Developing a lesson in grade 11 in biology
Seminar on the topic "Stages of Human Evolution"
Target : the formation of a materialistic idea of the origin of man
Tasks:
educational:to expand, deepen and systematize knowledge about the evidence of the origin of humans from animals; stages of human evolution; the role of biological and social factors at different stages of anthropogenesis;
developing: the formation of the skills of independent work with literature, diagrams, tables, slides, highlight the main thing and draw conclusions, speak to the team;
educational: show the inconsistency of the theory of racism
Lesson type : workshop
Methods: reproductive, partially exploratory, problematic.
Equipment : computer with a projector, presentation, video clip, tables, diagrams, test.
Plan
1 Organizational moment 1 min.
2 Discussion of the features of anthropogenesis 30 min.
3. Summing up 2 min.
4. Independent work. 3-4 minutes
5. Conclusions 1 min.
6. Reflection 2 min.
7. Introspection. Grading 2-3 min.
8. Video clip 2 min.
During the classes
In the chain, a man became the last link,
And the best of everything is embodied in him.
Ferdowsi
1. / Against the background of a video clip without sound /
Teacher: One of the most intriguing chapters in the evolution of life on Earth is the origin of man. In our days, this section of the doctrine of evolution has become one of the fastest growing; every decade brings sensational discoveries that force us to significantly supplement and sometimes revise the prevailing ideas. The task of today's lesson is to expand knowledge about anthropogenesis, its present stage.
2. Disciple: Even in ancient times, a person was recognized as a "relative" of animals (Anaximenes, Aristotle). In the first half of the 18th century. K. Linnaeus gave him a place in the detachment of primates of the class of mammals and gave the species name Homo sapiens (Homo sapiens) / Stand of K. Linnaeus / At the end of the 18th century. Diderot, Kant, Laplace wrote on this topic, and at the beginning of the 19th century. the hypothesis of the natural origin of man was put forward by Zh.B. Lamarck / Portrait / in his work "Philosophy of Zoology" He considered the original ancestor of man to be a four-armed highly developed creature that descended from the trees to the ground and gradually turned into a two-armed, capable of walking upright, but Lamarck's anthropogenic hypothesis was not successful, like his evolutionary concept as a whole. Charles Darwin made a fundamental contribution to the solution of the problem of anthropogenesis in his special work of 1871 "The Descent of Man and Sexual Selection." Darwin was the first to try to scientifically explain the driving forces of anthropogenesis. / Stand / In the subsequent time, a lot of data has accumulated, proving the relationship between man and anthropoids, not only by morphological, but also by other signs:
A great similarity has been established in the structure of the vocal apparatus (larynx) of a human and a chimpanzee;
In the orangutan, the dimensions of the 41st field of the cerebral cortex are significantly increased, and it is this part of the brain in humans that is difficult to differentiate in connection with developed speech, only in higher monkeys and humans there is a appendix of the cecum;
Anthropoid monkeys have the same 4 blood groups;
Puberty occurs relatively late;
The gorilla's gestation period is close to 9 months;
The order of eruption of teeth in higher apes is similar to that in humans;
The forms of caring for offspring are highly developed among anthropoids; the period of childhood is long;
The genetic material of humans and chimpanzees is 99% identical
Teacher: How did human evolution go?
Pupil: There are the main stages of anthropogenesis:
Driopithecus - common ancestors of anthropomorphic monkeys and hominids. There is a lot of indirect evidence supporting a similar origin. The ability of the human hand to rotate in all directions due to the spherical joint of the humerus could arise only in the arboreal form. Only humans and primates have the ability to rotate the forearm in and out, as well as a well-developed collarbone. In humans and monkeys, skin patterns are developed on the hands and feet, which are found only in tree mammals. They are characterized by an arboreal lifestyle, manipulation of objects and herd behavior.
The oldest australopithecinescombined the signs of a monkey and a man. The anatomical structure of the pelvis and legs indicated his upright position. He used sticks, stones, large antelope bones as tools. Social lifestyles let them resist
against predators and attack other animals themselves. It was with them, according to the anthropologist Roginsky, that the process of losing the coat began. A person is protected from overheating by intense sweating. This device was very effective, but it deprived the body of sodium ions, the lack of which stimulated predation or forced to look for sources of table salt.
A skilled man -In 1962, in Tanzania, central Africa, the remains of Australopithecus were found, the brain volume of which was more than 600 cm (modern approx. 2000 cm), but more than that of primitive forms, and most importantly, he made tools. This ancestor of ours was called a skillful man. (pebble culture)
Scientists argue that it is at this stage of anthropogenesis that speech is born, because joint hunting demanded communication, gestures alone were indispensable.
Homo erectusdiffered from his predecessors in height, straight posture, human gait. Their arm is more developed, and the foot has acquired a small arch, the spine has received some bends, which balanced the vertical position of the body. The volume of the brain is 800-1200 cm. Formation of speech, the most developed are the lobes of the brain that control the higher nervous activity. Collective hunting required not only communication, but also contributed to the development of a social organization, which was clearly human in nature, because relied on the division of labor between men - hunters and women - food gatherers and keepers of fire.
Neanderthal - brain volume - 1200-1400 cm. High culture of tool making. Improving speech and tribal relations. Strong, hardy, they are the first to adapt to life in a harsh climate. They have rituals, care for offspring, the transfer of experience. They used fire for cooking - they fried meat, sewed skins from clothes, which were cleaned of fat, dried over the fire to give them softness and flexibility. This indicates the development of thinking.
Cro-Magnon - type of modern man. Lived in caves or huts at the very end of the Ice Age. They learned to make a variety of weapons, used throwing devices, and fished with harpoons. They were probably the first to learn how to make needles and sew. They made necklaces from pebbles, shells ... In France and Spain, rock drawings were found, which are more than 30 thousand years old. Drawings of spells, predictions, victory over the predator, and today - we greet from them.
Teacher: What are the main points in the formation of a Homo sapiens?
Disciple: The formation of a Homo sapiens is marked by 2 important points:
On the one hand, the formation of the morphological type is completed
On the other hand, biological evolution gradually faded and was replaced by social development.
From an evolutionary point of view, the emergence of man is the largest aromorphosis, unparalleled in the entire history of life on Earth. An ever-accelerating rate of anthropogenesis was a general pattern. The phylogenetic development of hominids is a vivid example of "mosaic evolution" characterized by an uneven rate of development of organs and organ systems. The progressive evolution of the brain was preceded by erect posture and the associated transformation of the pelvic bones and anterior limbs. A characteristic feature of anthropogenesis is the unidirectionality of evolutionary transformations associated with the gradual development of bipedal locomotion, an increase in the ability to accumulate and practical use of information about the environment, and the improvement of a collective way of life.
Teacher: What drove this? What points of view do you know about this?
Disciple: The uniqueness of the process of the formation of human biosocial nature was determined by the peculiar action of the driving forces of anthropogenesis.
There are different opinions on the relationship between biological and social factors of anthropogenesis. Some believe that the driving force of anthrogenesis was the unity of the action of biological and social factors. Others are of the opinion that these are facts that acted in parallel, but in the end led to the same result. In addition, there are fundamental disagreements about what factors played a leading role in the evolution of human ancestors. In foreign literature, these are exclusively BZS and selection. The falsification of Charles Darwin's views on the BZS as the cause of anthropogenesis was the source of the reactionary trend in bourgeois sociology - social Darwinism.
The English evolutionary philosopher G. Spencer in 1852 put forward the formula "survival of the fittest" as the law of social development, therefore he called for the elimination of the victims in the struggle for existence - these are the poor and the sick.
Count de Gobineau argued that the highest race among all human races is the Aryan race, and supporters of racial hygiene believed that intellect and moral qualities are determined exclusively by his hereditary inclinations, therefore, social status is determined by purely genetic factors.
F. Galton proposed to breed colonial peoples by matching pairs, and create a noble elite for Europeans. The racists turned Africa, in the words of Karl Marx, "into a reserved field for hunting blacks" and promised blacks heaven in heaven instead of hell on earth.
Most modern researchers believe that the idea of not only the single biosocial nature of the driving forces of anthropogenesis, but also their qualitative change in the process of evolution from ancient hominids to modern humans is closer to the truth. In the early stages of human evolution, there was a selection of individuals who were more capable of making primitive tools with which they could get their food and defend themselves from enemies. F. Engels in his work "The Role of Labor in the Process of the Transformation of a Monkey into a Man" wrote: "Labor is the first basic condition of all human life, and, moreover, to such an extent that in a certain sense we must say: labor created man." At the stage of Australopithecus, selection based on individual selective elimination played a decisive role. Gradually, the object of selection was the characteristic property as herd and the relatively developed forms of relationship associated with it. The survivors were those who together could withstand the unfavorable factors of the environment. Individual selection contributed to the formation of upright posture, hand, brain, and group selection improved social organization. Collaborative actions are called biosocial selection. In the early stages of biosocial selection, there were small collectives, and then expanded to a tendency towards the survival of better organized settlements or tribes. All levels of biosocial selection were interrelated. The rate and extent of morphogenesis in hominid evolution was possible on the basis of wide genetic variability. The rate of mutational variability, characteristic for all organisms (on average, 1 x 10 to the power of -5 mutational changes per gene per generation), could not provide enough material for selection when creating a person. Consequently, the process of anthropogenesis required other, additional sources of variability.
Teacher: And what could it be? Any opinions?
Pupil: D.K. Belyaev argues that the increase in the mass and complication of the brain at the entrance to the evolution of hominids was not limited to the improvement of neural mechanisms, but was combined with the endocrine one. Using examples, he shows that under the conditions of domestication, there is a sharp destabilization of many functions of the body, due to the addiction to humans. One of the most important features of human evolution was that as a result of stress reactions during the communication of human ancestors with each other, the entire system of neuroendocrine regulation changed, which, in turn, caused a wide range of variability for a variety of traits. This source of genetic variability played an essential role in the progressive evolution of hominids. Scientists have long assumed that in progressive evolutionary transformations (in the origin of man), it is not so much the changes in the genes themselves that are important as the change in their activity. Even a small change in the nucleotide sequence of one - the only gene-regulator can lead to dramatic changes in the activity of many other genes, and this, in turn, can cause radical changes in the structure of the body. Scientists have identified 110 genes whose activity differs in humans and chimpanzees (55 are more active in humans and 55 in our closest relatives). 49 genes have been identified whose activity has changed in the human line (30 genes increased activity, 19 decreased). It is interesting that chimpanzees had only 9% of transcription factors, and in half of them the activity increased, and in half it decreased. By the way, studies on Drosophila flies also did not show strong changes in the activity of transcription factors. It seems that the enhanced expression of many regulatory genes is a specific feature of the evolution of the human lineage. The meaning of this phenomenon is not yet completely clear.
Teacher: Senkevich once said in a program that nature will never cease to amaze us, because something new is constantly being discovered, unknown, not similar to the previous one, or simply changed. And what about man as an integral part of nature and society?
Student : Man is an integral part of nature at all times. Is its appearance changing, can we expect such changes in the future? Consider how evolutionary factors operate in today's society. Firstly, isolation is becoming less and less important, and secondly, the importance of random changes in population in human society is sharply weakening. In the 12-14 centuries during the plague epidemic, the population could decrease several times within 1-2 years, but at present, thanks to the development of medicine, such fluctuations in numbers are not observed. Thus, the importance of waves of numbers as an evolutionary factor is also decreasing. It is more difficult with the mutation process and natural selection. In England in 1922, only 22% of cases of blindness were hereditary, and in 1952, already 68% of blindness was hereditary. More and more unfavorable mutations are accumulating in populations: now many people are surviving who probably would not have survived before. The population is increasingly saturated with mutations also because the level of radioactive radiation has increased, the same happens when the biosphere is clogged with chemicals that cause mutations. In a developed society, social laws are stronger than selection. It is social - social laws that determine the success of this or that person.
Teacher: Yes, social factors have begun to play a leading role at the present stage, however, the vital activity of each person is subject to biological laws. Retains all its meaning and mutational process as a source of genotypic variability. To a certain extent, a stabilizing form of natural selection is at work, eliminating sharply expressed deviations from the average norm. In the process of the social evolution of mankind, more favorable opportunities are created for the disclosure of the individuality of each person, his personal qualities. The social nature of labor made it possible to distinguish a person from nature, to create an artificial habitat for oneself. Each of us has a unique, unique, mb. the best, unique.
3. Summing up
Teacher: So, we looked at the features of human evolution. What is the main thing you learned from the information?
Pupil: 1. Human evolution is an extremely complex, lengthy process: from animal to Homo sapiens. On this path, biological factors gradually lost their significance and were replaced by social factors;
2. In human evolution, it is necessary to single out 2 key points, 2 points. The first and most important of them is the beginning of the manufacture of tools, the transition from the stage of animal precursors of man to the stage of the most ancient forms that form people.
3. The emergence of man and his further evolution took place through the resolution of acute contradictions. Throughout the entire period of its formation, the most important contradiction between the morphological structure and its activity was resolved. It was removed mainly in the process of selection and ... ended as a result of the origin of the creature, which reached such a level of structure that made it possible to expand its activities without limit without any rearrangements of its morphological structure.
4. Independent work.Test. Human Origins.
Decide whether a given proposition is right or wrong:
Man belongs to the weasel of mammals
Coccygeal bone in the human skeleton - atavism
The appendix in humans is a rudiment
Thick hair in humans - atavism
5. Man and great apes are closely related organisms. 6. Work, social life, speech and thinking are social factors
7.In the process of becoming a person, there are three stages.
8.The driving forces of anthropogenesis are only social factors
Instead of dots, choose the appropriate words:
The theory of the origin of man -….
Homo sapiens belongs to the detachment ...
3. All people inhabiting our planet belong to the species….
A single appearance in a person of signs of an ancestor - ...
Speech, thinking, work are factors ..
Hereditary variability, BZS refer to factors….
The genus of man originated from ... ..Historically formed groups of people, characterized by common hereditary characteristics ...
The first evidence of human animal origin was presented by ...
The work "The role of labor in the process of transformation of a monkey into a man" was written by ...
They knew how to make the first tools of labor ...
The first hearths and dwellings were built ...
The chin protrusion is developed in ...
Humanity forms three great races ...
5. Conclusions. Teacher: What conclusions can be drawn at the end of the lesson?
Disciple: About the formation of Homo sapiens, we can conclude with the words of the Far Eastern poet S. Shchipachev:
Nature! Man is your creation
And this honor will not be taken away from you,
But I put it on my feet from all fours
And labor made the ancestor man.
S. Shchipachev
Disciple: And with the words of R. Rozhdestvensky, we can conclude about the unity of races:
For all the oppressed
By the labor of the burned
Difference in skin color -
Doesn't count.
In people - black, white, yellow -
Red blood flows!
R. Rozhdestvensky
6. Reflection: Encouraging students to reflect on the work done
Reflexive Algorithm:
"I" (how did I feel, what mood I was working with, whether I am satisfied with myself ...)
Did you reach the whole of the teaching?
What difficulties have you encountered?
7. Analysis of work (by students)Grading
Thank you all for your work.
Video fragment proving the unity of the origin of all races (2 min.)
Used Books:
Yablokov A.V. The world of evolution. M .: Det. Lit., 1985
Belov A.V., Prokhorov A.I. World around us. Moscow: Political Literature, 1976
Vorontsov N.N., Sukhorukova L.N. The evolution of the organic world: an optional course. Moscow: Education, 1991
Biology teacher: S. S. Berketova
Agree, in our distant childhood, we were all somehow interested in dwellings.We read about them in books and popular science magazines, watched the movies, which means, willy-nilly at least once in our life, but still imagined how great it would be on switch roles with them for several hours, finding yourself in that distant world full of the unknown and unseen.
However, despite the abundance of information, we sometimes cannot answer seemingly quite simple questions. For example, how they protected their homes, where and how they got food, whether they made supplies for the winter and whether they had any pets.
The article aims to acquaint readers with the topic. After reading all the sections carefully, everyone will have a more than detailed idea of what the dwellings of the ancient people were like.
general information
In order to more clearly imagine what happened many centuries ago, let's think about the principle on which modern houses are being built and ennobled. Many will agree that the choice of material is primarily influenced by the climate. In hot countries, you are unlikely to find buildings with thick brick (or panel) walls, and additional insulation. In turn, there are no bungalows and open villas in the northern regions.
The primitive dwelling of ancient people was also built taking into account the weather conditions of a particular region. In addition, of course, the presence of nearby water bodies and the characteristic features of the local flora and fauna were taken into account.
So, modern experts argue that hunters of the Paleolithic era in most cases settled on slightly rugged, or even completely flat terrain, in the immediate vicinity of lakes, rivers or streams.
Where can you see the ancient sites?
We all know that caves are sections of the upper part of the earth's crust, usually located in the mountainous regions of the planet. To date, it has been established that most of them were once the dwellings of ancient people. Of course, regardless of the continent, people settled only in horizontal and gently sloping caves. In vertical, called mines and wells, the depth of which can reach up to one and a half kilometers, it was inconvenient, if not very dangerous, to live and establish everyday life.
Archaeologists have discovered the dwellings of ancient people in different parts of our planet: in Africa, Australia, Asia, Europe and the Americas.
Many caves have also been discovered on the territory of Russia. The most famous are Kungurskaya, Bolshaya Oreshnaya, Denisova and the whole complex of the Tavdinskys.
What did the dwelling of an ancient man look like from the inside?
There is a fairly widespread misconception that the inhabitants of that time were warm and dry enough in the caves. Unfortunately, this is not the case, but rather the opposite. As a rule, it is very cold and humid in rock faults. And this is not surprising: such areas are heated rather slowly by the sun, and it is generally impossible to heat a huge cave in this way.
The prevailing humid air around, which in most cases is barely felt in the open air, tends to condense, falling into an enclosed space surrounded on all sides by cold stone.
As a rule, the air in a cave cannot be called stale. On the contrary, constant drafts are observed here, formed under the influence of the aerodynamic effect created by the presence of numerous passages and crevices.
As a result, we can conclude that the very first dwellings of ancient people were small cool caves with walls constantly wet from condensation.
Was it possible to keep warm by making a fire?
In general, making a fire in a cave, even with modern means, is quite troublesome and not always effective.
Why? The thing is that initially it will take a long time for him to choose a place protected from the wind, otherwise the fire will simply go out. Secondly, heating a cave in this way is the same as if you set yourself the goal of heating an entire stadium, armed with a conventional electric heater. Sounds absurd, right?
In this case, one fire is actually not enough, especially when you consider that cold air will constantly move to your parking space from somewhere inside the stone bag.
Security measures
How did the ancient people protect their homes, and was there, in principle, a need for this? Scientists have been trying to get an unambiguous answer to this question for a long time. It was found that in warm climates, campsites were usually temporary. Man found them by chasing wild animals along the paths and collecting various kinds of roots. Ambushes were set up nearby and dead carcasses were skinned. Such houses were not guarded: raw materials were collected, rest was arranged, thirst was quenched, simple belongings were gathered, and the tribe rushed on.
On the territory of present-day Eurasia, most of the land was covered with a thick layer of snow. There was already a need for the improvement of a more permanent monastery. The dwelling was often won back from the hyena by stubbornness, cunning or cunning, or During the winter cold, the entrances to the cave were often laid from the inside with stones and branches. This, first of all, was done in order to prevent penetration of the former owner.
Section 6. What was inside the house
The dwellings of ancient people, whose photos can often be found in modern popular science literature, were rather unpretentious in terms of their improvement and content.
Most often it was round or oval inside. According to scientists, on average, the width rarely exceeded 6-8 meters with a length of 10-12 m. Inside, according to experts, up to 20 people were placed. For ennobling and warming, tree trunks were used, felled or broken in the neighboring forest. Often, such material would go down the river.
Often the dwellings of ancient people were not a place in a cave, but real huts. The skeleton of the future house was represented by tree trunks inserted into pre-dug recesses. Later, branches intertwined with each other were superimposed on top. Of course, because of the constantly walking wind, it was rather cold and damp inside, so the fire had to be kept up, both day and night. By the way, scientists were surprised to find that tree trunks, which play a key role in construction, were reinforced with heavy stones for safety reasons.
There were no doors at all. They were replaced by a hearth built from fragments of rocks, which not only heated the dwelling, but also served as a reliable protection from predators.
Of course, in the process of evolution, not only people changed, but also the places of their parking.
Houses of ancient Palestinians
On the territory of Palestine, modern scientists have managed to excavate the most important cities in the archaeological plan.
It was found that these settlements were mainly built on hills and were well fortified both outside and inside. Very often, one of the walls was protected by a precipice or by a rapid water flow. The city was surrounded by a wall.
Like many others, this culture, when choosing a site, was guided by the presence of a nearby source, the water from which was suitable for drinking and for irrigating crops. In case of a siege, the locals set up a kind of underground reservoirs, located under the dwellings of the more prosperous townspeople.
Wooden houses were considered a rarity. Basically, preference was given to stone and adobe buildings. In order to protect the premises from soil moisture, the structure was built on a stone foundation.
The hearth was located in the central room directly under a special hole in the ceiling. The second floor and the presence of a large number of windows could only be afforded by the most prosperous townspeople.
Dwellings of the upper Mesopotamia
Not everyone knows that some of the houses here were two or even several stories high. For example, in the annals of Herodotus, you can find references to buildings in three or even four tiers.
The dwellings were covered with a spherical dome, which was sometimes very high. There was a hole at the top, allowing air to penetrate inside. By the way, it should be noted that there were practically no windows on the first floor. And there can be several explanations for this factor. Firstly, the local residents in this way tried to protect themselves from external enemies. Secondly, religion did not allow them to flaunt the specifics of their private lives. Only fairly narrow doors and loopholes, located at the level of human growth, went outside.
Above, terraces were built on brick pillars, which performed two functions at once. First of all, they were built so that the owner could rest there, hiding away from human eyes. But that's not all. Such a site made it possible to protect the roof from direct sunlight, which means from overheating. On the upper terrace, most often there were open galleries planted with flowers and exotic plants.
In this area, clay, reed and bitumen were considered the main building materials. Sometimes special brick or mosaic inlays were made in wooden supports to protect the tree from the ubiquitous ants.
Dwelling of ancient Indian culture
The ancient city of Mohenjo-Daro, located in India, was once surrounded by a powerful wall. There was also a sewerage system, which was directed from individual houses to the city-wide sewage canal, equipped under the pavements.
In general, they preferred to build houses from fired bricks, which were considered the most durable, and therefore reliable. The outer walls were more than massive, and also had a slight inward slope.
Documents describing how ancient people built dwellings indicate that there was a gatekeeper's room in the homes of wealthy local residents. Almost always there was also a small central courtyard, into which, for the purpose of additional lighting, numerous windows of the first and second floors certainly looked out.
The yard was paved with bricks, and there was a sewage canal. On the flat roof of the house, as a rule, a luxurious terrace was landscaped.
Ancient greek house
Scientists have found that during the Trojan culture, most dwellings were square or rectangular structures. There could be a small portico ahead. In the room or part of the common room, which served as a bedroom, special raised platforms were made for beds.
As a rule, there were two foci. One was needed for heating, the other for cooking.
The walls were also unusual. The lower 60 cm was laid out of stone, and a little higher was used raw brick. The flat roof was not supported by anything.
The poor preferred to settle in round or oval houses, because it was easier to heat them, and there was no need to have several rooms. The rich in their homes allotted space not only for bedrooms, but also for dining rooms and pantries.
Like all living things with the ability to move, a person needs a temporary or permanent shelter or shelter for sleep, rest, protection from bad weather and attack by animals or other people. Therefore, worries about housing, along with worries about food and clothing, should, above all, excite the mind of a primitive man. In the sketches of primitive culture, we said that already in the Stone Age, man used not only caves, tree hollows, rock crevices, etc., natural shelters, but also developed various types of buildings that we can see among modern peoples at all stages of culture. Since the time when man gained the ability to mine metals, his construction activities quickly moved forward, facilitating and providing other cultural achievements.
“If you think about bird nests, beaver dams, monkey platforms in trees, it’s hardly possible to assume that man was ever unable to arrange a shelter of one kind or another” (EB Taylor, Anthropology "). If he did not always suit him, it was because, moving from place to place, he could find a cave, hollow or other natural refuge. South African Bushmen also live in mountain caves and make temporary huts for themselves. Unlike animals, capable of only one type of building, man creates, depending on local conditions, buildings of various types and gradually improves them.
Since the ancestral home of man was in the tropical region, the first human structure appeared there. It was not even a hut, but a canopy or screen of two stakes stuck into the ground with a transverse crossbar, against which tree branches and huge leaves of tropical palms leaned against the windward side. On the leeward side of the canopy, a fire is lit on which food is prepared, and near which the family warms up in cold weather. Such dwellings are made by the natives of central Brazil and the Australians, walking completely naked, and sometimes by modern hunters in the northern forests. The next step in the construction of a dwelling is a round hut made of branches with dense foliage stuck into the ground, connected or intertwined with tops, forming a kind of roof over the head. Our circular garden pavilions, covered with branches, bear a great resemblance to such a savage hut.
Some of the Brazilian Indians are already putting more art into the work, as they make a frame from the tops of young trees or stuck in the ground poles, which are then covered with large palm leaves. The same huts are arranged by the Australians in the case of a long stay, covering the skeleton of branches with bark, leaves, grass, sometimes even putting sod or covering the hut with clay outside.
Thus, the invention and construction of a round hut is a simple matter and accessible to the most backward peoples. If wandering hunters carry with them the poles and the cover of the hut, then it turns into a tent, which more cultured peoples cover with skins, felt or canvas.
The round hut is so cramped that you only have to lie or squat in it. An important improvement was the setting of the hut on pillars or walls of intertwined branches and earth, that is, the construction of round huts, which in ancient times were in Europe, are found now in Africa and other parts of the world. To increase the capacity of the round hut, a hole was dug inside it. This digging of the inner hole made it wise to arrange the walls of the hut from the ground, and it turned into a dugout with a conical flat roof made of tree trunks, brushwood, turf and even stones, which were superimposed on top to protect against gusts of wind.
A major step in the art of building was the replacement of round huts with quadrangular wooden houses, the walls of which were much stronger than earthen walls, easily washed away by rain. But solid wooden walls from horizontally laid logs did not appear immediately and everywhere; their construction became possible only with the availability of metal axes and saws. For a long time, their walls were made of vertical pillars, the gaps between which were filled with sod or intertwined rods, sometimes smeared with clay. In order to protect from people, animals and river floods, already familiar to readers, buildings on pillars or on piles began to appear, which are still found on the islands of the Malay Archipelago and in many other places.
Further, the improvement of human habitation were doors and windows. The door remains for a long time the only opening of the primitive dwelling; later, light holes or windows appear, in which even now in many places a bull's bubble, mica, even ice, etc. are used instead of glass, and sometimes they only shut up at night or in bad weather. A very important improvement was the introduction of a hearth or stove inside the house, since the hearth not only allows you to maintain the desired temperature in the dwelling, but dries and ventilates, making the dwelling more hygienic.
Types of dwellings of cultural peoples: 1) the house of an ancient German; 2) the dwelling of the Franks; 3) Japanese house; 4) Egyptian house; 5) Etruscan house; 6) an ancient Greek house; 7) an ancient Roman house; 8) an old French house; 9) Arab house; 10) English mansion.
The types of wooden buildings from different times and peoples are extremely diverse. Buildings made of clay and stone are no less diverse and even more widespread. A wooden hut or hut is easier to build than a stone one, and it is likely that stone architecture arose from the simpler wooden one. The rafters, beams and columns of stone buildings are undoubtedly copied from the corresponding wooden forms, but, of course, on this basis one cannot deny the independent development of stone architecture and explain everything in it by imitation.
Primitive man used natural caves for dwelling, and then began to arrange artificial caves for himself where soft rocks lay. In southern Palestine, whole ancient cave cities have been preserved, carved into the thickness of the rocks.
Artificial cave dwellings still serve as a shelter for humans in China, North Africa, and other places. But such dwellings have a limited area of distribution and appear where a person already possessed rather high technology.
Probably the first stone dwelling was the same as that found among the Australians and in some other places. Australians build the walls of their huts from stones picked up on the ground, which are not connected with each other. Since it is not always possible to find suitable material from unfinished stones in the form of slabs of layered rocks, man began to fasten stones with clay. Round huts made of rough stones, bonded with clay, are still found in northern Syria. Such huts made of unfinished stones, as well as molded from clay, river silt and mud, together with reeds, were the beginning of all subsequent stone buildings.
Over time, the stones began to be hewn so that they could be fitted one to the other. A very important and major step in the construction business was the trimming of stones in the form of rectangular stone slabs, which were laid in regular rows. Such cutting of stone blocks reached the highest perfection in ancient Egypt. Cement for bonding stone slabs was not used for a long time, and it was not needed, so well these slabs adhered to each other. Cement, however, has long been known to the ancient world. The Romans used not only ordinary cement made of lime and sand, but also waterproof cement, to which volcanic ash was added.
In countries where there was little stone, and there was a dry climate, buildings made of clay or mud mixed with straw are very common, since they are cheaper and even better than wooden ones. Sun-dried bricks made of oily clay mixed with straw have been known in the East since ancient times. Buildings of such bricks are now widespread in the dry regions of the Old World and in Mexico. Fired bricks and roof tiles, necessary for countries with rainy climates, were a later invention perfected by the ancient Romans.
Stone buildings were originally covered with reeds, straw, wood, the roof frame is now made of wood, wooden beams only in our time began to be replaced with metal ones. But for a long time people came up with the idea of arranging first false, and then true vaults. In the false vault, stone slabs or bricks are placed in the form of two stairs until the tops of these stairs converge so much that they can be covered with one brick; such false vaults are made by children from wooden cubes. The similarity of false vaults can be seen in the Egyptian pyramids in the ruins of buildings in Central America and in the temples of India. The time and place of the invention of the true code is unknown; the ancient Greeks did not use it. It was introduced and perfected by the Romans: from Roman bridges, domes and a hall with vaults, all the later buildings of this kind originated. A person's dwelling serves as a complement to clothing and, like clothing, depends on the climate and geographic environment. Therefore, in different regions of the globe, we find a predominance of different types of dwellings.
In areas with a hot and damp climate, inhabited by naked, half-naked or dressed in light clothes, the dwelling is not so much for warmth, it plays the role of protection from tropical downpours. Therefore, light huts or huts covered with straw, bamboo, reeds and palm leaves serve as dwellings here. In hot and dry areas of deserts and semi-deserts, the sedentary population lives in clay houses with a flat earthen roof, which provide good protection from the heat of the sun, while nomads in Africa and Arabia live in tents or tents.
In more or less humid areas with an average annual temperature of 10 ° to + 20 ° C. in Europe and America, thin-walled stone houses, covered with thatch, reed, tiles and iron, predominate; in Korea, China and Japan, thin-walled wooden houses, mostly covered with bamboo. An interesting variation on the latter area is Japanese homes with movable interior partitions and exterior walls of mats and frames that can be pulled back, allowing air and light to enter and allowing residents to jump out into the street in the event of an earthquake. In thin-walled houses of the European-American type, the frames are single, there are no stoves or are replaced by fireplaces, and in the Sino-Japanese east - by heating pads and braziers. In the dry areas of this area, the sedentary population lives in the same stone houses with flat roofs as in dry tropical countries. Huts are used here in spring, summer and autumn. Nomads live here in winter in dugouts, and in summer in felt wagons or yurts, the skeleton of which is made of wood.
In areas with an average annual temperature of 0 ° to + 10 ° C, keeping the home warm plays a decisive role; therefore, brick and wooden houses here are thick-walled, on foundations, with ovens and double frames, with a layer of sand or clay on top of the ceiling, and with a double floor. The roofs are covered with thatch, boards and shingles (shingles), tar paper, tiles and iron. The area of thick-walled houses with iron roofs is also the area of urban high-rise buildings, the extreme expression of which are American "skyscrapers" dozens of floors. Nomads of semi-deserts and deserts here live in dugouts and felt yurts, and wandering hunters of the northern forests in huts covered with reindeer skins or birch bark.
The zone with a lower annual temperature is characterized in the south by warm winter wooden houses covered with boards, and to the north, in the tundra area, among polar nomads and fishermen, by portable tents or tents covered with reindeer, fish and seal skins. Some polar peoples, for example, the Koryaks, live in winter in pits dug in the ground and lined with logs, over which a roof with an opening is erected, which serves to escape smoke and to enter and exit the dwelling along a permanent or ladder.
In addition to housing, a person erects various buildings for storing supplies, for housing pets, for his work, for various meetings, etc. The types of these structures are extremely diverse, depending on geographic, economic and living conditions.
The dwellings of nomads and wandering hunters are not fenced off by anything, but with the transition to settled life, barriers appear near the estate, near areas occupied by cultivated plants or intended for corral or grazing cattle.
The types of these barriers depend on the availability of a particular material. They are earthen (ramparts, ditches and ditches), wicker, poles, planks, stone, from thorny bushes and, finally, from barbed wire. In mountainous areas, for example, in the Crimea and the Caucasus, stone walls prevail, in the forest-steppe zone - wattle fences; in wooded areas with small plowed areas, fences are arranged from poles and stakes, and in some places from boulders. Fences include not only manor or rural fences, but also wooden and stone walls of ancient cities, as well as long fortifications, which in the old days were erected to protect entire states. These were the Russian "guard lines" (total length of 3600 km), which were built in the 16th-17th centuries to protect against Tatar raids, and the famous Chinese Wall (completed in the 5th century AD), 3300 km long, protecting China from Mongolia ...
The choice of a place for human habitation is determined, on the one hand, by natural conditions, that is, relief, soil properties and proximity to a sufficient amount of fresh water, and, on the other hand, by the ability to obtain livelihoods in the chosen place.
Settlements (individual houses and groups of houses) are usually located not in lowlands or hollows, but on elevations with a horizontal surface. So, for example, in mountain villages and cities, individual streets are, if possible, located on the same plane in order to avoid unnecessary ups and downs; therefore, the lines of houses have an arched shape and correspond to isohypsum, that is, to lines of equal height. In the same mountain valley, there are many more settlements on that slope, which is better illuminated by the sun than on the opposite. On very steep slopes (over 45 °), human dwellings, with the exception of cave dwellings, are not found at all. For human habitation, sandy loam or light loamy soil is best. When arranging housing, avoid swampy, clayey or too loose soil (loose sand, black soil). In populous settlements, soil deficiencies that impede movement are eliminated by means of walkways, sidewalks and various pavement arrangements.
Fresh water is the main reason for the emergence and distribution of human settlements. River valleys and lake shores are the most populated, and in interfluvial spaces dwellings appear where groundwater is shallow, and the construction of wells and reservoirs does not present insurmountable difficulties. Waterless spaces are deserted, but quickly populated with an artificial irrigation device. Of the other reasons attracting human settlements, an important role belongs to mineral deposits and roads, especially railways. Any congestion of human dwellings, a village or a city, arises only where the knot of human intercourse is tied, where roads converge or goods are reloaded or transplanted.
In human settlements, houses are either scattered around without any order, as in Ukrainian villages, or protrude in rows, forming streets, as we see in Great Russian villages and villages. With an increase in the number of inhabitants, a village or city grows either in width, increasing the number of houses, or in height, that is, turning one-storey houses into multi-storey ones; but more often this growth occurs simultaneously in both directions.
It has been a long time since a person used only natural natural shelters for his life. Man developed, his lifestyle changed. The first human dwellings appeared, which he built specifically for his residence.
What are the first dwellings made of?
Today everyone is used to the possibility of purchasing any material for building a house. You can even order material from the other side of the world. Just pay for the services - they will be delivered with pleasure. But it was not always so. As was not always the case, there was a post office, steamships and railways for the transport of goods.
In those distant times, which we are talking about, the peoples lived separately from each other. There was practically no trade. And, materials for construction, dwellings had to use those that were in abundance nearby. Or those that could be easily adapted for construction.
The building material used also influenced the shape of the first dwelling. Therefore, in different parts of the planet, their own special types of human dwellings have formed. With their existing variety, they also have significant similarities. But these similarities are due to the ease of making the dwellings. Why complicate things when you can do it simply?
In the steppe areas, semi-desert, tundra, dwellings appeared, made according to the type of huts. They were made from branches of bushes, trees and covered with grass, animal skins and other materials. They were built in North America, Central Asia, Siberia. Such housing was called: wigwam, yurt, chum and so on.
In semi-desert, desert areas, houses were built from materials that were underfoot. There were no others. This is a well-known material - clay. The walls of buildings were erected from it, vaults were made. If it was possible to find a tree, then the base of the roof was made from it, and covered with reeds, grass or other materials. Such housing was called adobe.
If straw was added to the clay, then such houses were called adobe. Usually these were small structures, rectangular or round in plan. Their height was small - the height of a man. Such housing was built in Central Asia, Africa.
In mountainous and rocky areas, stone was used for construction. Indeed, what else is there to build a house from? The walls were erected from it. The roof was made of wood or also of stone. An example of such a structure is the Georgian saklya. In addition, caves continued to be made in the mountains. Only for this purpose they cut out cavities in the rocks specially.
And such caves over time looked more and more like ordinary rooms and apartments. For example, in Italy there are entire ancient cities in the rocks. In some areas, for protection from the conquerors, whole secret cities were made in caves. In the Turkish area of Cappadocia, not so long ago, well-preserved underground cities were discovered, in which thousands of people could have sheltered and lived.
In forest and taiga areas, where wood was in abundance, houses were built from it. Here you can mention the chopped Russian hut, the Ukrainian hut. In Europe, wood was also used for construction. These are the so-called chalets, which means the shepherd's house. In general, timber in one form or another for construction was used by many peoples of the world in different parts of it.
Well, where there was no forest, and a thick layer of ice prevented from reaching the clay, the buildings were made of it. This custom existed in Greenland. There, dwellings were built from dense snow or ice. Such houses were called igloos.
On the other side of the globe, where, unlike Greenland, it was necessary to escape not from the cold, but from the heat, light structures were built. In the deserts of Arabia they lived in tents, and in Africa - in buildings woven from branches. It was not hot in such structures. They were well ventilated around the clock.
Types of human dwellings depending on lifestyle
The lifestyle of the peoples also had a significant impact on the appearance of his home. In those distant times, there were two ways of life for people. Those who were engaged in agriculture were sedentary. They lived in their area permanently. And, accordingly, their houses were reliable and massive. Such houses, sometimes even with success, were used to protect against uninvited guests.
Unlike farmers, pastoralists and hunters led a nomadic lifestyle. They had no reason to build reliable heavy houses. After all, they needed to be moved from place to place from time to time. Therefore, lightweight collapsible buildings were built. A little later, some peoples began to use not only collapsible, but movable houses on wheels.
The history of human development has lasted no more than five million years, but people did not always have such comfortable dwellings as they do today. Surprisingly, primitive people did not see in the dwelling a means of shelter from bad weather or cold, oddly enough, but the hominids did not pursue such a goal. If we look at other representatives of the animal world, we will see that all of them also have dwellings, even birds build nests, and rodents make holes.
The first type of human dwelling is considered to be a cave. Caves have been found in many parts of the world and testify to the fact that they were full of life. Most historians cite traces of fires as proof of life in caves, many of them burned for tens, hundreds and thousands of years, warming the inhabitants with their warmth and protecting their dangerous predators. Each cave was inhabited by several dozen people, thus, they can be called the first communal apartments invented by people. It would seem that the facts indicating that it was the cave that was the dwelling of primitive man are indisputable, but in recent years a group of historians has appeared who claim that the cave acted as a place of worship. There is evidence of it as a place where deceased ancestors and skulls were kept. Often there were cases of construction of dwellings at the entrance to the cave, but not in them.
In support of this assumption, one can cite the irrefutable fact that not every region of the earth has caves, but nevertheless, man settled almost everywhere, including in the steppe zones where there were no rocks and caves. The same sources tell about the huts, which were located at first on trees, and then lowered to the ground, as about the first dwellings. Branches served as a frame, and they were covered with the skins of wild animals. Such dwellings were small - only 2-2.5 meters in diameter. The dwellings of primitive man were not permanent, since people were forced to constantly move from one place to another in search of plant and animal food.
Later, in the era of the glacier, dugouts and semi-dugouts appear. They were already dwellings in the full sense of the word. After the glacier began to retreat, large woolly animals, which are the main object of hunting, began to leave after it. It was they who brought the primitive inhabitants of Eurasia to places of the harsh northern climate. Here people were forced to build permanent dwellings and take refuge in them from the local cold. However, not only in the north, permanent dugouts and semi-dugouts began to appear - they began to be built throughout the ecumene. These dwellings were built depending on climatic conditions for 5 or more years. They were discontinued when the supporting pillars on which the roof was held rotted. Now, briefly about these types of dwellings.
Semi-dugouts. A tunnel was built to a half-meter depth, then thick branches of trees or bones and mammoth tusks were driven into the ground - they acted as walls, insulated with skins and foliage. In the center was a hearth, lined with stones, and the entire surface of the floor was covered with a thick layer of sand and acted as one large couch.
Dugouts. A pit was being built, sometimes up to a meter deep. The walls were already made not of branches, but of logs. The vault was held by vertical pillars along the perimeter of the dwelling. The roof was covered with tree bark, then sod was covered with sod and a thick earthen embankment was made on top. There were no windows, there was only one exit, most often "looking" towards the river. An average of 20-25 people lived in such a room. It is clear that there was no question of any comfort: it was dark, stuffy and damp inside.
Thus, we came to the conclusion: the fact, proving to the whole world that the cave was the dwelling of primitive man, is not entirely accurate. People settled at the entrance to the cave, and used it for other purposes. With regards to all kinds of huts, it turned out that it was these buildings that were built by man from the most ancient times, and for some peoples they still serve as the main dwelling.
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