How do psychological problems arise? Attachment and acceptance as basic mechanisms of the psyche. Psychological problem: essence, characteristics, types

We have all heard of crazy people and even see them regularly. We tell jokes about them, we are afraid, and most importantly, we avoid their company. I wonder if this model of behavior is correct?

The problem of attitudes towards people with mental illness

Alas, there are practically no completely healthy people. Everyone is sick with something, some with a runny nose, some with gastritis, some with sciatica - some with what. Diseases of the body are perceived by society as something ordinary, almost as a norm. It happens to everyone. A radically different attitude is where the brain and soul are affected. This is mainly due to the fact that the mentally ill often behave unpredictably and cause fear. We hope this article will at least help to improve mutual understanding between people who are considered healthy and those who, in their eyes, are beyond the norm.

The cerebral cortex, where the conscious part of our “I” hides, is one of the youngest tissues in our body. Young in terms of development in the process of evolution - phylogenesis. In the cortex, not everything is yet as optimized and rolled back as, for example, in muscles or bones, whose development experience is much longer. But at the same time, the cerebral cortex in the entire human body is the most complex in its physiology. If you try to somehow understand what it is with the help of allegory, then imagine a very precise and complex musical instrument that has the greatest possible range of notes in all the richness of their timbres and semitones. Huge as the planet Earth, but at the same time, details as small as a fraction of a millimeter interact in it. What do you think - is it easy to play music on such an instrument? But our thought process and other things that define us as a person - this is a similar music of life, created by just such a multitude of small bricks.

The number of nerve cells in the brain is in the tens of billions.

Until now, no one really understood how all this diversity eventually merges into a single whole. There are many theories, both scientific and religious - humanity has been looking for a way to know itself and the world around it, probably since its inception. What is important is that, as a result, the entire complex structure of the brain obeys the single whole that unites it, which we used to call the word “I”.

The concept of norm and pathology in mental processes

If, for example, a string in a musical instrument for some reason loses its properties, either rusting, or loosening the proper tension, or something else, then the note for which this string is responsible begins to sound out of tune. Nevertheless, despite this, music can still be played somehow. It can also be played when more notes are out of tune. But still, if the number of disordered strings reaches a certain level, it will no longer be possible to play music - the issued ensemble of sounds will begin to be a cacophony.

This is how ours works. The brain perceives information with the senses, processes it and generates a guide to action. Violations on any of these links are these notorious broken strings.

For readers, it is probably not a secret that information is not transmitted directly to our “I”, it has already been somehow pre-processed by the brain. And deceptions of perception, as a rule, are generated not in the sense organs, but directly in it. An example can be seen in the picture.

The horizontal lines in this drawing are actually parallel, no matter how much our mind refuses to believe it. He was deceived by falling on the hook of his own stereotypes. But in this case, everything is fine, because the artist, knowing the peculiarities of our perception, deliberately misled us. If we begin to perceive something distorted in everyday reality, then problems begin. We misjudge the world around us, misjudgment and begin to behave abnormally in the eyes of those people who have everything in order with perception. For example, if we begin to perceive non-existent objects with any sense organ, then these are hallucinations.

Distortions can be, as mentioned earlier, on any of the links. With an incorrect interpretation of circumstances and situations, delusional disorders begin. A person either incorrectly perceives the words and actions of others addressed to him (the so-called delirium of attitude), or misperceives his position in the world (for example, delirium of his own greatness), or something else.

The direction of errors in self-identification is determined by the level of discussion of specific individuals or other living beings by society. If once such patients often imagined themselves, for example, as Napoleons, then in our time it is much more “accepted” to consider themselves aliens or religious saints.

If the damage happened somewhere at the level of processing various information and combining it into a single whole, then the logical processes are violated. Paradoxical inferences from obvious situations is another symptom called paralogic. Unfortunately, there are many such different symptoms, because, as already mentioned, there are a lot of different strings in the music of our self-awareness.

How does mental illness develop?

If the fastening of the string begins to change its properties, then it is far from a fact that the sounded note will immediately begin to be out of tune. The sound can become harder or softer, change a little depth or timbre, but it will be false only when disharmony appears in the vibration of the string. Similarly, with mental pathology - the line is very arbitrary. Let's try to explain on the example of one of the psychic "shifts" quite common in society.

There are people with a simple way of thinking, no frills in various abstractions. They have lower variability, but much higher stability. This is a variant of the norm. There are also people with highly developed abstract thinking, which offers a greater abundance of different interpretations of the same objects - artists, inventors, dreamers, etc. This is also a variation of the norm. But when, for some reason, among all the possible variety of options for reality, a person consciously chooses the one that is more distant from it, and not only chooses as an option, but also believes that he actually reflects reality qualitatively - then this already begins to deviate from the norm. which we used to call paranoia.

This symptom develops dynamically, having its own degrees of gradation - as a rule, a person prone to abstractions first develops extraordinary ingenuity and ingenuity, and then, when the brain already offers too many interpretations, the “I” cannot cope and begins to choose unrealistic ones from them - the person becomes paranoid. The string crossed the line of disharmony.

The direct translation of the word "paranoia" from the ancient Greek is "around-thinking."

We kind of figured out a little how things happen with individual symptoms. Let's now look at the whole. The "strings" that make up our personality rarely "fall out of the ensemble" one at a time. Disorders of the thought process form patterns due to the high level of relationships in the processed information. As a result, there is a regularity in the development of symptoms in specific mental illnesses. If, for convenience, we talk about the examples already given, then the same hallucinations often go along with delirium.

In addition to all this, our "I" is not only the bare logic of reasoning. There are also emotions, and mood, and much more. When these “strings” are upset, then phobias, manias, and so on come.

Schizophrenia as a central problem in psychiatry

Well, one of the most sad in its essence and consequences of the disorders of our soul is, no doubt, schizophrenia. It dominates both in its distribution and in its destructiveness to a particular “I”.

Scientists have not found a consensus on the facets of diagnosing this disease, that is, what exactly is considered schizophrenia, and what is other deviations from the norm. However, these are questions of facets, not essence. If you look at the very name of the disease, then the literal translation from ancient Greek will be “split mind”. In principle, it fully reflects the essence of pathology - our "I" loses its integrity.

True, you saw a broom? It seems to be a collection of different straws, but nevertheless they act in concert in the common interest. Because they are pulled either by a wire, or a twine, or a piece of cloth. This constriction is our “I”, which collects mental processes into one coordinated whole. What happens if you damage the twine on the broom? The straws will begin to slip out and at one point fall apart. Approximately so with the personality of a patient with schizophrenia. Thoughts at first begin to run like ants in a swollen anthill, then they begin to deviate more and more from their usual trajectories, and then they run at all as they want, regardless of ourselves.

The saddest thing is that, contrary to the common mistakes of philistine perception, neither memory nor intelligence suffers. At first, in the early stages of schizophrenia, patients are well aware of what is happening to them for a long time, but they cannot do anything. Alas, direct consequences of this awareness are often suicide attempts, aggression and short temper. In the next phase of the development of schizophrenia, when the "straws" crumble, the splitting turns into the disintegration of the personality, and the person ceases to be himself in the literal sense of the word. The ending of schizophrenia in the vast majority of cases is very sad - the so-called apato-abulic syndrome. If in simpler terms, then this is a complete lack of will and aspirations. Man becomes like a plant.

We hope our article has helped you understand a little the complex and dramatic world of those whom we used to call the simple word "crazy". That in fact they are far from fools, that everything is not easy and far from fun. Soon we will continue our excursion into the world of psychiatry, and by applying the knowledge gained today, it will be easier for you to figure out how to behave with the mentally ill. and most importantly - how to protect yourself and loved ones from the occurrence of such problems.

Video about the psychiatric hospital named after N.A. Alekseeva

In studying the problem of activity as a special phenomenon, an important place is occupied by the disclosure of the mechanisms for its implementation. In modern psychological literature there is no single approach to the definition of the essence of the psychological mechanism. However, most often the psychological mechanism is defined as a “subjective description”, or a reflection at the subjective level of those objective processes that ensure the interaction of a person with the environment. At the same time, the psychological mechanism is not a simple statement of these processes, but rather reveals their content and functional characteristics. The psychological mechanism basically performs a regulatory function in managing various energy levels of human interaction with the environment.

V.G. Ageev, speaking about the essence of the concept of “psychological mechanism”, noted: “The idea of a mechanism, that is, some more elementary level of analysis, to which the specifics of a higher level cannot be reduced, but which is capable of performing the function of a means here, has always been tempting for psychological research. Whether it was about the hereditary, instinctive mechanisms of human behavior or about the psycho-physiological mechanisms of sensory processes, the very possibility of explaining something complex, elusive, escaping through something simpler, understandable, allowing itself to be fixed, classified, "quantified", etc., naturally , seemed eminently attractive and reasonable. One can give countless examples of such an explanation of the complex through the simple. In this case, the simple was most often denoted by the term "mechanism", and the complex - by that meaningful phenomenon that receives an explanation when the action of the mechanism underlying it is understood.

The simplest forms of action of psychological mechanisms are associated with spontaneous activity. The concept of the mechanism of spontaneous activity is based on a phenomenon that is inherent in all living systems, being their essential property, the deepest need of the organism. It must be excited and caused by some kind of stimulus. It is always present in it, like in any other living organism. Life is activity. Therefore, it is important to ensure only the search for the necessary conditions for the manifestation of already existing activity.

With such an understanding of the nature of activity, writes G.S. Sukhobskaya, - motivation acts as a problem of regulation of activity, and not of its creation.

Main activity parameters are:

strength;
intensity;
"sewerage" - orientation to certain spheres of reality.

It is known that the problem of spontaneous activity has been discussed by many physiologists and psychologists. In particular, N.I. Grashchennov, L.P. Latash, I.M. Feigenberg, improving the idea in the structure of reflex activity, about the apparatus of anticipation - the acceptor of action, sanctioning afferentation, about the reflex ring and feedback informing the brain about the results of the action, etc. (P.K. Anokhin), identified the so-called "spontaneous" rhythmic processes that play an important role in the self-regulation of the central nervous system.

THEM. Sechenov in his book "Reflexes of the Brain" (1863) showed that all acts of the conscious and unconscious in life, by the way they originate, are reflexes. He singled out there are three links in reflexes:

The initial link is external irritation and its transformation by the sense organs into a process of nervous excitation transmitted to the brain.
The middle link is the central processes in the brain (processes of excitation and inhibition) and the emergence on this basis of mental states (sensations, thoughts, feelings, etc.).
The final link is the outer movement.

According to Sechenov, the reflexes of the brain begin with sensual excitation, continue with a certain mental act and end with a muscular movement, since the middle link cannot be isolated from the first and third, and also since all mental phenomena are an integral part of the entire reflex process, which has a cause in external influences. for the real world brain.

This was the first and rather successful attempt to create a reflex theory of the psyche. However, the honor of deep experimental development of the reflex theory of the psyche belongs to Ivan Pavlov, who created a new field of science - the doctrine of higher nervous activity. I.P. Pavlov divided reflexes into unconditioned and conditioned. Unconditioned reflexes are reactions to strictly defined stimuli from the external environment. Conditioned reflexes are reactions to an initially indifferent stimulus, which becomes indifferent as a result of its repeated combination with an unconditioned stimulus. Conditioned reflexes are carried out by the higher parts of the brain and are based on the temporary connections formed between the nervous structures.

ON THE. Bernstein, developing the problem of the physiology of activity, recognized the model of the required future as its main link. ON THE. Bernstein argued that the movements and actions of a person are not " reactive”, - they are active, purposeful and change depending on the plan. The principle of activity is opposed in his theory to the principle of reactivity, according to which one or another act, movement, action is determined by an external stimulus, carried out according to the model of a conditioned reflex and overcomes the understanding of the process of life as a process of continuous adaptation to the environment. The main content of the life process of an organism is not adaptation to the environment, but the implementation of internal programs. In the course of such realization, the organism inevitably transforms the environment.

A.R. Luria, studying the mental activity of a person, identified three main functional blocks of the brain, the participation of which is necessary for the implementation of any type of mental activity:

Activation and tone. Anatomically, it is represented by the reticular formation, which regulates the level of activity of the cortex of the waking state before fatigue and sleep. A full-fledged activity implies an active state of a person, only in conditions of optimal wakefulness can a person successfully perceive information, plan his behavior and implement the planned action programs.
Reception, processing and storage of information. It also includes the posterior regions of the cerebral hemispheres. In the occipital zones Information is received from the visual analyzer. The temporal regions are responsible for the processing of auditory information. The parietal regions of the cortex are associated with general sensitivity, touch. The block has a hierarchical structure and consists of three types of cortical fields: the primary ones receive and process impulses from the peripheral parts, the secondary ones carry out analytical processing of information, the tertiary ones carry out analytical and synthetic processing of information coming from different analyzers - this level provides the most complex forms of mental activities.
Programming, regulation and control. The block is located mainly in the frontal lobes of the brain. Here goals are set, programs of one's own activity are formed, their progress and success are monitored.

The joint work of all three functional blocks of the brain is a necessary condition for the implementation of any human mental activity.

PC. Anokhin created the theory of functional systems, which is remembered as one of the first models of genuine psychologically oriented physiology. According to the provisions of this theory, the physiological basis of mental activity is formed by special forms of organization of nervous processes. They add up when you turn on: individual neurons and reflexes into integral functional systems that provide integral behavioral acts. The researches of the scientist have shown that the behavior of an individual is determined not by a single signal, but by an afferent synthesis of all the information reaching him at a given moment. Afferent hypotheses trigger complex behaviors.

V.G. Leontiev considered the mechanism of motivation as a psychological mechanism. This mechanism is a system of "mental phenomena designed to transform and form the activity expressed by one or more motives into the required activity expressed by other motives." V.G. Leontiev considers the motivational mechanism as a system of psycho-physiological, mental and social preconditions for motivation as a directed motivation of human activity. These mechanisms of motivation are heterogeneous, multi-level. On the basis of some, motivational states arise, which are then expressed in various forms of motivation: motive, need, impression, etc., on the basis of others, formation takes place, the formation of motivation as a specific real motivation for activity, on the basis of the third, motivation is realized in the form of a transformation of internal and the human environment. Motivation mechanisms have different degrees of generalization and specification. Some of them are able to ensure the activity of behavior only in one particular situation. They are highly selective. Any change in the situation stops the mechanism. Others, more generalized, are able to ensure the activity of behavior in various conditions and situations. Still others have the status of a general mechanism. Its action is seen in almost all cases of human behavior and activity. Such mechanisms V.G. Leontiev calls initial, generalized.

An analysis of a large amount of experimental material allowed V.G. Leontiev to identify several types of psychological motivation mechanisms that manifest themselves in various specific conditions. These mechanisms differ in varying degrees of generalization and specificity of action. These include the mechanism of spontaneous activity, the mechanism of dynamic balance, and the adaptation mechanism.

Revealing the characteristics of motivational mechanisms, which he considers as a “system of mental phenomena”, ambiguous in their action, but performing regular and formative functions (which is reflected in the definition), V.G. Leontiev not only distinguishes different types, levels, forms, types of representation of these mechanisms, but, in essence, singles out different subtypes within them.

Among the most significant, responsible for human activity are the mechanisms of regulation of activity.

Konopkin, on the basis of the principle of the unity of consciousness and activity, identifies a number of such mechanisms. These include the links of the psychological structure of self-regulation: the goal adopted by the subject, the subjective model of significant conditions of activity, the program of executive actions, the criteria for success, information and results, the decision on corrections.

All these mechanisms refer to the level of conscious regulation as the highest level of self-regulation.

The results of the study by O.A. Konopkin reveal the psychological mechanisms of self-regulation that mediate the dependence of various forms of sensorimotor activity on such essential characteristics of the external environment as the physical qualities of signals, the temporal uncertainty of significant ones, the temporal characteristics of the flow of signal stimuli, the probabilistic characteristics of individual events and the structural features of the signal sequence. In the same direction, the development of mechanisms of regulation by V.V. Karpov, V.I. Stepansky, G.Z. Poor.

A special manifestation of the mechanism of regulation is volitional effort. A.F. Lazursky defined volitional effort as a special psycho-physiological process associated with the reaction of the individual to the situation outside and inside it.

IN AND. Selivanov defined volitional effort as a mechanism for creating motivation or overcoming obstacles.

N.N. Lange tried to find physiological mechanisms of volitional actions, highlighting four parts in a volitional act:

feeling, need, desire;
target prediction;
idea of movement;
the movement itself.

V.A. Ivannikov, exploring the psychological mechanisms of volitional regulation of action, singles out a real mechanism, a real formation that provides an incentive to action - the meaning of action. It is formed in the joint activities of people and is determined not only by the motives of each person, but also by the social connection of the actions of different people. Changing the meaning of V.A. Ivannikov defines it as a psychological mechanism of volitional regulation. Changing the meaning of an action leads to a change in behavior. Moreover, a change in the meaning of an action can be achieved in different ways - through a reassessment of the significance of a motive or an object of need, through foreseeing and experiencing the consequences of actions or refusing to carry them out, through a change in the role, positions of a person. In addition to changing the meaning of actions by changing the real situation, this goal can also be achieved by attracting goals and motives from an imaginary situation that can be set by other people or come from the person himself. The importance of imagination in the structure of volitional regulation was pointed out by Lev Vygotsky, A.V. Zaporozhets, Dmitry Uznadze and others.

Important in the context of the study of activity are psychological mechanisms that provide a kind of "advance" in activity. In this regard, the mechanisms associated with the formation and implementation of a fixed attitude are interesting, the action of which, in turn, is associated with the provisions of probabilistic forecasting (I.M. Feigenberg). in such situations, puts forward hypotheses about the occurrence of future events, attributing certain probabilities to each of the hypotheses. In accordance with such a forecast, pre-adjustment is carried out - preparation for certain methods of action, leading with the greatest probability to achieve a certain goal. THEM. Feigenberg understands probabilistic forecasting as “the ability to compare information about the current situation that comes through analyzers with information stored in memory about the corresponding past experience and, based on this comparison, make assumptions about upcoming events, attributing to each of these assumptions one or another degree of reliability. In any activity, a person foresees the most probable possibilities for the further development of events, including the most probable results of his own actions. Thus, without probabilistic forecasting, any human activity would be impossible.” In this non-probabilistic forecasting, the researcher distinguishes two levels:

Probabilistic forecasting of the further course of events that develop independently of the actions of the forecasting subject, but are important for him. These are events on which the subject depends in some respect, but cannot influence the course of which. If such a forecast is good, i.e. relies well on past experience, it provides a sober outlook on life.
Probabilistic forecasting of the course of such events, the course of which is influenced by the actions of the subject (or his inaction). With different actions, the probability that it will be possible to obtain the desired result that is important for the subject (or come closer to achieving it) is different. Hence - planning, choice of action. The whole system becomes even more complicated if the course of events can be influenced not only by the actions of the subject, but also by the actions of other people who have their own values (often - different from the goals of the subject). These people form their own forecasts (including forecasts of the subject's actions), build their own plans. Their forthcoming actions must also be taken into account by the prognosis of the subject. Such a forecast provides an active life position, the choice of such actions that make a person useful to what he lives for, useful to that cause and those people who are significant to him, are essential. For a person who has realized what he lives for, such a forecast helps answer the question "how to live?". And these are practically the main questions that determine the existence of each individual. The answers to these questions help to make a choice: either to live in order to survive, or to live as a person considers worthy.

The process of probabilistic forecasting is an important part of the formation of the mechanism of readiness for action, activity, being itself, in fact, a special kind of psychological mechanism.

In connection with the problems of activity, the identification and study of psi-mechanisms that provide not only an increase in activity, but also a new level of personality development, including its “reformation”, is of particular importance in the modern difficult situation in a society with its high dynamism.

Among the main mechanisms that contribute to the reshaping of personality in the psychological literature are:

feedback, or confrontation of the individual with his "I"; information about oneself in the perceptions of others;
understanding and acceptance of others;
open expression of one's feelings, awareness of the need for communication and the degree of satisfaction with it.

The purpose of these mechanisms is to use the internal psychological resources of the individual. And the condition for "launching" their action is the mechanisms of emotional self-support and directed self-influence to neutralize the negative "I". A low level of self-esteem, an emotionally negative attitude towards oneself impede the perception of new information, optimal work with one's own "I", exacerbating the action of protective mechanisms. For this reason, external emotional support can have a stabilizing effect on self-esteem, thereby changing the attitude not only towards oneself, but also towards the system of approaches to problem solving. Directed self-influence, which is carried out in the process of intrapersonal communication with one's own "I", is a fairly effective psychological mechanism. In the process of such communication, problems are identified, their analysis is carried out, solutions are prepared and the personality is reshaped. Almost all types of reframing are implemented on the basis of this mechanism. As a result of its action, the level of activity of the individual increases, self-determination deepens.

The psychological mechanisms discussed above, which determine the characteristics of behavior, development, and reshaping of the personality, are only a small part that mediates the activity of a person who realizes himself in a multifaceted activity.

A person can be compared to a clock, which has various springs, cogs, gears inside. They cling to each other and work together as a unit. Similarly, people live in the non-physical world, i.e. the world of thoughts. In this world there are feelings, sensations, calculations, rationalization ideas.

Any human action comes from a plan, so the non-physical world always manifests itself in the physical world, for example, the idea of a constructor appears first, and then its physical implementation. Hence the sequence will always be the same: thought, action, result. A person is a consequence of his thoughts and actions - this is a key model.

People are all different: some do not know what to do with themselves, others grab onto any business, others just mark time. What engine makes a person move towards the goal and get results? From the point of view of system-vector analysis, this engine is the desire of a person. A realized desire fills him with happiness, an unrealized desire makes a person gloomy, spiteful, unpleasant.

The structure of the psyche

The human nervous system has its own structural organization, in which the central nervous system (CNS) is distinguished, which includes the spinal cord and brain, and the peripheral nervous system.

The highest division of the CNS is the cerebrum, which consists of the brain stem, cerebrum, and cerebellum. In turn, the large brain consists of two hemispheres, covered on the outside with gray matter - the cortex. The cortex is the most important part of the brain, it is the material substrate of higher mental activity and is the regulator of all vital functions of the body.

In order to carry out any kind of mental activity, certain functions of the brain are necessary. A.R. Luria defines three such functional blocks:

Block of activation and tone. This is the reticular formation, which is represented by a network formation in the brain stem regions. It regulates the level of activity of the cortex. A full-fledged human activity is possible when he is in an active state. A person can successfully perceive information, plan his behavior and implement a program of actions only in conditions of optimal wakefulness;
Block of reception, processing and storage of information. This block includes the posterior sections of the cerebral hemispheres. Information from the visual analyzer enters the occipital zones - this is the visual cortex. Auditory information is processed in the temporal regions - the auditory cortex. The parietal cortex is associated with general sensitivity and touch.

Three types of cortical fields are distinguished in the block:

Primary fields receive and process impulses coming from peripheral departments;
Secondary fields are engaged in analytical processing of information;
Tertiary fields carry out analytical and synthetic processing of information coming from different analyzers. This level provides the most complex forms of mental activity.

Block of programming, regulation and control. Its place is in the frontal lobes of the brain, where goals are set, a program of one's own activity is formed, and control over the course and success of implementation is underway.

Thus, the implementation of any mental activity of a person is the result of the joint work of all three functional blocks of the brain. Despite the fact that the brain as a whole is involved in the implementation of any mental activity, nevertheless, its different hemispheres perform a different differentiated role.

Clinical studies have shown that the right and left hemispheres differ in information processing strategies. The right hemisphere perceives objects and phenomena as integral, which underlies creative thinking. The left hemisphere deals with rational and consistent processing of information.

The study of brain mechanisms does not lead to an unambiguous understanding of the nature of the mental.

The task of revealing the essence of the mental by objective physiological methods of research was set by the Russian physiologist I.P. Pavlov. The units of behavior, the scientist believes, are unconditioned reflexes. This is a reaction to strictly defined stimuli from the external environment. And conditioned reflexes as reactions to the initial indifferent stimulus.

In solving the problems of neurophysiological mechanisms of the psyche, the works of domestic scientists N.A. Bernstein and P.K. Anokhin.

The concept of the mechanism of the psyche

S.D. Maksimenko believes that the mechanisms of the psyche are a tool, an adaptation, i.e. set of tools. Thanks to this, human organs and systems are combined into integrity to collect, process information or perform work.

The mechanism of functioning of the human psyche includes:

Reflection. Mental reflection is a regulator of human activity, which is associated with complex information processing. It is not a passive copying of the world, but is associated with a search, a choice. Reflection always belongs to the subject, outside of which it cannot exist, and depends on subjective features. This active reflection of the world is associated with some kind of necessity, need. Reflection has an active character, because involves the search for methods of action that are adequate to the conditions of the environment. Mental reflection in the process of activity is constantly deepened, improved and developed;
Design. Its main function is to streamline and harmonize the content of reflection in accordance with the goals of human actions and activities. The design process itself is a set and sequence of mental and psychomotor actions. The result is created images, sign systems, schemes, etc. Thanks to the design process, a person has the ability to design, create objects and phenomena from known and perceived elements;
Identification (objectification). It is an element of conscious and purposeful human activity, which has three main forms:

material form. It is expressed in physical work, labor during which a person is embodied in objects and phenomena, transforming them;
Psychic form. The constructive elements of any production are mental operations and experiences, the selection of values, the interpretation of the content of the reflection.
A person creates himself - develops mental and spiritual qualities, eliminates the existing forms of alienation. Reacting differently to their internal difficulties, people try to protect their psyche from painful tensions. In this they are helped by the protective mechanisms of the psyche.

Defense mechanisms of the psyche

Definition

The term was introduced in 1894 by Z. Freud in his work "Defensive neuropsychoses". This is a system of regulatory mechanisms, the task of which is to minimize or eliminate negative experiences and maintain the stability of the self-esteem of the individual, his image - "I" and the image of the world. This can be achieved by eliminating the negative source from consciousness or by preventing the emergence of a conflict situation.

Types of protective mechanisms

Primitive isolation or retreat to another state. People automatically isolate themselves from social or interpersonal situations. Its variety is the tendency to use chemicals. Isolation turns a person off from active participation in solving interpersonal problems. As a defensive strategy, it allows for a psychological escape from reality. A person who relies on isolation finds comfort in the distance from the world;
Negation. This is an attempt by a person to take undesirable events for himself as reality. In such cases, there is an attempt, as it were, to "skip" experienced unpleasant events in one's memories, replacing them with fiction. The person acts as if painful realities do not exist. Rejection and criticism are ignored, and new people are considered as potential fans. Self-esteem in such people is usually overestimated;
Control. A source of pleasure for some people with a predominance of omnipotent control, the main activity will be "stepping over others." Such people are found where cunning, excitement, danger and a willingness to subordinate all interests to one goal - to show their influence;
Primitive idealization (devaluation). People tend to idealize, AND have a vestige of the need to ascribe special virtues and power to people on whom they are emotionally dependent. The path of idealization leads to disappointment, because nothing is perfect in a person's life. Greater idealization leads to greater disappointments.

Thus, the general protective mechanisms of the first group were considered. Specialists distinguish more than 20 types of defense mechanisms, which are divided into primitive defenses and secondary defense mechanisms related to the highest order.

Year of publication and journal number:

annotation

The article analyzes the essence of the psychological problem, its main characteristics, concepts related to psychological problems. An attempt is made to determine the types of psychological problems and build a model of the classification system of psychological problems based on their content. It is proposed to create a working group to develop a diagnostic system for psychological problems.

Keywords: psychological problem, psychological problems of personality, analysis of psychological problems, solution of psychological problems, classification of psychological problems.

The work of a practical psychologist can be conditionally divided into two main parts or stages - the diagnosis of a psychological problem and its solution. If numerous methodological systems and techniques have been created to solve psychological problems, then there are no special generally accepted approaches, diagnostic systems, such as DSM or ICD, for diagnosing psychological problems. Each specialist, on the basis of his own knowledge, experience and psychotherapeutic orientation, determines the client's problem himself. As a result, both in practical work and in the training of specialists, the process of orientation in psychological problems becomes subjective, intuitive, and if a specialist strictly follows a particular psychotherapeutic direction, then it becomes one-sided. In our opinion, the lack of a unified theory and classification system of psychological problems, as well as criteria for their diagnosis, significantly complicates not only the work, but also the training of practical psychologists. The solution of this, in our opinion, fundamental problem of practical psychology is possible only on a collective basis, but here we will try to outline the contours of the problem and our vision of the principles for its solution. First of all, let's try to define the concept of "psychological problem". In psychological dictionaries, in scientific and educational literature, this concept is rarely defined and differentiated. We were able to find two definitions. So, according to T. D' Zurilla and co-authors, “A problem (or problem situation) ... is a life situation or task (in the present or future) that requires a response for adaptive functioning, but the positive result of this reaction is not obvious or impossible due to the presence one or more obstacles” (D'Zurilla et al., 2004, p.12-13). A. Blaser and co-authors define a psychological problem as "...excessive requirements for the patient's adaptive capabilities" (Blazer et al., 1998, p. 55).

Various definitions of a psychological problem can also be found in the popular psychological literature. So, in the encyclopedia of practical psychology N.I. Kozlov, psychological problems are defined as "... internal problems that do not have a clear rational basis" (Kozlov, 2015, p. 637).

Our understanding of psychological problems in methodological terms is based on the so-called problem approach, according to which any process can be considered as a movement aimed at solving a specific problem. From this position, psychological, socio-psychological, pathopsychological processes, behavioral reactions and personality activities can be considered as forms of solving psychological problems. And the joint work of a psychologist and a client can be viewed as a process aimed at diagnosing, understanding and solving the psychological problems of a person. We define a psychological problem as an actualized psychological contradiction within a person or group, which manifests itself within the framework of the mental norm, but creates discomfort, tension, and hinders the normal development, functioning and adaptation of the person or group. Let's try to expand this definition. First, we consider the problem as a contradiction, since any obstacle, difficulty, conflict reflects a contradiction between opposing tendencies. We can say that any problem is based on a contradiction, and any problem, including a psychological one, can be characterized through this basis. For example, fear can be characterized as a contradiction between the desire to live, or to maintain self-esteem, and a situation that threatens these desires. At the same time, one can speak of the presence of a psychological problem if the contradictions are relevant. The latter may exist in a latent form, potentially not bothering the subject, not perceived as a problem. Discomfort, tension, and generally negative emotions usually accompany actualized problems, although sometimes, for example, with intellectual problems, tension can have a positive connotation (for example, during creative work). In our opinion, psychological problems are a kind of barriers to adaptation, development and normal functioning of the individual. Features of overcoming these barriers determine the options for personality development (progressive, regressive, pathological development).

In this definition, we have tried to differentiate between psychological (normal) and so-called "psychiatric" problems, i.e. mental disorders (in English literature, these concepts are usually treated as synonyms). In fact, mental disorders are also psychological problems, but within the pathology, not the norm. Consequently, two types of psychological problems can be distinguished - pathological problems (symptoms of diseases) resulting from mental disorders and the so-called "normal" problems, reflecting the contradictions of a normally functioning psyche. It should be noted that the line between these types of problems is very thin, difficult to distinguish, not stable and is often determined not by the problem itself, but by the characteristics of the person who has this problem, her attitude to this problem. At the same time, pathological problems very often arise as a result of deepening and sharpening of normal psychological problems, their inadequate solution. The classification of mental disorders, as you know, is presented in the DSM and ICD systems. In the classification system of psychological problems, pathological problems, in our opinion, can also be represented as a separate subgroup in the section of psychological problems of the substructure of the psyche where they manifest themselves (this is, of course, a very debatable issue). For example, in the section on psychological problems of thinking, in a separate subgroup, one can present thinking disorders (for example, delirium, disorder of the associative process, etc.).

Let's try to present some characteristics of psychological problems that are important in practical work. First of all, this is the dynamics of psychological problems, i.e. the process of formation, development, actualization / de-actualization, exacerbation / weakening of problems in different periods of a person's life or under different circumstances. Another characteristic of psychological problems is the level of their awareness and critical attitude towards them. In practical work, a specialist often encounters a lack of awareness or denial of their own psychological problems. The position of explaining psychological problems is also important. Patients often explain psychological problems not by psychological, but by objective, independent circumstances. Here an important role is played by the so-called deterministic system of personality, i.e. a system of ideas on the basis of which a person explains the causes of various phenomena, including his own problems. Based on the research of clients who applied to psychological services, we identified biological, socio-economic, mystical and psychological determination systems. These studies also showed that in order to understand and accept their own psychological problems and increase the effectiveness of psychotherapy, it is very important for the patient to switch to a psychological determination system.

Duration of existence, severity are also characteristics of psychological problems. There are chronic psychological problems with which a person lives for a long time and acute problems.

Psychological problems also have individual manifestations, i.e. different people perceive, evaluate and experience the same problem differently. At the same time, in practical work, a specialist usually encounters not one isolated psychological problem, but a system of interrelated, interdependent problems, and the effectiveness of work largely depends on a systematic approach to solving problems, and not a separate problem of the individual. In this regard, we consider it important to introduce into practical psychology such a concept as “psychological problems of personality” or “system of psychological problems of personality”. Like any system, psychological problems also have a hierarchical structure, consisting of central, initial and derivative, or actual and secondary problems. To study the problems of personality means to systematize, to compile a hierarchy (for example, causal) of psychological problems.

The next important issue related to the psychological problems of the individual concerns the strategies for their analysis. Each psychotherapeutic school and even each specialist has its own principles, approaches and traditions of studying psychological problems. The following main approaches can be distinguished: a) analysis of the mechanisms of manifestation of psychological problems; b) analysis of the origin and dynamics of problems; c) analysis of cause-and-effect relationships of problems; d) analysis of the phenomenal characteristics of psychological problems, etc.

The concept of “solution of a psychological problem” also needs clarification. In practical psychology, methods and techniques for solving psychological problems are usually described, but the solution of the problem itself, as a result of psychological work, is rarely analyzed. Meanwhile, it is very important to understand not only the essence of the psychological problem, but also the essence of its solution. In this regard, when working with psychological problems (also in the training of practical psychologists), it is necessary to clarify: a) how do the patient and the psychologist imagine the process of solving the problem, to what extent do these ideas coincide with each other and are realistic? b) What are the patient's strategies for solving (coping strategies) of his psychological problems? c) What options, levels, types, forms, ways of solving psychological problems exist? d) What should be the sequence and time frame for solving problems? e) What will be the consequences of solving problems?

It is possible to single out various forms of solving psychological problems, such as: a) adequate / inadequate; b) everyday / professional; c) neurotic, psychotic, healthy; d) psychological, social, economic, biological, etc. It is possible to distinguish levels of problem solving: a) partial/full; b) solving the problem at the levels of causes, effects, etc. Options for solving a psychological problem can be: a) deactualization of the problem (for example, through its rethinking); b) elimination of factors contributing to the emergence of a problem or interfering with its solution, etc. Ways to solve psychological problems can be identified on the basis of those general strategies that are used in practical psychology, for example: a) awareness; b) reflection/rethinking; c) suggestion/programming; d) catharsis; e) training; f) desensitization, etc.

Now let's move on to the issue of classification of psychological problems. In the literature on practical psychology, it is difficult to find systematic, holistic studies specifically devoted to psychological problems and their classification. In psychotherapy, sometimes psychological problems are classified on the basis of psychotherapeutic areas, for example, you can find such expressions as “psychoanalytic problems” [McWilliams, 2001], “existential problems” [Grishina, 2011]. Often there are such concepts as “behavioral problems” (usually, they mean such disorders as hyperactivity and attention deficit, destructive behavior, etc.), “emotional problems” (anxiety, depression). N. D. Linde classifies psychological problems on the basis of "... the difficulty of their solution and in terms of the depth of their rootedness in the personality" [Linde, 2001, p. 26]. The author distinguishes seven levels of psychological problems, for example, the “supernormal level”, “the level of neurosis”, “psychosis” [Linde, 2001, p. 27-30].

Based on many years of experience in psychotherapeutic work, we have developed a model of the classification system of psychological problems [Khudoyan, 2014], which we will try to present below.

Psychological problems can be grouped on the basis of their form and content. In terms of form, psychological problems can be classified according to different criteria. So, according to the criterion of awareness, one can distinguish conscious, poorly conscious and unconscious (usually, deep problems that determine external clearly perceived problems, about which the patient turns to a psychologist, are not recognized). It is possible to distinguish between causal (reflecting the causes of other problems) and investigative (resulting from other problems, for example, anxiety may be the result of an intrapersonal conflict) psychological problems.

In the literature, there is a division of psychological problems into external (for example, negative emotions) and deep (for example, intrapersonal conflicts)

By temporal characteristics, severity and significance for the subject, one can distinguish between old (for example, old grievances) and new, chronic (problems with which a person lives for a long time) and acute, relevant and irrelevant psychological problems.

One can also distinguish between major and minor, complex and simple problems, overt/hidden, real and imagined, solvable/unsolvable, accepted and not accepted by the patient, problems presented by the patient and problems attributed to the patient by relatives or specialists, etc. Psychological problems can also be intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup and intergroup (the latter can be considered as socio-psychological problems).

Practical psychology most urgently needs to classify psychological problems on the basis of their content, to single out, group and describe the problems of different personality substructures. It is on this classification that a diagnostic system of psychological problems should be built. Naturally, the construction of such a classification system is possible only through the joint efforts of numerous specialists, but here we will try to present a hypothetical model for constructing such a system.

To classify psychological problems, it is first necessary to identify the areas of their manifestation. We have identified four such areas.

1. Mental sphere of personality.

2. Biological substructure of personality.

3. Personal development, her life path, present and future.

4. The system of relationships personality - environment.

Below we will schematically present the main groups of psychological problems in the selected areas of personality. At the same time, we want to note that both the identified areas and the groups of psychological problems included in these areas are relative, and the model itself does not claim to be complete and accurate.

Problems associated with the mental subsystem of personality

Problems of the I system - problems associated with self-awareness, I-concept, attitude towards oneself, with a sense of I, with the integrity of I (inadequate I-concept, narcissism, inferiority complex, depersonalization, dysmorphophobia, split personality, etc.). Problems associated with the substructures of the Self (for example, a weak ego, a strong superego or id), with defense mechanisms (inadequate, immature defense mechanisms, etc.). intrapersonal conflicts. Problems associated with introspection and reflection, with the awareness and verbalization of one's own experiences.
Problems with awareness and critical assessment of reality (disorientation in time, space, low level of introspection, intrapunitiveness, etc.).
Problems associated with the need-motivational sphere of the individual - loss of the meaning of life, decreased motivation, inadequate needs, frustration of needs, inadequate forms of meeting needs, etc.
Problems associated with the volitional sphere of the personality - weak will, abulia, problems with self-control, impulsiveness, underdevelopment of the volitional qualities of the personality, etc.
Problems associated with the emotional sphere - increased anxiety, apathy, aggressiveness, depression, inadequate emotions, over-emotionality, emotional immaturity, emotional coldness, etc.
Problems associated with the cognitive sphere of the individual - problems and disorders of sensations (for example, poor vision, hearing, senestopathies, etc.), perception (for example, problems with the perception of time, speech, hallucinations, etc.), attention (for example, absent-mindedness), memory (eg, stress amnesia), thinking, and intelligence (eg, comprehension problems, delusional disorders, mental retardation)․ In our opinion, this category can also include such problems as cognitive dissonance, lack of information, etc.
Problems related to speech - stuttering, speech disorders (aphasia, dysarthria, oligophasia, schizophasia, etc.), tachilalia, delayed speech development, dyslexia, dysgraphia, etc.
Problems associated with the sexual sphere of personality - frigidity, impotence , lack of sexual satisfaction, sexual perversion, problems related to gender identity, etc.
Behavioral problems - addictions, impulsive, irrational, inappropriate behavior, enuresis, tic disorders, hyperactivity, aggressive behavior, obsessions, deceit, sleep disorders, problems related to food, sexual, behavior, etc.
Problems related to temperament and character - character accentuations, psychopathy, sociopathy, negative character traits, etc.
Problems related to perception, reactions to stress and coping - inadequate reactions to stress and coping strategies, post-traumatic stress disorders, reduced stress tolerance, etc.
Problems of the spiritual, moral and religious spheres of the individual - guilt, moral decline, moral conflict, spiritual crisis, value conflict, fanaticism, problems associated with sects, etc.

Psychological problems associated with the biological subsystem of personality

Psychological problems associated with somatic diseases (for example, fear of death due to myocardial infarction, depression in cancer patients, emotional problems with hormonal disorders, etc.),
Psychological problems associated with normative stressful biological processes (menstruation, childbirth, menopause, etc.).
Psychological problems that contribute to the occurrence of somatic diseases (for example, alexithymia).
Somatized psychological problems (eg, somatized depression, conversion disorders).
Psychological problems associated with cosmetic surgery, organ transplants, surgical changes in appearance.
Psychological problems associated with bodily injuries and deformities, brain poisoning, etc.

Psychological problems associated with the development of the individual, with her life path, present and future

Problems associated with deviations of normative mental and social development (underdevelopment or delayed development of cognitive functions, emotional immaturity, etc.).
Problems associated with normative involutionary processes (normative changes in appearance, decreased sexual activity, etc.)
Problems associated with non-normative personality development (problems that arise in the process of personal growth, fall, degradation of personality, etc.).
Normative and non-normative crises of personality development, crises associated with normative life events (birth of a child, retirement, death of parents, etc.).
Problems associated with solving age-related developmental tasks (for example, with the assimilation of speech).
Problems related to vocational guidance, career, professional development, etc.
Specific problems of certain age periods (teenage problems, problems of late age, etc.), etc.

Psychological problems associated with interpersonal, intergroup relationships and personal living space

Psychological problems associated with interpersonal relationships (interpersonal conflicts, rivalry, mutual hostility, love problems, cooling of relationships, specific, problems caused by the interruption of interpersonal relationships, for example, death of loved ones, separation of couples, problems associated with relationships of opposite sexes, friends, relatives, neighbors, etc.).
Intra-group psychological problems (problems between the individual and the group, problems between groupings within the group, alienation from the group, etc.)
Psychological problems associated with intergroup relationships (ethnic conflicts, rivalry between groups, etc.).
Psychological problems of individual spheres of a person's life (family, work, educational psychological problems, specific problems associated with certain specialties, for example, problems in sports, diplomacy, police, etc.).
Transgenerational problems (identifications with relatives that make life difficult for a person, anniversary syndrome, etc.).
Psychological problems associated with the living space of the individual - lack of housing, poor living conditions, psychological problems associated with the physical effects of the environment (heat, cold, radiation, lack of oxygen, etc.)

Concluding this article, we note that the proposed theoretical model and scheme of the classification system of psychological problems are only an attempt to raise the problem and outline our vision of the contours of its solution. In the future, in our opinion, it is necessary to create a working group of practical psychologists and researchers and develop a general theory and diagnostic system of psychological problems.

Abstract

The Psychological Problems: an Essence, Types, Characteristics

The essence of the psychological problems, their main characteristics, concepts related to psychological problems is analyzed in the article. An attempt to classify the psychological problems and to build a model of the classification system of psychological problems on the basis of their content is made. The author suggested establishing a working group for the elaboration of a diagnostic system of psychological problems.

keywords: psychological, psychological problematic of personality, analysis of psychological problems, solution of problem psychological problems classification of psychological problems.

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