Cheat sheet: Essence, subject and method of philosophy. General concepts

Philosophy, like any spider, has its own set of concepts and categories that allow it to comprehend the properties and qualities of its subject area.

Categories (from the Greek. kategona - statement, testimony, sign) are called extremely general, fundamental concepts that reflect the most essential properties, features, as well as regular connections and relationships between elements of reality and cognition

As forms and stable organizing components of the thinking process, categories reflect not only the properties and features of objects in the real world, but also help the rational thinking of a person in cognition to fully and comprehensively reveal the nature and essence of these objects, to consolidate them in knowledge. Categories allow humanity to organize and carry out its activities, to form people's worldview, culture of thinking and practical action.

There is reason to believe that for the first time the doctrine of categories was set forth in Aristotle's treatise "Categories", where the philosopher generalized the attempts of various thinkers of his era to single out the most general concepts of the world and the methods of its cognition and sufficiently comprehensively considered the following categories: essence, quantity, quality, attitude , place, time, position, state, action, suffering.

I. Kant made his contribution to the comprehension of categories, practically laying the foundation for a new stage in the study of this phenomenon of science and practice. True, he considered categories as a priori forms of reason, which characterize not the world of "things-in-themselves", but the cognizing subject, the researcher and the structure of his thinking, i.e. I. Kant will exclude such a property of categories as the ability to reflect the really existing world, its constituent elements.

G. Hegel made a significant contribution to the comprehension of categories. Presenting the interconnections and transitions of categories as a product of an absolute idea, he reduced them to the following:

- being - quality, quantity, measure;
- essence - the basis, phenomenon, reality;
- reality - substance, cause, interaction, as well as a subject, an absolute idea, an object.

Materialistic philosophy considers categories as the result of generalizing the experience of the historical development of knowledge and social practice. In accordance with this approach, we will consider the categories of philosophy.

The categories of philosophy are the basic, most general concepts that reflect the essential properties, features of objects and phenomena of reality, regular connections and relations of reality, which make it possible to cognize and transform it.

Philosophical categories are in a certain connection with each other and represent an open developing system, which is built on the basis of unity historical and logical. That is why each philosophical category can be understood only as an element of the entire system of categories. For example, the content of the category "matter" and the reality naturally reflected by it can be disclosed using the categories "movement", "development", "space", "time", "quality", "quantity", etc.

True, in contrast to the Hegelian system, which revealed the development of all things on the basis of the initial one, called by Hegel "the world spirit", in materialist philosophy there is still no generally recognized system of categories.

For philosophical categories characteristic disclosure common laws of origin, formation and development of nature, man and society. Since their object area is the world, objective reality in all the diversity of its existence, movement and development, these laws of development are inherent in all objects of the real world, however, with their own characteristics. From the standpoint of materialist dialectics, such laws of development include the following: a) the law of unity and struggle of opposites; b) the law of mutual transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones; c) the law of negation of negation.

The "connection of paired" categories of philosophy can also be attributed to the general laws of development: a) "essences and phenomena"; b) "cause and effect"; c) "possibilities and reality"; d) "necessity and chance"; e) "form and content"; f) "general - special - singular".

Philosophical categories, reflecting objective reality, make it possible to single out the following features and properties: the unity of existence; structuredness of the surrounding world; causes and sources of development of objective reality; a way of typology of reality; the nature and level of reflection of reality in the mind of a person.

For the categories of philosophy, it is characteristic that they, accumulating in themselves the results of the development of individual sciences, fix and reflect the worldview and methodological aspects of the content of philosophical thought. However, since philosophical categories represent the most general or universal concepts, “cover” the entire world observable for the researcher, they are rather “poor” in the meaningful sense. At the same time, they allow you to highlight something general, which is inherent in all phenomena of the real world. The following are such phenomena: a) the materiality of objective reality; b) universal connection of all objects of the real world; c) the continuous development of all objects of the real world.

The main list of philosophical categories can include the following: "matter", "consciousness", "reality", "being", "opportunity", "reality", "development", "evolution", "revolution", "irreversibility", " orientation "," substance "," substrate "," universe "," space "," time "," continuum "," single "," special "," general "," cognition "," cause "," effect " , "form", "content", "necessity", "regularity", "chance", "nature", "society", "man", "structure", "component", "element", "subject", " object "," truth "," reliability "," practice "," concrete "," abstract ", etc.

It is advisable to consider the content of philosophical categories consistently, within the framework of the subject area and structure of philosophy we have identified. However, since penetration into the content of philosophy begins from the fixation of the phenomenon and is a continuous process of revealing its essence and nature, we will consider the paired categories of philosophy that allow us to comprehend both cognition and development, and the very essence of philosophy, both worldview and methodology.

The essence and phenomenon are philosophical categories that reflect various aspects of objects, processes of objective reality or reality.

The essence expresses the main thing that characterizes objects, their internal, most important qualitative component, which gives objects what they are. If we exclude this component from a specific subject, then the latter will cease to be such, i.e. the essence corresponds to the category "quality", but does not exhaust it.

Essence is also thought of on a global scale. Here it is interpreted as the ultimate basis for the existence of the universe, but within the boundaries of a certain class, species, genus. For example, we can talk about the essence of living organisms, about the essence of man as a representative of the human race, but who is such only because he is a social being. The essence constitutes the common basis of both many different phenomena and the singularly unique one. Essence always specific , there is no essence at all. The essence of objects is hidden, it is impossible to reveal it by simple contemplation. So, for example, with a simple observation of the Sun, one can conclude that it revolves around the planet Earth, although in reality all the planets of the solar system revolve around the Sun.

In reality, the essence is indissoluble with its manifestation. Thus, an unlawful act appears in the form of a specific action or inaction of a subject, which is accompanied by a violation of laws or other types of social norms established in the country and entailing harm to others.

Phenomenon is an external expression of essence, an external form in which objects and processes of reality are on the surface, in the environment of their being.

In materialistic philosophy, the categories "essence" and "phenomenon" are considered as universal objective characteristics of the objective world. The unity of these categories means the unity of the world and thinking about the world, the unity of ontology and epistemology. However, the unity of essence and phenomenon does not mean their coincidence, identity. The phenomenon is richer than the essence, because it includes not only the discovery of the internal content, essential internal connections of the object, but also all kinds of random relationships, special features of the latter. Phenomena are dynamic, changeable, while the essence forms something that persists in all changes. Both the essence and the phenomenon are the attributes of any object. In this case, the phenomenon is a function that depends on two quantities: the object and its given to the subject. In order to exclude the subjective component that arises when evaluating a phenomenon that reflects the essence of an object, for example, in forensic science, "... from the infinite variety of phenomena that reflect the essence of a crime, only those that are causally related to a crime are distinguished, only those that have captured the traces of crimes, information about the crime ".

Considering the phenomena in their totality through the abstractive ability of the mind, a person approaches the essence of the object. Cognition penetrates into the essence of an object from phenomenon to essence, from a first-order essence to a second-order essence, etc.

In the activities of lawyers, in the context of identifying the essence of acts and their assessment, correlating this assessment with normative acts, it is significant to consider the relationship of such categories as "cause and effect", "necessity and chance", "possibility and reality", "form and content" , "general - special - singular".

Cause and consequence - these are two philosophical categories that reflect the universal connection existing in the world between various objects, between essence and phenomenon, between different phenomena.

Reason (lat. causa) - it is a tin of interaction of objects that causes, defines, changes, produces or entails some changes in these objects themselves, in the nature of the connections between them, in other objects of the real world or phenomena that express their nature and essence.

All changes occurring in the real world, where the cause manifested itself, are consequence. There are no causeless phenomena in the world. Every phenomenon in nature, society, man himself is conditioned by a certain reason. It is a consequence of one reason or another. Cause and effect interact. The cause gives rise to the effect, but the effect is not passive, but affects its cause or becomes the cause of other phenomena. In the general interaction of the real world, cause and effect are reversed. What is an effect in one connection can become a cause in another connection, and so on.

For example, driving while intoxicated is a violation of the traffic rules by the driver. Violation of traffic rules entails, as a result, the occurrence of road accidents. Road traffic accidents cause harm to others, etc.

There is an internal lawful connection between cause and effect. So, the interaction between them cannot be considered in isolation from the specific situation in which this interaction takes place. The same cause under different conditions causes different consequences. It is obvious that the same essence of an object in different conditions, reasons can manifest itself in different ways. In this regard, in judicial activity, a general understanding of the essence and phenomenon, cause and effect should be distinguished from the degree of accuracy achieved by jurisprudence and legal practice in describing causal relationships, as well as from what facts are provided by the investigation in a particular case under consideration in the court.

In nature and society, there are countless types and forms of interaction, interconnection and interdependence of objects, structural elements of objects that determine cause-and-effect relationships, become the cause of consequences. However, with all the variety reasons their inner nature is contradiction in the object itself, in those inconsistencies of tendencies, sides, properties that are inherent in the elements of this object.

In philosophy, the classification of cause-and-effect relationships is made for different reasons. For example, if you turn to real side of objects of interaction, we can talk about the following types of cause-and-effect relationships: material and ideal, information and energy, physical, chemical, biological, social.

By nature manifestations of cause-and-effect relationships can be divided into dynamic and static. By the number and connectedness cause interactions are subdivided into simple, compound, univariate, multifactorial, systemic, non-systemic. By attitude to the subject of the cause can be internal and external. By coverage of the objects of the world being, there are general, special, and individual causes. By " quality "they can be the main and non-main consequences.

In the practice of a lawyer, turning to causality when considering any act requires a meaningful use of the following paired category of philosophy: "necessity and chance".

Historically categories the need and accidents arose as a result of reflections on human destiny, "divine providence", freedom and will, predetermination or spontaneity of human existence.

Necessity is a natural type of connection between phenomena, events, determined by their stable internal basis and a set of conditions for their emergence, existence and development.

Necessity expresses the main tendency in the development of all components of nature, society, human thinking, which means that everything essential in the objective world is caused by necessity, i.e. objective laws of development. For example, the rotation of the Earth and other planets, the development of some organic species from others, the replacement of some socio-economic formations by others, changes in technology and technology from the level of fundamental research - all this has a necessary character. However, necessity does not boil down to inevitability. Philosophy does not deny and accident , which has its share of the "right" to be.

Randomness is a type of connection between phenomena, events, which is determined not by their internal nature, but by external, incidental and therefore insignificant reasons.

In other words, randomness is subjectively unexpected, but objectively included in a specific process, the components of the being of everything that exists, this is what in given specific conditions may or may not be, may be realized in one form, or maybe in some other ...

Accident, like necessity, can be external and internal : external - are outside a certain range of objects; internal - are generated by the own nature of a specific object or range of objects.

Necessity and chance are mutually related. There is reason to believe that chance is only an addition and a form of manifestation of necessity. Behind accidents there is always a necessity that determines the course of development of objects both in nature and in society, and which science is obliged to reveal. This also applies to legal sciences. Quite often, in court sessions, when considering cases related to the use of remedies for victims, when he inflicts injuries incompatible with life to the attacker, the problem of assessing this act arises: was it a consequence of accidentally exceeding necessary defense or a deliberate action.

Of course, in some cases, for example, when a mother performs certain actions to protect her child, it is not possible to determine reliably whether these actions were necessary or were performed unconsciously (by chance), due to the fact that here, in addition to reason, the actions of the mother influenced by instincts.

Judges should take into account that where a game of chance occurs externally, the latter turns out to be subordinate to internal, not yet open objective laws. The task of science is to discover these laws. So, in the case under consideration, when the limits of necessary defense are exceeded, the action of the law of organizing the life of people in the absence of strict boundary conditions "breaks through".

It is significant for a person's life and the practice of a lawyer to comprehend, within the framework of necessity and chance, such a phenomenon as freedom. It has already been noted that necessity is not reduced to inevitability and that not everything is fatally predetermined in the development of society. In real life of people, needs, interests, passions, will, ideas cannot but appear as the motives of their practical transformative activities. This means that in reality there is a deviation from the objective laws regarding the independent existence of a person and communities of people in relation to inanimate and living nature. G. Hegel, considering this "deviation" of the life of people from the general pattern of development of their history, called it cunning world mind. Outside of chance, the development of mankind would be mechanistic.

If we approach the understanding of the manifestation of the activity of an individual, communities of people in real life from the standpoint of dialectical materialism, then necessity and chance determine the appearance and manifestation of them. freedom. Obviously, freedom is historically specific and relative. It is a product of the historical development of man himself in the context of his socialization, and the level of development of the general culture of communities of people, and the ways of human existence in relation to inanimate and living nature, i.e. freedom is specific and characteristic only for a socialized person his way of being , manifested in the process of making decisions in accordance with their needs, interests, ideas, attitudes, as well as in their implementation in accordance with the known laws of the existence of communities of people, in relation to the specific conditions of their existence.

If we express the above philosophical understanding of freedom in a legal way, then human freedom there is field possible manifestations of his activity within the framework of the commitments in relation to other members of the community of people and meaningful personal competence.

Freedom is a characteristic of any purposeful, conscious activity of people who are inherently inherent in a sense of responsibility for their actions or inaction. This fact is contained in the following thought: freedom is present in necessity or necessity manifests itself only through freedom in the form of the available opportunity to choose goals and ways to achieve it. Ego means that in the existence of people, necessity is not only realized, but also created within the framework of freedom.

However, in order for the identification of the lawful and accidental, freedom and necessity to be really included in the creative activity of people, as well as in the practice of legal activity, it is necessary to comprehend and introduce into teaching, into the real philosophical training of students, such a pair of categories as "possibility and reality". The point is that necessity, chance and freedom are different ways of transforming the possible into reality. These categories reflect one of the most important patterns of the development of inanimate and living

nature, sociohistorical organisms. In the process of its development, what arises does not immediately assert itself in reality, acting at first only as a possibility, i.e. as the first step in the development of the subject.

Possibility can be presented as objective, but until a certain time hidden tendency the emergence and formation of an object as a phenomenon of reality, containing the conditions for its manifestation and confirmation in reality.

The category "opportunity" is tomorrow in today. It reflects such a state, such a stage in the development of objects, phenomena, a person, when the potentials contained in them have not yet manifested. For example, a graduate of a law school has a high intellectual potential, a methodological culture of thinking and practical action, social maturity and reliability, professional training - this is his opportunity to prove himself as a qualified specialist who is able and ready to effectively resolve problems of a legal nature that arise in his activities.

Reality - it is an already realized possibility, an objectively existing object, phenomenon, process as a result of the embodiment into reality of some possibility or a set of possibilities, the real being of the possible.

You can also say this: reality - this is the past in the present, this is the basis of the forms of being of new possibilities. For example, the educational and upbringing potential of a graduate of a law university, embodied in an acceptable result, as an opportunity in solving a specific problem of a legal nature, is a reality, his experience, which at the same time becomes his opportunity in future professional activity.

Prominent representatives of the judiciary of our country draw attention to this. Thus, the deputy chairman of the now defunct Supreme Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation Sergey Mikhailovich Amosov noted that "the directions for improving the quality of justice should be training members of the judiciary and candidates for judges in the ability to deeply, fairly and legally assess the essence of the matter that the judge has to operate on each business, educating the judges themselves in the spirit of the best human qualities. "

Obviously, for an opportunity to become reality, at least two factors must be manifested: action a certain need and Availability appropriate conditions, and perhaps accidents. If in nature the process of turning a possibility into reality occurs independently of the subject, for example, the transformation of water into ice or steam, then in the life of mankind the transformation of a possibility into reality largely depends on the actions and activities of both individuals and communities of people.

For example, possibility to rid the planet of various types and types of wars and armed conflicts has everything conditions to become factual only through massive anti-war movements capable of enhancing the potential for peace, reason and justice.

An essential characteristic of this feature is measure its reality, prospects. Depending on the internal content of the need underlying such a possibility, all the possibilities can be divided into several types: a) promising (real); b) unpromising; c) unpromising (formal).

Real , or promising, possibility is an natural the development trend of objects, phenomena, processes, which is steadily associated with objective necessity. With regard to the problems of armed conflicts and wars, this kind of possibility is not possible. The fact is that as long as private property is decisive in the world, which generates social inequality and antagonisms, wars will accompany the existence of mankind.

Unpromising opportunity is insignificant the tendency of the development of objects, phenomena, processes, which only when accidental coincidence of circumstances is able to turn into reality. This possibility is only rationally tangible, based on formally conceivable conditions. Such it is for the example we are considering with war and armed conflicts.

Formal opportunity is imagined an irrational tendency that not founded on real concrete conditions and, therefore, cannot be realized, turned into reality.

The mass of formal opportunities is enormous. For example, the possibility of living conscientiously never turns into reality. However, a very real opportunity may turn out to be missed or unrealized due to some random circumstances. Then it actually turns into a formal one. At the same time, a formal opportunity can turn into a real one. For example, the possibility of a man's flight to the moon was not so long ago formal, and then turned into real.

A lawyer who comprehends the provisions of philosophy should avoid both the fatalistic notions that objective laws are capable by themselves of determining the necessary tendency for the development of mankind, and social pessimism, characterized by the lack of confidence that people will be able to reach such a level of their development when the opportunity arises. that can be turned into reality.

The point is that a possibility can be turned into reality if people master the objective law of its development, formulate plans for their activities corresponding to this law, and create the necessary conditions for its transformation into concrete objects, phenomena and processes.

They allow to reveal the process of transformation of possibility into reality of the category "singular, particular and general". They reflect the connection, interdependence and mutual transitions of phenomena, objects of the objective world.

We all observe in the real world a huge variety of objects that differ from each other and are unique in their being. For example,

in the whole world it is impossible to find absolutely identical people, identical to each other, in everything, because a huge set of unique conditions and accidents are involved in the creation of a single one. So, the dissimilarity of two people, even twins, is due to the fact that various social, psychological and biological factors will always be present in their formation and development. Nature is inexhaustible in the creativity of the individual. Consequently, the single is a real object (be it a thing, phenomenon, process, formation), taken in its difference from other objects in their unique specifics.

As a certain unit of reality, the singular serves as an objective basis for the quantitative expression of reality, being a real prototype of the unit as the basis of counting. Not only a separate object, but also a whole class of objects can be considered as a single one, if they are taken as a whole. A single feature of objects of the real world can also be single, if it is taken in its individual uniqueness.

The singular is a relatively isolated, discrete, separated from each other in space and time thing, phenomenon, process, education, with their inherent specific unique features that make up their unique qualitative and quantitative definiteness.

The individual does not exist in isolation, but in connection with each other. Taking into account the fact that it has common sources of origin, as well as due to a number of similar features and internal interdependence, certain single objects are combined into groups, have a different commonality. So, for example, individual plants, animals are combined into the corresponding species ("special") and genera ("general"). Every single, every object is material, and their common property that they are material unites them all into a single whole. This single whole, "common" is nature.

One cannot but agree that all people, with their individuality, have a generic essence. Thus, together with their uniqueness, uniqueness, we single out something in common in such a concept as "man".

In other words, we can say that general - it is one in many ways. At the same time, cognition and social practice make it possible to assert that such individual phenomena that correspond to the development trend are transformed into a common one.

General - these are certain signs, connections, characteristic of a given object or class of objects, events, formations, as well as the law of the existence and development of all single forms of existence of material and spiritual phenomena.

As the similarity of the features of all phenomena of the real world, the general is accessible to direct perception, and being also an expression of regularity, it finds expression in concepts, categories and such a form of knowledge as theory. This is important for any professional in real life. For example, a lawyer engaged in the study of a specific illegal

acts, cannot but "rely" on the general laws of the mechanism of crime, on the general methodology of forensic research, and this allows him to qualitatively identify and evaluate the signs of the act under study, to draw a conclusion with irrefutable evidence against the subject of the crime.

Although the categories "singular" and "general" interconnected and are interdependent, and the general is manifested only in the singular and through the singular, singularities are distinguishable. This distinction of singularities is postulated special , thought of as specificity, something exceptional that arises during the "implementation", the embodiment common v specific subject: thing, process, event, phenomenon, education, including social.

The special is the method and measure of the embodiment of the general in a really existing object as a whole in the unity and correlation of its opposite moments - the individual and the general.

It can also be said that the particular is the unifying principle of the singular and the general within the whole. In this regard, the particular is usually viewed as something that mediates the relationship between the individual and the general. For example, a lawyer acts as a general in relation to everyone who graduated from a law school and as a specialist with a higher professional education, which is special for the concept.

Taking into account the relationship between the singular, the particular and the general is of great both cognitive and practical importance. For example, in order to comprehend an object, it is necessary not only to "pull" it out of the general connection with other objects, but also to identify its special features, correlate and compare with the general characteristics of a certain class of objects.

The dialectic of the individual, the particular and the general is directly manifested in the life of society. So, it is obvious that with all the diversity of individual ways of forming a democratic state power in the country, this process is subject to general laws, the main of which are:

- the formation of public authorities on the basis of the free expression of the will of all citizens who have the appropriate powers for this;
- control over the activities of state power by the citizens of the country;
- appointment to public office of those who have the relevant competence and are socially and morally mature person;
- multi-party system;
- free mass media (mass media);
- legality and order;
- the possibility of holding referendums on issues that are significant for the country and citizens;
- regular turnover of the country's leadership.

Thus, the dialectic of the singular, the particular and the general helps not only to reveal the essence of objects of the real world, but also to optimize the practical transformative activity of people. True, this dialectic will give more effective results if it reaches concretization within the framework content and forms.

Today in philosophy, the content is understood as the features inherent in an object, thing, phenomenon, process, formation, which are inherent in all the constituent elements of the phenomena under consideration and which, on the one hand, organize the relationship of the elements forming a whole and therefore are directly related to the essence of a particular object, and on the other - are manifested in the visible and observable appearance of this object.

It is important to comprehend the following: only those parts of an object as a whole that act as the limit of its divisibility within the framework of its concrete qualitative determination can be attributed to the constituent elements that form the content. It would be wrong to attribute to the content of the human body the atoms that form molecules, and then the cells that make up specific organs. This way we can never define what a person is.

In other words, the content is the identity of the elements of the whole with the whole itself, the internal state of the object, the totality of changes within the latter, as well as the connection of its elements with the environment of its being, which determines the existence, development and replacement of one object by another.

The perception and comprehension of any object occurs through and by means of separating it from the environment of being, through and through fixing it forms. Used as an expression of the external appearance of an object, the form indicates the difference between the given content and everything else, the connection of the given object with others.

Form is a way of existence and expression of content, the internal organization of the latter, that which binds the elements of the content together and without which the content itself is impossible.

The dialectic of form and content presupposes their relative independence with the leading role of content. It is important that the unity of content and form does not exclude, but presupposes, contradictions between them. The fact is that the development of all objects of the real world begins with a change in their content, which is their most mobile component, and the ego occurs continuously. Consequently, between

At the same time, the form actively influences the content, promoting its development or inhibiting it. This is especially important in the field of organizing and implementing social policy in the country, reforming education, etc. The negative influence of the form on the content can lead to the most negative consequences. So, the inaccurate definition of the form in terms of social policy in our country gave rise to such an ugly component of the content of social management as bureaucracy. The latter, with its forms, practically changes the content of the state's social obligations to citizens, which were concluded in national projects. As you can see, the form of organization can discredit even a brilliant idea.

In other words, not a single phenomenon of reality, not a single natural or social phenomenon can be studied overnight, it is not immediately possible to reveal its nature and essence. The process of cognition and scientific research involves the use by the researcher, first of all, of certain methods.

Etymologically, the method is defined as follows: "Method (from the Greek. methodos , lat. method) - in the broad sense of the word, this is a way of activity in any of its areas. "Formally, logically, this is not entirely correct, since in translation from Latin method - this is the way.

Here it is necessary to pay attention to the fact that when using this concept in science, certain disagreements arise. Although almost all scientists recognize that a method is a kind of universal means of scientific knowledge and transformation of reality, they at the same time introduce into the context of its definition a lot of nuances that give rise to many contradictions, and even discrepancies.

At one time G. Hegel rightly noted that "the method is knowledge itself, for which the concept is given not only as an object, but also as a tool and means of cognitive activity."

The great philosopher pointed out the connection between theoretical forms of knowledge and research with methods and at the same time drew attention to the transformation of these forms of knowledge and research into methods as tools and means of cognitive and research activities.

The thought of G. Hegel was developed in the conclusions of scientists who dealt with issues of scientific methodology. In its most generalized expression, it can be represented as follows: "The method is inseparably one with the theory: any system of objective knowledge can be a method."

The idea of a method as a way, a method, a method of theoretical and practical implementation of something is quite widespread. This conclusion is concretized in the statement that the method is a set of techniques and operations of practical and theoretical mastering of reality.

In general, if we generalize all the basic definitions of the term "method", we can distinguish the following set of concepts through and through which the method is defined. These include: a path to a goal, a way of knowing, a tool, a set of research methods; reception, method and course of action; theory, teaching, a way to achieve a specific goal, a way to build and substantiate a system of philosophical knowledge; a set of techniques and operations of practical and theoretical mastering of reality; a rule, a technique, a way of knowing; path, a set of techniques and operations; a set of ways of knowing the essence; method, order of foundation; the accepted path for the move, achieving something in the form of general rules; a set of tools, research techniques, the method of scientific analysis, a method of data processing.

As you can see, the range of defining concepts from the standpoint of the requirements of logic to the explicit definition of a concept is quite wide and not entirely justified.

Analysis of existing views on the essence and content of the method allows us to assert that the method is a law-like sequence of interdependent and coordinated cognitive operations and practical actions that have been developed by science and social practice and which allow the subject to achieve the goal when moving towards it with a certain personal cultural potential.

Operations are stable forms of integration of actions, manifested in the life of people, due to their level of culture.

They allow in the changed conditions to provide a person with the same result or part of it.

Actions are relatively independent, elementary, stable acts of human activity. They allow a person to solve an intermediate problem as one of the components of the final result. One and the same action can be included in the content of various types of activity, providing a person with a solution to the tasks he needs and in a certain way motivated.

Methods are a specific tool for the cognitive and transformative activity of a person as a subject of cognition and transformation of nature, society and oneself. Moreover, the methods that are formed on the basis of the achievements of science and practice manifest themselves in the interests of cognition and transformation of specific sciences and concrete practice. Since each science and real practice is multi-conceptual, a palette of methods is formed on the basis of their content.

Scientific methodology and research methodology are inconceivable without methods as means of providing knowledge and transformation of nature, society and man himself. Their content is expressed in the principles, rules, techniques, norms of scientific research, is implemented through the skills, abilities and competencies of specific researchers and is provided with appropriate tools. The scientific researcher's adherence to a specific method sets the logic for him, an algorithm for certain actions and operations, provides him with the regulation of cognition or transformation, as well as control of the results in research and transformation activities.

Currently in science there is no generally accepted classification of methods of cognition and scientific research. Each science, along with the used universal methods of scientific research, creates its own "specific", which to a certain extent are conditioned by the subject area of research of this particular science.

At the same time, philosophical methods, which are not always clearly understood by scientists, set the general direction of the study, the principles of approach to the object under study, the nature of the interpretation of the results obtained. The most significant of all philosophical methods is dialectical materialistic method. Let's consider what is its advantage over other methods and what is its essence.

The dialectical method is a law-like sequence of actions and operations of the researcher, conditioned by the dialectics of the development of nature, society and thinking, which allows him to single out the main link in the essence of the subject of research on the basis of identifying contradictions in it, which, as an internal source and cause, inherently determine and condition all changes in any social formations.

Following the logic of the search for contradictions, their description, study protects any specialist from subjective arbitrariness in the selection and explanation of facts, from the one-sidedness of their consideration and maximally excludes the possibility of overlooking the identification of features and properties of an object that characterize its nature and essence.

When researching a specific subject area, the dialectical materialistic method orients the researcher to the following logic and research algorithm:

- consideration of the subject area as an objective reality, concluded in practice, and in the context of dialectical laws unity and struggle of opposites, mutual transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones, denial of denial:
- identification of contradictions in the subject area as a source and cause of its development;

identification and description of facts of reality and their translation into scientific facts based on philosophical categories general, special and individual, content and form, essence and phenomenon, possibility and reality, necessary and accidental, cause and effect;

Consideration and research of scientific facts comprehensively and comprehensively ", in the universal connection and interdependence of all phenomena, processes reflected in the facts of reality", in the continuous change of all phenomena, processes reflected in the facts of reality, "specifically historically",

verification of the knowledge acquired and reflected in various forms in practice.

Thus, the dialectical method allows the researcher not only to identify the essence of the studied subject area, but also to give a sufficiently substantiated prognostic assessment of its possible development, to formulate specific variants of the mechanism for managing the development of social situations, based on the "model" of the development of elements inherent in a "typical" social situation ...

A typical situation is a variant of a social situation, selected from the classification of possible situations. In other words, the ego is such a variant of social situations in which any subject of social relations can get into or create itself, if he lives and acts in accordance with the requirements of rational thinking.

As for other methods that university graduates will need to understand legal practice, considering them by stages of empirical and theoretical research, three groups can be distinguished:

Forensic science: a course of lectures. M., 2003. S. 8. Philosophy / ed. V.N. Lavrinenko. 3rd ed. rev. and add. M .: Yunost, 2007.S. 10.

Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary. P. 362.

Introduction

Philosophy concept

Method concept

Philosophy methods

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

The current state of the spiritual life of Russian society is characterized by its radical renewal, a reassessment of the entire legacy we have inherited. It is in such critical epochs that the need for a philosophical understanding of both the world as a whole and the social life of a person, the meaning of his life, becomes more acute. Therefore, interest in philosophy is increasing, in various segments of the population, a search for new values and ideals begins, which could help lead the country out of the protracted crisis.

Today, the importance of philosophy is increasingly assessed by the worldview and methodological role that it plays in introducing a person to the understanding of him as a generic being living in a complex and rapidly changing world. It is this role of philosophy that has always determined its paramount importance in the system of social and humanitarian education of the younger generation.

In the context of a radical and comprehensive reform of our society, the questions of the formation of a legal worldview and legal consciousness arise with particular urgency. This circumstance determines to a large extent the specifics of the philosophical education of legal professionals. This is where philosophy comes in handy. Philosophy is a vast area of knowledge, the history of which is measured in millennia. There are many directions, schools, trends, problems, theories in it. The main thing is that philosophy opens up ways for us to understand such grandiose realities as nature, society, the world, spirit, man, to search for their inner meaning.

The development of philosophy is viewed as a complex, multi-line process that is carried out in specific cultures created by various historical peoples. The history of philosophy convincingly shows that the development of philosophical knowledge is closely linked with the life of these peoples, with their ups and downs in different eras. So, many philosophical concepts, especially in the east, were the basis of state structure and management.

One of the most significant and defining functions of philosophy is the worldview and humanistic functions. The richest in its depth and intrinsic value of historical and philosophical material allows us to obtain not only information about the essence of certain philosophical teachings, but also shapes our worldview.

1.The concept of philosophy

Philosophy (from Greek - love for truth, wisdom) is a form of social consciousness; the doctrine of the general principles of being and cognition, the relationship of man to the world, the science of the universal laws of the development of nature, society and thinking. Philosophy develops a generalized system of views on the world, a person's place in it; she explores cognitive values, socio-political, moral and aesthetic attitude of a person to the world.

The subject of philosophy is the universal properties and connections (relations) of reality - nature, man, the relationship of objective reality and the subjectivism of the world, material and ideal, being and thinking. Where the universal is the properties, connections, relations inherent in both objective reality and the subjective world of man. Quantitative and qualitative certainty, structural and cause-and-effect relationships and other properties, relationships refer to all spheres of reality: nature, consciousness. The subject of philosophy must be distinguished from the problems of philosophy, since problems of philosophy exist objectively, independently of philosophy. Universal properties and connections (production and time, quantity and quality) existed when the science of philosophy did not yet exist as such.

The main functions of philosophy are: 1) the synthesis of knowledge and the creation of a unified picture of the world corresponding to a certain level of development of science, culture and historical experience; 2) justification, justification and analysis of the worldview; 3) development of a general methodology of cognition and human activity in the surrounding world. Each science studies its own range of problems. For this, he develops his own concepts, which are applied in a strictly defined area for a more or less limited range of phenomena.

Philosophy is a specific type of worldview, which is a multidimensional spiritual education. This multidimensionality is expressed, first of all, in the presence of such levels of reflection of the world in the consciousness of a social person as world outlook and theoretical world outlook. The world outlook is represented by the following forms: perception of the world, perception of the world and perception of the world. The theoretically formalized philosophical worldview includes world outlook, world outlook, world outlook.

The first philosophical level of world reflection is the contemplative worldview, where the aesthetic attitude to the world, the comprehension of the universal, universal, integral is carried out in the feelings and emotions of a social person. This level is presented in such philosophical directions as philosophy of life, existentialism, phenomenology. For example, in S. Kierkegaard's book "Fear and Awe", the universal forms of consciousness of any person are fear, awe, despair.

The conceptual reflection of the world associated with abstract thinking and theoretical knowledge is the second level, which can be called a rational worldview. It is at the level of conceptual comprehension of the world that the fundamental difference between philosophy and other types of worldview is revealed, and philosophy itself appears as a theoretically formed, systemic-rational worldview. It is designed to reveal the rational meaning and general laws of the existence and development of the world and man, as well as the relationship between them. The rational worldview is represented, first of all, by such areas as scientific philosophy and hermeneutics.

2. Concept of the method

Before clarifying the question of the relationship of philosophy with other forms of social consciousness, in particular with science, it is necessary, at least in an approximate form, to try to determine what the subject of philosophy is in itself, without comparison with other forms of human spiritual activity.

Philosophy is such an area of human spiritual activity, which is based on a special, philosophical type of thinking, which underlies precisely philosophical knowledge, and on the independence of the subject of philosophy.

Yes, philosophy really does not have the same subject as, for example, natural sciences, in the sense that the subject of philosophical knowledge is not localized within a particular field of knowledge and reality, such as physics, biology, etc. However, philosophy has a subject, and the fundamental impossibility of its localization is its specific feature. So what is included in the concept subject of philosophy ? The subject of philosophy is the universal properties and connections (relations) of reality - nature, societies, man, the relationship between objects of reality and subjects of the world, material and ideal, being and thinking. The universal is the properties, connections, relations inherent in both objects of reality and the subjective world of a person. Quantitative and qualitative certainty, structure and cause-and-effect relationships and other properties, relationships refer to all spheres of reality: nature, society, consciousness. The subject of philosophy is not the individual subject with its special qualities, but the subject as a general, the subject as a universal category, opposed to the equally universal category of the object. In this sense, philosophy considers not only, say, the problem i ", but the problem of the ratio of this I am with others I ", the problem of understanding, as one of the central problems of the theory of knowledge. The subject of philosophy must be distinguished from the problems of philosophy. The subject of philosophy exists objectively, independently of philosophy. Universal properties and connections (space and time, quantity and quality) existed when philosophy was also This is the area of human spiritual activity, which is based on reflection on this activity itself and, therefore, on its meaning, purpose and forms and, ultimately, on clarifying the essence of man himself as a subject of culture, that is, the essential relationship of man to the world Man, his unique personality, being, firstly, the subject of philosophy, and secondly, the only subject of any knowledge in general, and even more so philosophical, is also an indispensable attribute of philosophy.

Unlike mythology, philosophy as a form of human spiritual activity arose with the emergence of a new object and a new type of thinking - with the transfer of main attention from the idea of God to man in his relation to the world, that is, to a person who cognizes, transforms and creates this world, or the same on a person who cognizes, fulfills or protests the divine idea. Over the course of history, the specific content of this general specificity of the philosophical subject has been repeatedly updated, filled with more and more semantic nuances, but always in the depths of philosophical knowledge lay precisely this initial setting to clarify the connection between man and the world, that is, to identify internal goals, causes and methods cognition and transformation of the world by man.

Philosophy, therefore, is not just a special scientific discipline, but also a specific type of thinking and even a kind of philosophical emotional mood, a system of worldview feelings, when a person, as if plunging into this philosophical state of mind, reflects on the universe, good and evil, beautiful and ugly, social justice, truth and lies, the meaning and purpose of human history.

The process of philosophical creativity meets the deep need of a person for a reasonable justification of his place in the stream of being, the meaning of life, historical purpose, personal freedom and the essence of the environment.

Philosophy methods

philosophy world reflection consciousness

In solving its problems, philosophy always uses certain methods and means. However, the realization of their specificity and purpose came rather late. The problem of method arose with particular urgency in philosophy only from the 17th century. in connection with the need to comprehend the method of philosophizing and an attempt to arm the emerging science with new cognitive means. Rationalist metaphysics tried to solve traditionally philosophical questions using a rigorous mathematical method. So, Hobbes strove to build ethics on the model of a mathematical, "deductive-demonstrative science", and Spinoza expounded his philosophy in a "geometric way", which was embodied in his work "Ethics". However, this approach to defining the philosophical method is increasingly criticized for its one-sidedness and inadequacy.

Elucidation of the specifics of the philosophical method was closely associated with the formation of philosophy as a science, first in German classical, and then in Marxist philosophy. This movement was initiated by Kant and Jacobi, who rejected the way of thinking of the old metaphysics, the method it used. When building his philosophical system, Kant used the transcendental method created by him, the essence of which is the identification of the hidden prerequisites of this or that knowledge, reflection on the foundations of knowledge. Hegel went even further in this direction, declaring that "philosophy, since it must be a science, cannot ... for this purpose borrow its method from such a subordinate science as mathematics." Realizing that the method of philosophy is not identical with the method of special science, Hegel set about developing it. In his opinion, the method of philosophical science "is an awareness of the form of internal self-movement of its content." At the same time, the substantiation of the substantive conditionality of the method was given by Hegel on the basis of panlogism. Its absolute method manifests itself from its very object, since this method itself is an immanent principle and soul.

Although Hegel calls his way of thinking "speculative", in reality the Hegelian method was dialectical, and the style of its functioning in the system of absolute idealism was speculative. Marx wrote that his dialectical method is not only fundamentally different from Hegel's, but also represents its opposite, since it is materialistic, and not only dialectical. In addition, the Hegelian method is directed to the past, and the Marxist method, first of all, to the present and the future. If in Hegelian philosophy the method acts as the construction of the world from an absolute idea, then in Marxist philosophy the method serves as a means, an instrument of cognition and transformation of reality. At the same time, some common features of the dialectical method are inherent in its idealistic and materialistic forms. In particular, this concerns his interpretation of the issues of interconnection and development.

The dialectical way of thinking manifests itself in philosophy at a certain stage of its development in the depths of the old, metaphysical method. The transition to a new philosophical method covers an entire historical era. For the first time, the opposition of dialectics to metaphysics as a way of thinking was carried out on an idealistic basis by Hegel. Metaphysics was understood as a method according to which all things and phenomena should be considered outside of connection with each other and outside of development.

When characterizing the metaphysical way of thinking, it is important to note that it represents a special historical stage in the development of the logical culture of thinking, a certain meaningful logic corresponding to a predominantly analytical stage in the development of science. The metaphysical method of thinking found its theoretical expression in various philosophical concepts of the 17th-18th centuries. Metaphysical thinking is legitimate and even necessary in certain areas; on its basis, certain successes have been achieved in science. At the same time, having reached the limit, the limits of its application, it becomes one-sided, limited.

In Russian philosophy, the problem of the philosophical method was developed mainly in terms of researching the opposition of dialectics to metaphysics. Dialectics was viewed as a way of thinking most adequate to modern science and social development. At the same time, the nature of the philosophical method was understood as the result, the conclusion of the historical experience of mankind. This experience was accumulated in specific concepts, laws and principles as means of philosophical knowledge.

In its most general form, the method can be defined as a system of regulatory principles and rules of transformative activity, developed by the subject on the basis of the laws of the studied object. In Russian philosophical literature, the difference between the method of philosophy and the method of science is determined primarily by the nature of the laws on which they are based. The philosophical method, from this point of view, arises as a generalization of all other methods. He is not equal to any of them, including their wealth, just as the universal absorbs the particular and the individual. Not being a sum of special methods, the philosophical method arises independently, taking into account their results.

To understand the philosophical method, it is important to consider such a way of philosophical reasoning as reflection. The method of reflection as the self-awareness of philosophy contributes to a critical understanding of any prerequisites, the degree of their validity and the identification of "ultimate grounds". The leading techniques of the method of reflection are decomposition, dismemberment, comparison, analysis and critical assessment. However, the process of philosophizing also presupposes synthesis, the creation of new theoretical constructions, principles, concepts. The solution of these problems is facilitated by the method of speculation, the leading method of which is synthesis, which carries out research, mainly on the basis of intuition and creative imagination. The method of theoretical speculation, like reflection, is the same traditional general philosophical method.

Dialectics has never been the only generally accepted method. Along with it, other philosophical methods of cognition existed in the history of world philosophy. These, along with metaphysics, include sophistry, eclecticism, hermeneutics and others.

In modern Western philosophy, hermeneutics is actively used, which is a method of reading and interpreting the meaning of a text. Originating as a way of philosophizing in the Middle Ages, hermeneutics was adopted by modern positivists, who focused their attention on the problems of linguistic, logical and semantic analysis. True, to a certain extent, this method was also used in Russian philosophy in the study and interpretation of the texts of the classics of Marxism-Leninism. The hermeneutic method is aimed at revealing various texts, their inner meaning. Through the text, the goals, the author's intention, his inner spiritual world, feelings, attitude to the world around him, the world of his life, the cultural and historical background of his activities, etc. are revealed.

Today we can speak of a tendency to re-evaluate eclecticism as a methodological device. It is beginning to be viewed as a positive scientific phenomenon with its own specifics. The need for this methodological tool arises in certain conditions and it is used at the initial stage of cognition. It is very important to understand the limits of applicability of this method, since if they are ignored, significant shortcomings and errors can arise in the course of a particular study.

Sometimes they resorted to eclecticism as a special method of movement of thought, when a field of activity had not yet appeared for other methods. Eclecticism prevailed in the Alexandrian and late Roman periods of the development of philosophy. As a special method, it was actively used by Cicero. Eclecticism mechanically connects all aspects of the studied subject, not yet being able to single out essential connections and relationships. The eclectic argues according to the principle: "on the one hand", "on the other hand", "on the third side", etc. Without penetrating into the essence of reality and not revealing its laws, this method replaces the knowledge of laws with an eclectic description of phenomena and facts.

If earlier this term was invested mainly with a negative meaning, now eclecticism is seen as the first grandiose attempt to create a kind of philosophy. Her merits include the diligent collection of a placer of grains of truth in the field of cultural history, the first stage in the unification of provisions.

It is unlikely that eclecticism should be excluded from the process of cognition, and there are sufficient grounds to consider it as a positive scientific phenomenon. True, the need for this methodological tool arises in certain sociocultural conditions.

By collecting and preserving various things, eclecticism thereby created an opportunity to develop a unified theoretical foundation. She played a positive role in the preservation of the original texts of various philosophers of antiquity, the originals of which were destroyed for various reasons. Thus, the texts of the ancient Greek philosophers Sextus Empiricus and Diogenes Laertius represent a wealth of historical information about ancient Greek philosophy.

Sophistry is an important method of philosophical research. Sophistry is a set of diverse types of argumentation based on the subjectivistic use of the rules of logical inference for the sake of preserving and approving the existing provisions and theories. Sophisms, as Hegel noted, upon closer examination, turn out to be the primary form of theoretical assimilation of contradictions, usually presenting in the form of aporias and paradoxes. As a kind of metaphysical thinking, sophistry is rooted in the absolutization of the relativity of knowledge.

The concepts of the philosophical method, which have become widespread in Russian literature, are formulated on the basis of the Hegelian-Marxist tradition. Their certain insufficiency or even obsolescence for solving modern philosophical problems does not at all mean that they should be mechanically discarded. Meanwhile, such attempts have been made both in the past and in the present. So, K. Popper suggests replacing the dialectical method with the general scientific method of trial and error. Today, such a reduction of the philosophical method to the general scientific one is carried out not only by philosophers, but also by some representatives of the special sciences. In connection with the development of synergetics, some of its supporters argue that dialectics is a special case of synergetics. One can hardly agree with this approach, since it is extremely necessary to take into account the specifics of the philosophical and scientific method.

The philosophical method cannot lead to success in scientific research if, in solving particular problems, it is applied in isolation from general scientific and special scientific methods. It is not some kind of universal master key, which allows in itself to make discoveries in the private sciences. The philosophical method, like any method of science, has its own theoretical, cognitive and logical capabilities, beyond which its effectiveness is reduced or altogether eliminated. K. Marx noted that "the dialectical form of presentation is correct only if it knows its boundaries." This means that the possibilities of the dialectical, as well as of any philosophical scientific method, are limited by the level of development of knowledge.

In modern Western philosophy, there are two extreme points of view on the method of philosophy. On the one hand, the specificity of philosophy is explained by the use of purely philosophical methods of thinking, and on the other hand, scientist-oriented philosophers (K. Popper) believe that philosophy cannot use any other research methods except logic and special sciences. The method of cognition in Marxist philosophy is understood in two ways: along with a specifically philosophical method, the methods of other sciences, including general scientific methods, are also used in the cognitive process. Hence, the originality of the understanding of philosophical problems lies in the fact that when solving them, along with the application of the philosophical method itself, other methods are used.

At the same time, both directions in philosophy and philosophical methods are: materialism, idealism, empiricism and rationalism.

With the materialistic method, reality is perceived as really existing, matter - as a primary substance, and consciousness - its modus - is a manifestation of the mother. (The materialistic-dialectical method prevailed in Soviet philosophy, and is widespread in modern Russian.)

The essence of the idealistic philosophical method is the recognition of the idea as the origin and determining force, and matter as a derivative of the idea, its embodiment. The idealistic method is especially widespread in the United States in a number of Western European countries (for example, Germany).

Empiricism is a method and direction in cognition, according to which the basis of the cognitive process, knowledge is the experience obtained mainly as a result of sensory cognition. ("There is nothing in thoughts that would not have been in experience and sensory sensations before.")

Rationalism is a philosophical method and direction in philosophy, by virtue of which true, absolutely reliable knowledge can be achieved only with the help of reason (that is, deduced from reason itself) without the influence of experience and sensations. (Everything can be questioned, and any doubt is already the work of thought, reason.)

Conclusion

The modern world is a complex dynamic integral system, the correct and comprehensive understanding of which is impossible without certain philosophical concepts. They help to better comprehend reality in the interaction of all spheres, parties and connections, in development, in the unity of all laws and contradictions, the place of use in the modern world, the meaning of his life and a number of other complex problems.

Philosophical culture is an important component of the general culture of a person, the formation of which is an urgent need of our days. In the context of the profound changes taking place in modern society, it is extremely necessary to abandon outdated stereotypes, frozen dogmas and speculative schemes, not only in thinking, but also in practical activity. One must be able to think and act constructively and critically, creatively, constructively, dialectically. To master this art, it takes a lot of independent work on the comprehensive development of all the wealth of world philosophy as a whole and its most important methods.

The "spirit of novelty", which is becoming more and more fully established in our reality, makes stagnation and stagnation intolerant, promotes self-improvement of a person, renewal of forms and methods of activity, and progressive development of society. The new social structures and forms of people's life that are taking shape before our eyes can become viable only if they inherit all the best that has been done by history, absorb all the experience of social development, and fully rely on the achievements of domestic and world culture.

A broad philosophy of generalization and correct methodology help to focus searches on the correct reflection of the latest stage in history, to reveal the features of various social formations, to give a person the foundations of value and worldview orientation in today's complex world, and to predict his further development.

Bibliography

Antonov E.A., Voronina M.V. Philosophy: Textbook. - Belgorod, 2000. - Topic 1.

Bibler B.C. What is philosophy // Questions of philosophy. - 1995. - No. 1.

Bobkov A.N. Modern approaches to understanding the worldview // Philosophical sciences. - 2005. - No. 3.

Introduction to Philosophy: In 2 vols. Vol. 1. / Ed. I.T. Frolov. - M., 1989 .-- Chapter 1.

Zotov A. The Phenomenon of Philosophy: What the Pluralism of Philosophical Teachings Says About // Problems of Philosophy. - 1991. - No. 12.

Mamardashvili M.K. As I understand philosophy. - M., 1980.

Ortega y Gasset X. What is philosophy? - M., 1991.

A.A. Radugin Philosophy: Course of lectures. - M., 1996. - Topic 1-2.

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The main methods in this case include:

• dialectics;

· Metaphysics;

· Dogmatism;

· Eclecticism;

• sophistry;

· Hermeneutics.

Let's consider these methods of philosophy in more detail.

Dialectics is a method of philosophical research in which phenomena, as well as things, are considered critically, flexibly, very consistently. That is, with such a study, attention is drawn to all the changes that are taking place. The events that caused the changes are taken into account. A lot of attention is paid to the issue of development.

The method of philosophy, which is the direct opposite of dialectics, is called metaphysics... With it, objects are considered:

· Static - that is, changes, as well as development, do not play any role during the study;

• apart, regardless of other things and phenomena;

· Unambiguously - that is, when searching for absolute truth, no attention is paid to contradictions.

The methods of philosophy also include dogmatism... Its essence boils down to the perception of the surrounding world through the prism of peculiar dogmas. These dogmas are accepted beliefs, from which one cannot deviate a single step. They are absolute. Let's note. That this method was inherent primarily in medieval theological philosophy. Almost never used today.

Eclecticism, which is part of the methods of philosophy, is based on an arbitrary combination of various, disparate, completely lacking common principles of facts, concepts, concepts, as a result of which one can come to superficial, but relatively plausible, seemingly reliable conclusions. This method is often used to create private ideas that help change the mass consciousness. These ideas have little to do with reality. Previously, this method was used in religion, but today it is very popular among advertisers.

A method based on the derivation of false, submitted under the guise of true, new premises, which logically will be true, but with a distorted meaning. The thoughts captured in them do not correspond to reality, but are beneficial to persons using this method. In other words, the sophists studied ways to mislead a person during dialogue. Distributed sophistry was in Ancient Greece. Those versed in it were practically invincible in the dispute.

Fundamental Methods of Philosophy Ending hermeneutics... This method is based on correct reading and interpretation of the meaning of the texts. Hermeneutics is the science of understanding. The method was widely used in Western philosophy.

There are also additional methods of philosophy. They are also her directions. We are talking about materialism, idealism, rationalism, empiricism.

3. The structure and content of the spiritual life of society. Individual and social consciousness. Values and ideals

The spiritual life of society includes the ideal phenomena of social life, namely, public and individual consciousness, as well as those social institutions that ensure the formation, functioning and development of spiritual life (education system, church, upbringing, cultural institutions, media).

A social institution is a stable form of organization of any sphere of life or type of activity. Social institutions can be formal or informal.

Public consciousness must be viewed from three sides:

1) Relationship with individual consciousness. Public consciousness manifests itself only through the individual.

2) From the point of view of the subject or bearer of public consciousness. Bearers of public consciousness - large or massive social groups (national-ethnic, social-class)

The structure of public consciousness:

1) Its levels (levels reflect the way ideas are expressed)

2) Forms of public consciousness (reflects the scope of public life)

Levels of public consciousness:

1) Theoretical consciousness (types: science and ideology). Ideology is a system of ideas and views that reflects the social position and interests of individuals and groups and expresses their goals and aspirations in politics, economics, and culture. The ideology is created by representatives of the intelligentsia and prominent politicians.

2) Ordinary consciousness. It is expressed in the form of mass consciousness, public opinion, feelings, emotions and moods. An essential element of public consciousness is mentality.

1) Political consciousness (political psychology and ideology)

2) Legal awareness (ideology and social psychology)

3) Morality (psychological level)

4) Religion (religious ideology and psychology)

5) Philosophy (scientific form)

6) Economic consciousness (psychology)

Philosophical methods, among which the most ancient are dialectical and metaphysical. Essentially, every philosophical concept has a methodological function, is a kind of way of thinking. Therefore, the philosophical methods are not limited to the two named. These also include methods such as analytical (characteristic of modern analytical philosophy), intuitive, phenomenological, hermeneutic (understanding), etc.

Often, philosophical systems (and, accordingly, their methods) were combined and "intertwined" with each other in different "proportions." So, Hegel's dialectical method was combined with idealism, with Marx (as, by the way, with Heraclitus) - with materialism. Gadamer tried to combine hermeneutics with rationalistic dialectics, etc.

Philosophical methods are not a "set" of rigidly fixed regulations, but a system of "soft" principles, operations, techniques that are of a general, universal nature, i.e. located on the highest (limiting) "levels" of abstraction. Therefore, philosophical methods are not described in strict terms of logic and experiment, do not lend themselves to formalization and mathematization.

It should be clearly understood that philosophical methods set only the most general regulations of research, its general strategy, but do not replace special methods and do not determine the final result of cognition directly and directly. Experience shows that "the more general the method of scientific knowledge is, the more uncertain it is in relation to the prescription of specific steps of cognition, the greater its ambiguity in determining the final results of research."

But this does not mean that philosophical methods are not needed at all. As the history of cognition testifies, a mistake on the higher levels of cognition can lead an entire research program to a dead end. For example, erroneous general initial attitudes (mechanism-vitalism, empiricism-a priorism) from the very beginning predetermine the distortion of objective truth, lead to a limited metaphysical view of the essence of the object under study.

An ever-increasing role in modern scientific knowledge is played by dialectical materialist methodology. It actually functions not in the form of a rigid and unambiguous set of norms, "recipes" and techniques, but as a dialectical and flexible system of universal principles and regulations of human activity, including thinking in its entirety.

Therefore, an important task of dialectical materialist methodology is to develop a universal mode of activity, in the development of such categorical forms that would be as adequate as possible to the universal laws of existence of objective reality itself. However, each such form is not a mirror image of the latter, and it does not automatically turn into a methodological principle.

To become one, universal dialectical provisions must take the form of normative requirements, peculiar prescriptions that (in combination with the regulations of other levels) determine the way the subject acts in cognition and change of the real world. The objective determinism of dialectical-logical principles, like all social norms in general, serves as the basis for their subsequent subjective use as a means of cognition and practical mastery of reality.

The dialectical method cannot, of course, be reduced to universal logical schemes with predetermined and guaranteed courses of thought. However, scientists are, strictly speaking, not interested in the categories "development", "contradiction", "causality", etc., but in the regulatory principles formulated on their basis. At the same time, they want to clearly know how the latter can help in real scientific research, how they can contribute to an adequate comprehension of the relevant subject area and knowledge of the truth. That is why we still hear calls from scientists for the creation of applied philosophy - a kind of bridge between universal dialectical principles and methodological experience in solving specific problems in a particular science.

Let us illustrate what has been said with the example of some of the most important principles of the dialectical method:

1. Objectivity is a philosophical, dialectical principle based on the recognition of reality in its real laws and universal forms. The main content of this principle can be presented in the form of the following requirements:

To proceed from sensory-objective activity (practice) in all its volume and development;

Realize and realize the active role of the subject of knowledge and action;

To proceed from the facts in their totality and be able to express the logic of things in the logic of concepts;

Reveal the inner unity (substance) of an object as the deep basis of all its formations;

Skillfully choose a system of methods adequate to a given subject and consciously, consistently implement it;

Consider the subject in the appropriate sociocultural context, within the framework of certain worldview orientations;

Approach all processes and phenomena constructively and critically and act in accordance with the logic of this subject.

2. Comprehensiveness - a philosophical, dialectical principle of cognition and other forms of activity, expressing the universal connection of all phenomena of reality. Includes the following basic requirements:

Isolation of the research subject and its boundaries;

Its holistic "multidimensional" consideration;

Study in a pure form of each of the sides of the subject;

The realization of cognition as a process that unfolds in depth and breadth, in the unity of its intensive and extensive sides;

Isolation of the essence, the main side of the object, its substantial properties.

The principle of comprehensiveness is most closely related to the philosophical principle of concreteness and the general scientific principle of consistency.

3. Concrete (concreteness) (from the Latin concretus - condensed) is a philosophical category that expresses a thing or a system of interrelated things in the aggregate of all its sides and connections, which is reflected as sensually-concrete (at the empirical stage) or as mentally-concrete (at theoretical stage). On the basis of this category, the dialectical principle of concreteness is developed, which includes a number of requirements:

"deduce" a given phenomenon from its substantial feature (main, essential side) and reproduce it as a dialectically dismembered whole;

To trace the refraction of the general in the individual, the essence in the phenomena, the law in its modifications;

Take into account the diverse conditions of place, time and other circumstances that change the existence of this object;

Reveal the specific mechanism of the relationship between the general and the singular;

Consider this subject as part of a wider whole, of which it is an element.

4. Historicism is a philosophical, dialectical principle, which is a methodological expression of the self-development of reality in terms of its direction along the time axis in the form of an integral continuous unity of such states (time periods) as past, present and future. This principle includes the following basic requirements:

Study of the present, modern state of the research subject;

Reconstruction of the past - consideration of the genesis, the emergence of the latter and the main stages of its historical movement;

Anticipating the future, predicting trends in the further development of the subject.

5. Contradictions principle - a dialectical principle based on real contradictions of things and is reduced to the following basic requirements:

Revealing the subject contradiction;

Comprehensive analysis of one of the opposite sides of this contradiction;

Exploring the other opposite;

Consideration of the subject as a unity (synthesis) of opposites as a whole on the basis of knowledge of each of them;

Determination of the place of contradiction in the system of other contradictions of the subject;

Tracking the stages of development of this contradiction;

Analysis of the mechanism for resolving a contradiction as a process and as a result of its development and exacerbation.

Dialectical contradictions in thinking, reflecting real contradictions, must be distinguished from the so-called "logical" contradictions, which express confusion and inconsistency of thought and are prohibited by the laws of formal logic.

With the wrong implementation and application of the principles of dialectics, numerous distortions of their requirements are possible, which means deviations from the path to truth and the emergence of delusions. These are, in particular, objectivism and subjectivism (in their various forms); one-sidedness or subjectivist unification of accidentally "ripped out" sides of an object; ignoring its essence or replacing it with secondary, insignificant moments; an abstract approach to the subject without taking into account certain conditions of place, time and other circumstances; uncritical consideration of it; modernization or archaization of the past; identification (mixing) of the preconditions for the emergence of an object with itself; understanding the resolution of a contradiction as "neutralizing" its parties and a number of others.

2... General scientific methods

General scientific approaches and research methods that have been widely developed and applied in modern science. They act as a kind of "intermediate methodology" between philosophy and the fundamental theoretical and methodological provisions of the special sciences. General scientific concepts most often include such concepts as "information", "model", "structure", "function", "system", "element", "optimality", "probability", etc.

The characteristic features of general scientific concepts are, first, the "fusion" in their content of individual properties, attributes, concepts of a number of special sciences and philosophical categories. Secondly, the possibility (unlike the latter) of their formalization, clarification by means of mathematical theory, symbolic logic.

If philosophical categories embody the maximum possible degree of generality - the concrete-universal, then the general scientific concepts are inherent for the most part abstract-general (the same), which allows them to be expressed by abstract-formal means. An important criterion for the "philosophical", "dialectic" nature of this or that "mental formation" is its necessary "participation" in the solution of the main issue of philosophy (in its entirety).

On the basis of general scientific concepts and concepts, the corresponding methods and principles of cognition are formulated, which provide the connection and optimal interaction of philosophy with special scientific knowledge and its methods. General scientific principles and approaches include systemic and structural-functional, cybernetic, probabilistic, modeling, formalization and a number of others.

Such general scientific discipline as synergetics - the theory of self-organization and development of open holistic systems of any nature - natural, social, cognitive (cognitive) - has been developing especially rapidly recently. Among the basic concepts of synergetics are such concepts as "order", "chaos", "nonlinearity", "uncertainty", "instability", "dissipative structures", "bifurcation", etc. Synergetic concepts are closely related and intertwined with a number of philosophical categories, especially such as "being", "development", "becoming", "time", "whole", "chance", "opportunity", etc.

An important role of general scientific approaches is that, due to their "intermediate character", they mediate the mutual transition of philosophical and specific scientific knowledge (as well as the corresponding methods). The fact is that the first is not superimposed on the chi T one hundred external, directly to the second. Therefore, attempts to immediately, "point blank" express a special scientific content in the language of philosophical categories are, as a rule, unconstructive and ineffective.

Logic and philosophy

Various philosophical methods. The main methods of philosophy by the means by which philosophical research is carried out are: dialectics; metaphysics; dogmatism; eclecticism; sophistry; hermeneutics. Dialectics is a method of philosophical research in which the things of the phenomenon are considered flexibly critically consistently, taking into account their internal contradictions, changes in the development of causes and consequences of the unity and struggle of opposites.

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