Instructions
See how the position of the continent relates to other continents, the equator, the north and south poles, in which hemisphere the continent is located, for example, North America is in the northern hemisphere, and Africa crosses the equator. Describe this in as much detail as possible.
Study the grid carefully and find the coordinates of the continent: the northernmost (top), southern (bottom), western (right) and eastern (left) points. To find the coordinates of a point, find the latitude and longitude.
Count the latitude from the equator, if you go up from the equator, then the latitude value will be positive, if you go down - negative. It is impossible to determine the exact value from the paper, estimate approximately according to the drawn parallels (horizontal lines). That is, if your point (for example, Cape Agulhas - the southernmost point of Africa) lies between the parallels 30 ° and 45 °, divide this distance by eye and determine about 34 ° - 35 °. For a more precise definition, use an electronic map or geographic atlases.
Count longitude from the prime meridian (this is a line passing through London). If your point lies to the east of this line, put a "+" in front of the value, if to the west, put a "-". In the same way as latitude, determine the longitude, only not along the horizontal, but along the vertical lines (meridians). The exact value can only be found on an electronic map or using a sextant.
Write down the coordinates of all extreme points of the continent in the form (latitude from -90 ° to + 90 °, from -180 ° to + 180 °). For example, the coordinates of Cape Igolny will be (34.49 ° south latitude and 20.00 ° east longitude). The modern notation of the coordinate system implies notation in degrees and decimal fractions, but previously it was popular to measure in degrees and minutes; you can use either one or the other recording system.
Globes and maps have their own coordinate system. Thanks to this, any object on our planet can be applied to them and found. Geographic coordinates are longitude and latitude; these angular values are measured in degrees. With their help, it is possible to determine the position of an object on the surface of our planet relative to the initial meridian and the equator.
Instructions
Instructions
Determine if a river flows in part of the mainland. In the northern regions, atmospheric precipitation quickly accumulates in ice, therefore, rivers with a rapid current are not observed there. In the south, on the contrary, rain moisture evaporates quickly, so there are no rivers there either. The most full-flowing rivers with a fast and turbulent flow are observed in the middle part of the country.
Find out where the river flows. All rivers flow into the seas or oceans. The junction of the river and the sea is called the mouth.
Determine which direction the river is flowing. There will be no problems with this, since the direction of the flow of the rivers is from the source to the mouth.
Also, for a complete geographic study, establish how the river flows (i.e. what is the current in it: fast, slow, stormy flow), depending on the relief.
Determine the type of river. All rivers are subdivided into mountain and plain. Mountain currents are fast and stormy; in the plains it is slow, and the valleys are wide and terraced.
Explain the economic and historical significance of the river. Indeed, throughout the development of mankind, rivers have played a significant role in the development of the area. Since the ancient times, they have been used as trade routes, for fish farming and fishing, timber rafting, water supply and irrigation of fields. Since ancient times, people have settled on the banks of rivers. Now the river is the main source of hydropower and the most important transport route.
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What is the tundra?
The natural area is located in the northern hemisphere and covers the northern part of Russia and Canada. The nature here is very sparse, and the climate is considered harsh. Summer is practically absent - it lasts only a few weeks, and the temperature usually stays at 10-15 degrees Celsius. Precipitation occurs frequently, but the total amount is small.
The tundra stretches along the entire coast of the Arctic Ocean. Due to constant low temperatures, winter lasts about nine months here (the temperature can be up to -50 ° C), and the rest of the time the temperature does not rise above + 15 ° C. Low temperatures also lead to the fact that the earth is frozen all the time and does not have time to thaw.
There are no forests or tall trees here. In this area there are only marshes, small streams, mosses, lichens, low plants and shrubs that can survive in such a harsh climate. Their flexible stems and low height allow them to adapt to cold winds.
However, the tundra is still a beautiful place. This can be especially noticed in the summer, when it sparkles with different colors thanks to the many delicious berries that spread over a beautiful carpet.
In addition to berries and mushrooms, herds of reindeer can be found in the tundra in summer. At this time of year, they eat whatever they find: lichens, leaves, etc. And in winter, deer feed on plants that get out from under the snow, while they can even break it with a hoof. These animals are very sensitive, have great charm, and also know how to swim - reindeer can freely swim across a river or lake.
Flora and fauna
The flora in the tundra is very poor. The soil of this zone can hardly be called fertile, since most of the time it is frozen. Few plant species can survive in such difficult conditions where there is little heat and sunlight. Here grow mosses, lichens, snow buttercups, saxifrage, and in summer some berries appear. All plants here are of dwarf growth. The “forest”, as a rule, grows only up to the knee, and the local “trees” are not taller than an ordinary mushroom. The geographical position is completely unsuitable for forests, since temperatures have been low for many years in a row.
As for the animals, the tundra is most suitable for those of them who prefer the sea. Due to the large amount of water in these places, many water birds live here - ducks, geese, loons. The fauna of the tundra is rich in hares, foxes, wolves, brown and
The northernmost point of Africa
The most extreme point of the African continent has the following: 37 ° 20 ′ 28 ″ north latitude and 9 ° 44 ′ 48 ″ east longitude. Thus, we can state that this point is located on the territory of one of the small states in North Africa - in Tunisia.A closer look at the characteristics of this point reveals that it is a promontory protruding far enough into the Mediterranean. The Arabic name of this world-famous point is pronounced as "Ras al-Abyad", but quite often you can find an abbreviated version of this phrase - "El-Abyad".
From a substantive point of view, both of these options are legitimate. The fact is that "races" in translation from Arabic into Russian just means "cape", so the use of the Russian analogue in this situation is quite acceptable. In turn, the word "abyad" can be translated from the original language as "white", and "el" is just an article untranslatable in this situation. Thus, the name of the extreme northern point of Africa in translation into Russian means "white cape".
Nevertheless, according to geographers, it is unlikely that this name was given to him due to its northern position. Most likely, this name reflects the special color of the sand on this Mediterranean coast.
Other names
At the same time, the cape, which is the extreme northern point of the African continent, has other names. So, at the time when Tunisia was a French colony, the name was quite widespread in European countries, which was a translation of the Arabic original into French: it was called "Cap Blanc", which in French also meant "white cape". However, the primary source of this name was the Arabic name of this geographical point.Another name common in those days was the name "Ras Engela", which, by analogy with the modern name, was often abbreviated to the version of "Engel": in fact, such a name can be translated into modern Russian as "Cape Engela". Researchers suggest that this African cape could have received the name in honor of the German traveler Franz Engel, who was quite famous in his time, who made several significant geographical discoveries at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, although his activities were more connected with South America than with Africa ...
And to find the exact location of objects on the earth's surface allows degree network- system of parallels and meridians. It serves to determine the geographical coordinates of points on the earth's surface - their longitude and latitude.
Parallels(from the Greek. parallelos- walking side by side) - these are lines conventionally drawn on the earth's surface parallel to the equator; equator - a line of section of the earth's surface depicted by a plane passing through the center of the earth perpendicular to the axis of its rotation. The longest parallel is the equator; the length of the parallels from the equator to the poles decreases.
Meridians(from lat. meridianus- midday) - lines conditionally drawn on the earth's surface from one pole to another along the shortest path. All meridians are equal in length; all points of a given meridian have the same longitude, and all points of a given parallel have the same latitude.
Rice. 1. Elements of the degree network
Geographic latitude and longitude
Geographic latitude of the point Is the magnitude of the meridian arc in degrees from the equator to a given point. It varies from 0 ° (equator) to 90 ° (pole). Distinguish between northern and southern latitudes, abbreviated s.sh. and y.sh. (fig. 2).
South of the equator, any point will have a southern latitude, and north of the equator, a northern latitude. Determining the geographical latitude of any point means determining the latitude of the parallel at which it is located. On maps, the latitude of the parallels is marked on the right and left frames.
Rice. 2. Geographic latitude
Geographic longitude of the point- This is the value of the parallel arc in degrees from the prime meridian to the given point. The initial (zero, or Greenwich) meridian passes through the Greenwich Observatory, located near London. To the east of this meridian, the longitude of all points is east, to the west - west (Fig. 3). Longitude ranges from 0 to 180 °.
Rice. 3. Geographic longitude
Determining the geographic longitude of any point means determining the longitude of the meridian at which it is located.
On maps, the longitude of the meridians is signed on the upper and lower frames, and on the map of the hemispheres - at the equator.
The latitude and longitude of any point on the Earth make it geographical coordinates. Thus, the geographical coordinates of the city of Moscow are 56 ° N. and 38 ° East
Geographic coordinates of cities in Russia and CIS countries
| Town | Latitude | Longitude |
| Abakan | 53.720976 | 91.44242300000001 |
| Arkhangelsk | 64.539304 | 40.518735 |
| Astana(Kazakhstan) | 71.430564 | 51.128422 |
| Astrakhan | 46.347869 | 48.033574 |
| Barnaul | 53.356132 | 83.74961999999999 |
| Belgorod | 50.597467 | 36.588849 |
| Biysk | 52.541444 | 85.219686 |
| Bishkek (Kyrgyzstan) | 42.871027 | 74.59452 |
| Blagoveshchensk | 50.290658 | 127.527173 |
| Bratsk | 56.151382 | 101.634152 |
| Bryansk | 53.2434 | 34.364198 |
| Velikiy Novgorod | 58.521475 | 31.275475 |
| Vladivostok | 43.134019 | 131.928379 |
| Vladikavkaz | 43.024122 | 44.690476 |
| Vladimir | 56.129042 | 40.40703 |
| Volgograd | 48.707103 | 44.516939 |
| Vologda | 59.220492 | 39.891568 |
| Voronezh | 51.661535 | 39.200287 |
| Grozny | 43.317992 | 45.698197 |
| Donetsk, Ukraine) | 48.015877 | 37.80285 |
| Ekaterinburg | 56.838002 | 60.597295 |
| Ivanovo | 57.000348 | 40.973921 |
| Izhevsk | 56.852775 | 53.211463 |
| Irkutsk | 52.286387 | 104.28066 |
| Kazan | 55.795793 | 49.106585 |
| Kaliningrad | 55.916229 | 37.854467 |
| Kaluga | 54.507014 | 36.252277 |
| Kamensk-Uralsky | 56.414897 | 61.918905 |
| Kemerovo | 55.359594 | 86.08778100000001 |
| Kiev(Ukraine) | 50.402395 | 30.532690 |
| Kirov | 54.079033 | 34.323163 |
| Komsomolsk-on-Amur | 50.54986 | 137.007867 |
| Korolev | 55.916229 | 37.854467 |
| Kostroma | 57.767683 | 40.926418 |
| Krasnodar | 45.023877 | 38.970157 |
| Krasnoyarsk | 56.008691 | 92.870529 |
| Kursk | 51.730361 | 36.192647 |
| Lipetsk | 52.61022 | 39.594719 |
| Magnitogorsk | 53.411677 | 58.984415 |
| Makhachkala | 42.984913 | 47.504646 |
| Minsk, Belarus) | 53.906077 | 27.554914 |
| Moscow | 55.755773 | 37.617761 |
| Murmansk | 68.96956299999999 | 33.07454 |
| Naberezhnye Chelny | 55.743553 | 52.39582 |
| Nizhny Novgorod | 56.323902 | 44.002267 |
| Nizhny Tagil | 57.910144 | 59.98132 |
| Novokuznetsk | 53.786502 | 87.155205 |
| Novorossiysk | 44.723489 | 37.76866 |
| Novosibirsk | 55.028739 | 82.90692799999999 |
| Norilsk | 69.349039 | 88.201014 |
| Omsk | 54.989342 | 73.368212 |
| Eagle | 52.970306 | 36.063514 |
| Orenburg | 51.76806 | 55.097449 |
| Penza | 53.194546 | 45.019529 |
| Pervouralsk | 56.908099 | 59.942935 |
| Permian | 58.004785 | 56.237654 |
| Prokopyevsk | 53.895355 | 86.744657 |
| Pskov | 57.819365 | 28.331786 |
| Rostov-on-Don | 47.227151 | 39.744972 |
| Rybinsk | 58.13853 | 38.573586 |
| Ryazan | 54.619886 | 39.744954 |
| Samara | 53.195533 | 50.101801 |
| St. Petersburg | 59.938806 | 30.314278 |
| Saratov | 51.531528 | 46.03582 |
| Sevastopol | 44.616649 | 33.52536 |
| Severodvinsk | 64.55818600000001 | 39.82962 |
| Severodvinsk | 64.558186 | 39.82962 |
| Simferopol | 44.952116 | 34.102411 |
| Sochi | 43.581509 | 39.722882 |
| Stavropol | 45.044502 | 41.969065 |
| Sukhum | 43.015679 | 41.025071 |
| Tambov | 52.721246 | 41.452238 |
| Tashkent (Uzbekistan) | 41.314321 | 69.267295 |
| Tver | 56.859611 | 35.911896 |
| Tolyatti | 53.511311 | 49.418084 |
| Tomsk | 56.495116 | 84.972128 |
| Tula | 54.193033 | 37.617752 |
| Tyumen | 57.153033 | 65.534328 |
| Ulan-Ude | 51.833507 | 107.584125 |
| Ulyanovsk | 54.317002 | 48.402243 |
| Ufa | 54.734768 | 55.957838 |
| Khabarovsk | 48.472584 | 135.057732 |
| Kharkov, Ukraine) | 49.993499 | 36.230376 |
| Cheboksary | 56.1439 | 47.248887 |
| Chelyabinsk | 55.159774 | 61.402455 |
| Mines | 47.708485 | 40.215958 |
| Engels | 51.498891 | 46.125121 |
| Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk | 46.959118 | 142.738068 |
| Yakutsk | 62.027833 | 129.704151 |
| Yaroslavl | 57.626569 | 39.893822 |
For determining latitude it is necessary with the help of a triangle to lower the perpendicular from point A to the degree frame on the line of latitude and read from the right or left on the latitude scale, the corresponding degrees, minutes, seconds. φА = φ0 + Δφ
φА = 54 0 36/00 // +0 0 01 / 40 //= 54 0 37 / 40 //
For determining longitude it is necessary with the help of a triangle to lower the perpendicular from point A to the degree frame of the longitude line and read from above or below the corresponding degrees, minutes, seconds.
Determination of rectangular coordinates of a point on the map
The rectangular coordinates of the point (X, Y) on the map are determined in the square of the kilometer grid as follows: 
1. Using the triangle, lower the perpendiculars from point A to the line of the kilometer grid X and Y, read off the values XA = X0 +Δ NS; YA = Y0 +Δ Have
For example, the coordinates of point A are: ХА = 6065 km + 0.55 km = 6065.55 km;
UA = 4311 km + 0.535 km = 4311.535 km. (the coordinate is reduced);
Point A is located in the 4th zone, as indicated by the first digit of the coordinate at given.
9. Measurement of line lengths, directional angles and azimuths on the map, determination of the angle of inclination of the line specified on the map.
Length measurement
To determine the distance between points of the terrain (objects, objects) on the map, using a numerical scale, you need to measure the distance between these points in centimeters on the map and multiply the resulting number by the magnitude of the scale. 
A small distance is easier to determine using a linear scale. To do this, it is enough to use a compass-measuring device, the solution of which is equal to the distance between the given points on the map, to apply to a linear scale and take a reading in meters or kilometers. 
To measure the curves, the “step” of the measuring compass is set so that it corresponds to an integer number of kilometers, and an integer number of “steps” is laid on the segment measured on the map. A distance that does not fit into an integer number of "steps" of a compass-measuring device is determined using a linear scale and added to the resulting number of kilometers.
Measuring directional angles and azimuths on the map
.
We connect points 1 and 2. Measure the angle. The measurement is carried out using a protractor, it is located parallel to the median, then the angle of inclination is reported clockwise.
Determination of the angle of inclination of the line specified on the map.
The determination takes place exactly according to the same principle as finding the directional angle.
10. Direct and inverse geodesic problem on the plane. In the computational processing of measurements made on the ground, as well as in the design of engineering structures and calculations for transferring projects to nature, it becomes necessary to solve direct and inverse geodetic problems. . By known coordinates NS 1 and at 1 point 1, directional angle 1-2 and distance d 1-2 to point 2, you need to calculate its coordinates NS 2 ,at 2 .
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Rice. 3.5. To the solution of direct and inverse geodetic problems |
The coordinates of point 2 are calculated by the formulas (Fig. 3.5): (3.4) where NS,at coordinate increments equal to
(3.5)
Inverse geodesic problem .
By known coordinates NS 1 ,at 1 points 1 and NS 2 ,at 2 points 2 you need to calculate the distance between them d 1-2 and directional angle 1-2. From formulas (3.5) and Fig. 3.5 it is seen that. (3.6) To determine the directional angle 1-2, we use the arctangent function. In this case, we will take into account that computer programs and microcalculators give out the main value of the arctangent = 
, lying in the range 90 + 90, while the desired directional angle can have any value in the range 0360.
The formula for the transition from k depends on the coordinate quarter in which the given direction is located or, in other words, on the signs of the differences y=y 2 y 1 and x=NS 2 NS 1 (see table 3.1 and fig. 3.6). Table 3.1
Rice. 3.6. Directional angles and main values of the arctangent in I, II, III and IV quarters
The distance between the points is calculated by the formula
(3.6) or in another way - according to the formulas 
(3.7)
Programs for solving direct and inverse geodetic problems are equipped, in particular, with electronic tacheometers, which makes it possible to determine the coordinates of the observed points directly during field measurements, calculate angles and distances for stakeout work.
A geographic coordinate system is necessary in order to accurately determine the location of an object on the Earth's surface. As you know, this system consists of latitude and longitude. The first element from this system is the angle between the local zenith (noon) and the equatorial plane, ranging from 0 to 90 degrees west or east of the equatorial boundary. Longitude is the angle formed by two planes: the meridian passing through a given point in the terrain and the Greenwich meridian, i.e. zero point. From the latter, the longitude begins, ranging from 0 to 180 degrees east and west (east and west longitude). Knowing how to navigate the terrain using latitude and longitude will help you communicate your exact coordinates in case of an emergency, when you find yourself in an unfamiliar place that is not indicated on the map, or get lost in the forest. You can find out how you can determine the latitude and longitude of your location below.
Clock for determining the location by width and longitude
How to determine a location by latitude and longitude
Determination of the local geographic longitude is carried out using ordinary clocks. To do this, it is necessary to set the exact time of the location on them at the moment. Then you should determine the time of local noon, a time-tested method will help in this: you need to find a meter or one and a half meter stick, stick it vertically into the ground. The length of the drop shadow line will indicate the time intervals that need to be detected. The moment when the shadow will be the shortest is the local zenith, i.e. the gnomon shows exactly 12 noon, while the direction of the shadow is from south to north.
At this time, you need to note the time on the clock - this will be the indication of Greenwich Mean Time. From this value, you need to subtract the indicator, which is taken from the table of the equation of time. This correction occurs due to the variability of the angular speed of movement and the dependence on the season. Taking into account this correction, the average value of Greenwich time is reduced to true solar time. The resulting difference between this solar time (i.e. 12 hours) and Greenwich time, taking into account the correction, must be converted to a degree value. To do this, you need to know that in one hour the Earth rotates 15 degrees (if you divide 360 degrees by 24 hours) longitude, or 1 degree in four minutes. If noon in a given area occurs earlier than Greenwich, indicate east longitude in your calculations, if later, then west. The closer the coordinates of the target area are to the polar regions, the more accurate the longitude measurements will be.
Once the longitude value has been found, you can begin to determine the latitude value of a particular area. First, you need to determine the duration of the daytime, which starts at sunrise and ends at sunset. Next, you need to draw up a nomogram, i.e. determination of latitude: on the left, the value of the duration of daylight hours is indicated, on the right - the date. If you combine these values, you can determine the intersection of the latitude with the midpoint. The location found will represent the local latitude. When determining latitude relative to the southern hemisphere, add 6 months to the required date. The second method is to find latitude using a conventional protractor: for this, a plumb line (thread with a weight) is fixed in the center of this tool, and its base is aimed at the Pole Star. The angle formed by the plumb line and the base of the protractor must be reduced by 90 degrees, i.e. subtract this value from its value. The value of this angle indicates the height of the Pole Star, i.e. the height of the pole above the horizon. Since the latitude is equal to the value of the pole above the horizon of a particular place, this value will indicate its degree.
Geographical coordinates determine the position of a point on the earth's surface. Geographic coordinates are spherical and consist of latitude and longitude.
Latitude- the angle between the local direction of the zenith and the plane of the equator, measured from 0 ° to 90 ° on both sides of the equator. The geographic latitude of points lying in the northern hemisphere (northern latitude) is considered to be positive, the latitude of points in the southern hemisphere is negative. It is customary to speak of latitudes close to the poles as high, but about those close to the equator - how about low.
Longitude- the angle between the plane of the meridian passing through the given point and the plane of the initial zero meridian, from which the longitude is measured. Longitudes from 0 ° to 180 ° east of the prime meridian are called eastern, to the west - western. Eastern longitudes are considered to be positive, while western longitudes are considered negative.
Geographic coordinates recording format
Geographic coordinates of one point can be expressed in different formats. Depending on whether minutes and seconds are represented as values from 0 to 60 or from 0 to 100 (decimal places).
The coordinate format is usually written as follows: DD- degrees, MM- minutes, SS- seconds, if minutes and seconds are presented as decimal fractions, then they simply write DD.DDDD... For example:
- DD MM SS: 50 ° 40 "45" "E, 40 50" 30 "" N - degrees, minutes, seconds
- DD MM.MM: 50 ° 40.75 "E, 40 50.5" N - degrees, decimal minutes
- DD.DDDDD: 50.67916 E, 40.841666 N - decimal degrees
Why you need to know the coordinates of your home
Often, houses in summer cottages and many villages do not have a clear navigation consisting of signs with street names and house numbers, or even houses with signs with numbers can be scattered throughout the village in random order (historically, as the village is being built up). There are times when everything is fine with navigation in the settlement, but not all car GPS-navigators have such a house or street. Residents of such houses have a long and, as a rule, confusing explanation of how to get to them using different landmarks. In this case, it is easier to give the coordinates of the house, because any car navigator can pave the way along the coordinates.
To work out the technical possibility of connecting the Internet in a country house, we also ask our customers to provide the coordinates of the house, especially if it is not located at the address on any of the online cartographic services.
Determination of coordinates using online cartographic services
Currently, the most famous online cartographic services with a search function are Google and Yandex maps. Consider how you can determine the geographical coordinates on a map or satellite image in the service Google Maps:
2. Find the exact location on the map. For this, the map can be moved mouse, zoom in and out by scrolling the mouse wheel. You can also find the location you want using search by name using locality, street and house. To find the place of your home as accurately as possible, switch between display modes: Map, Hybrid or Satellite.
3. Click right by clicking on the desired location on the map and choose from the menu that opens paragraph “What's in there?” . A marker in the form of a green arrow will appear on the map. Repeat the operation if the marker is not positioned accurately.
4. When you hover the mouse over the green arrow, the geographical coordinates of the place will appear, they will also appear in the search bar from where they can be copied to the clipboard.
Rice. 1. Determining the coordinates of a place by a pointer on a Google map
Now let's look at how you can determine the geographical coordinates on a map or satellite image in the service Yandex maps:
To find a place, we will use the same algorithm as for searching on Google maps. Open Yandex.Maps: http://maps.yandex.ru. To obtain coordinates on the Yandex map, use tool"Get information"(button with an arrow and a question mark, in the upper left part of the map). When you click on the map with this tool, a marker appears on it, and the coordinates are displayed in the search bar.
Rice. 2. Determination of the coordinates of the place by the pointer on the Yandex map
On search engine maps, by default, coordinates are shown in degrees with a decimal fraction with "-" signs for negative longitude. On Google maps and Yandex maps, first latitude, then longitude (until October 2012, the reverse order was adopted on Yandex maps: first longitude, then latitude).
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