation from 1769 of paper money - banknotes. For the first time under Catherine II in 1769, Russia took external loan at Holland.
These processes gradually led to the ruin of a significant part of the nobility, the emergence of merchants-industrialists, and stratification among the peasantry. New phenomena in the economy were the loss of the isolation of the feudal economy, noble entrepreneurship in industry and agriculture, and the creation of a market for hired labor.
Catherine's domestic policy II . The reign of Catherine II can be divided into three periods:
1762 - 1775 - from the beginning of the reign to the peasant war of E. Pugacheva - the period of Catherine's passion for the ideas of the Enlightenment, the era of reforms in caring for the "public good";
1775 - 1789 - from the peasant war to the French Revolution - a period of continuation of internal reforms, but with a different goal: to strengthen state control over all spheres of society, protect the existing order and maintain "silence" in the state;
1789 - 1796 - from the French Revolution to the end of the reign - a period of strict censorship, the use of punitive measures against "freethinking", the confiscation of French literature and the persecution of Russian enlighteners.
Catherine II developed a special policy, which in history received the name "enlightened absolutism". One of the largest projects of Catherine in the spirit of "enlightenment" was the convening of the Legislative Commission of 1767-1768. The commission included deputies from all walks of life (except the serfs). The purpose of the commission is to develop a code of laws, clarify the mood of society and discuss the mandates of deputies. Unexpectedly for Catherine, heated debates unfolded during the discussion of the peasant question. The question of the abolition of serfdom was also raised here. However, the work of the commission soon began to weigh on Catherine. The established commission was dissolved under the pretext of starting a war with Turkey, having worked for a year and a half.
One of Catherine's first reforms was secularization church and monastery lands - their transfer to state ownership. Secularization was carried out in 1763-1764.
The reign of Catherine II is called the "golden age" of the Russian nobility. In the interests of the nobility, she signed a number of important decrees:
1763 - the cost of suppressing peasant riots was assigned to the peasants themselves;
1765 - it is allowed to exile peasants to Siberia for hard labor without trial or investigation;
1783 - the introduction of serfdom in Ukraine;
1785 - "Charter to the nobility", which brought together and confirmed all the privileges given to the nobility after the death of Peter I. In addition, it was allowed to create noble societies in provinces and counties.
After the uprising of E. Pugachev, the domestic policy of Catherine II became tougher. The Peasant War revealed the weakness of local authorities, unable to prevent or extinguish peasant uprisings. In 1775, a provincial (regional) reform was carried out, according to which the country was divided into 50 provinces, which, in turn, were divided into counties. The head of the regional administration was appointed governor or governor. The provincial government became the executive, administrative and police body in the province. At the county level, the organ of provincial government was the Nizhny Zemsky Court, chaired by a police officer or captain. Thus, the centralization of power was strengthened, and a clear structure was given to provincial and district institutions.
In 1775, the Zaporizhian Sich and the remnants of self-government in Ukraine were liquidated.
In 1785, a city reform was carried out - "Charter to the cities." The city society was divided into 6 categories: depending on the property qualification, the rights and privileges of each category were determined. City self-government was introduced. Elected city bodies were in charge of the current city administration, supply, city repairs and landscaping.
In 1782-1786. education reform took place. A network of public schools was created - as a system of general education schools with uniform start and end dates, lessons in the classroom, a single methodology for teaching disciplines and general educational literature.
The results of the reforms were: a clearer definition of the boundaries of the estates, their privileges and position in relation to the state; a more harmonious system of state administration that lasted for about a century.
During the reign of Catherine II, the largest peasant war in the history of Russia took place under the leadership of Yemelyan Pugachev (1773 - 1775). Posing as a survivor of the assassination attempt by Peter III, he outlined his program in "charming letters." Here Pugachev promised to make all participants in his movement free Cossacks, to give them land and exempt them from taxes, as well as to execute landlords and bribe-taking judges. Pugachev hoped to overthrow Catherine II and become his own "muzhik" tsar for the people. Such a program of action attracted numerous supporters to him. The war covered vast territories from the Volga region to the Urals, and regular troops had to be called in to suppress it. January 10, 1775 Pugachev, along with his closest associates, was executed on Bolotnaya Square in Moscow. The rest of the participants in the uprising were also brutally dealt with. Thousands of people were executed without trial or investigation.
The peasant war of E. Pugachev and the Great French Revolution, during which Louis XVI was executed, forced Catherine II to abandon the policy of "enlightened absolutism." In an effort to prevent the penetration of revolutionary ideas into the country, the government introduced strict censorship, control over literature coming from abroad, and confiscated publications of French enlighteners. In 1790, A. N. Radishchev, the author of the book Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow, was arrested and exiled to Siberia for "seditious ideas". And in 1792, a well-known publisher and writer, a longtime opponent of Catherine - N. I. Novikov was imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress for 15 years.
The end of the 34-year reign of Catherine II was marked by a breakdown in finances, disorder in management affairs, bureaucratic arbitrariness, and the flourishing of bribery. The aging empress could not control the conduct of state affairs, delegating them to her favorites.
Catherine also faced the problem of her predecessors - to whom to transfer the throne? The relations between the Empress and her son were hostile. She decided to transfer the throne to her eldest grandson, Alexander, and announce this on November 24, 1796. But on November 6, Catherine died, and her son, Paul, became emperor.
Russia during the reign of Paul I (1796-1801) . The purpose of the reforms of Paul I was to strengthen the foundations of the socio-economic life and political system of Russia.
To prevent palace coups and increase the stability of power, on the day of his coronation - April 5, 1797, Paul issued the "Institution on the Imperial Family." Here a strict procedure was established for the transfer of the throne from father to eldest son, and in the absence of sons - to the elder brother.
Paul sought to maximize the centralization of power. The emperor developed a plan for the establishment of 7 ministries and the State Treasury. However, this plan was implemented after his death. 50 Catherine's provinces were transformed into 41. The restructuring of local self-government was accompanied by the restriction of noble self-government. Administrative and police functions were withdrawn from the jurisdiction of the noble assemblies, and in 1799 the provincial noble assemblies were abolished.
The peasant question remained the most urgent after the uprising of E. Pugachev. On April 5, 1797, the Manifesto on the three-day corvee was promulgated, which prescribed the use of corvee labor by peasants no more than 3 days a week. In addition, in 1798 it was forbidden to sell yard people and peasants under the hammer, and the grain tax was replaced by a moderate monetary tax.
The policy towards the nobility was controversial. On the one hand, the emperor took care of the material well-being of the nobility, providing him with material assistance through the credit and banking system and creating a maximum favorable treatment for the service. But on the other hand, Paul abolished the most important provisions of the Charter to the nobility - freedom from compulsory service and from corporal punishment.
Pavel continued his mother's struggle with "freethinking". It was forbidden to import foreign books and study abroad, Russians were forbidden to leave Russia, and foreigners were forbidden to enter Russia.
A supporter of strict discipline and order, Paul decided to rebuild the army along the Prussian model. The main occupations of the guard were endless divorces, parades and formations. A murmur arose in the guard, which threatened to develop into another palace coup.
The main reason for the last palace coup in the history of Russia was the dissatisfaction of the guards and the nobility with the emperor, who infringed on their interests. The conspiracy was headed by the military governor of St. Petersburg - Count Palen. On the night of March 12, 1801, the conspirators broke into the Mikhailovsky Palace and demanded that Paul abdicate in favor of his son, Alexander. Having been refused, they strangled the emperor. The next day, the manifesto announced the beginning of a new reign - Emperor Alexander I.
Foreign policy of the second half XVIII century. In the second half of the 18th century, three directions can be distinguished in Russian foreign policy:
Southern – expansion of the state border to the Black Sea coast;
Western – annexation of ancient Russian lands - right-bank Ukraine and Belarus;
Fight against the French Revolution.
The most important task was the struggle for access to the Black Sea. Turkey, at the instigation of France and England, was the first to declare war on Russia. The Russian-Turkish war of 1768 - 1774 began . Initially, the battles went on with varying success, but as the Russian troops were replenished, the situation began to change in favor of Russia. suffered complete defeat, Turkey turned to Russia with a request for peace. Kuchuk-Kainarji peace of 1774 gave Russia access to the Black Sea, the right to have Black Sea Fleet and cross the Black Sea straits to the Mediterranean Sea. Ottoman Empire transferred to Russia the territories between the Southern Bug and the Dnieper, Azov and Kerch, the fortress of Kabarda in the North Caucasus. Crimea was declared independent from Turkey, Russia received the right to act as guardian of the rights of the Orthodox population of the Ottoman Empire.
However, both parties viewed this treaty as temporary. They were preparing for a new war that broke out in 1787. The successful actions of the Russian army and Russian navy forced the Turks to sign the Iasi peace treaty in 1791. Turkey handed over the Crimea to Russia and recognized all the Russian conquests in the Northern Black Sea region. The Dniester River became the border between the two powers.
The second important task for Russia was the return of the ancient Russian lands that were part of Poland. In the second half of the 18th century, Poland was a weak state, with many internal problems - national, religious and political. The weakening of Poland took advantage of its neighbors - Prussia, Austria and Russia. In 1772 they attacked Poland and divided part of its territory among themselves. Russia received Eastern Belarus and the Polish part of Livonia (Latvian lands). The second partition, in which Prussia and Russia participated, took place in 1793. In 1795, the third and final partition of Poland took place, according to which the lands of Western Belarus, Western Volhynia and the main part of Lithuania were transferred to Russia.
Catherine II took the revolutionary events in France with extreme concern. After the execution of the royal couple, Russia began to form an anti-French coalition and prepare an invasion of revolutionary France. In 1793, an agreement was concluded between England and Russia on a joint economic blockade of France. In 1795, an alliance was concluded between Russia, England and Austria to jointly fight the revolution in France. In 1796, a military campaign against France was to begin. But this was prevented by the death of Catherine.
The foreign policy of Paul I was distinguished by inconsistency. Initially, according to allied obligations, in 1798 Russia declared war on France. Military operations were successful for Russia. In 1799, the Black Sea Fleet took the Ionian Islands from the French, and the army under the command of the outstanding commander A.V. Suvorov inflicted a number of defeats on France in Northern Italy. At the same time, Suvorov made an unprecedented crossing of the Alps. But disagreements between the allies led to the fact that Paul withdrew the Russian troops and in 1800 signed a peace treaty with France. In the same year, he sent 40 regiments of Don Cossacks to conquer the British colony - India. Only the death of the emperor interrupted this military campaign.
Social thought and culture of the second half XVIII century. Empress Catherine II herself was a prominent publicist. Her writings are permeated with the idea of defending autocracy as the only acceptable form of government for Russia. Catherine also wrote about the special historical mission of the Russian people.
During this period, the ideas of the European Enlightenment had a wide resonance in Russian society. Russian enlighteners - N. I. Novikov, A. Ya. Polenov, S. E. Desnitsky and others considered the constitutional monarchy to be the perfect state system, defended the “legal provision of liberty and property”, and criticized serfdom.
The most radical ideas of this time were expressed in the book by A. N. Radishchev "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" (1790). Radishchev agreed with the enlighteners in many respects, opposing serfdom and recognizing the importance of educating the people. But unlike them, Radishchev believed that the monarch would never voluntarily give up his power. Therefore, the only way to achieve freedom is revolution. “A rebel, worse than Pugachev,” Catherine II assessed his ideas in this way.
In the second half of the XVIII century. there is the emergence of the main currents of Russian socio-political thought, which finally took shape in the next century.
The development of Russian culture continued to be dominated by the trends laid down in the Petrine era. Borrowings from Europe concerned only the upper strata of society.
In the second half of the 18th century, three styles developed in Russian literature: classicism (A. P. Sumarokov), realism (D. I. Fonvizin) and sentimentalism (N. M. Karamzin).
Russian painting during this period reached an unprecedented rise. First of all, he was associated with the work of portrait painters (F. S. Rokotov, V. L. Borovikovsky, D. G. Levitsky), but new genres appeared - landscape, historical canvases, everyday paintings, still lifes.
Among the Russian sculptors, F. Shubin and M. Kozlovsky stood out, representing two trends - realism and classicism.
One of the most rapidly developing sciences in the XVIII century. - geography. Numerous expeditions discovered and described the most remote corners of Siberia, the Urals and the Caucasus.
Medicine has developed greatly. The Medico-Surgical Academy and the Faculty of Medicine were opened at Moscow University.
In Russia, 20 years earlier than in England, I. Polzunov invented a steam engine, but it did not find practical application, and was dismantled.
An important milestone in the development of national history was the publication of M. M. Shcherbatov’s major historical work “The History of Russia from Ancient Times”.
Military science of strategy and tactics of land and sea battle was developed by commanders - Suvorov and Ushakov.
In architecture, Russian baroque is beginning to be replaced by classicism. It is characterized by strictly proportional and symmetrical buildings, colonnades and porticos, the subordination of secondary architectural elements to the main one. Famous Russian architects - V. Bazhenov, I. Starov, M. Kazakov - worked in the style of classicism.
Loading...