Topic 1.2. Scientific research. Milestones and use of results

Scientific knowledge is developed in the process of research activities. It is research that is a way of scientific activity that provides new knowledge. Research is the main driving force behind the production of scientific knowledge. Therefore, it is necessary to consider the structure of research activities: what components does it consist of, what are its dynamics and levels?

Scientific research- the process of studying and cognizing reality, connections between individual phenomena of the environment and their patterns. Cognition is a complex process of consciousness of people. It is, in fact, a movement towards more accurate and complete knowledge. This path can be traversed with the help of scientific research.

The structure of scientific activity includes the following elements: subject, goal, object, means of activity.

In this case, the epistemological system "Subject - object" concretized as "Researcher - goal - means of research - object of research".

Subject of scientific activity- an individual (scientist), a research team and a scientific community.

Subject scientific activity functions in modern society on three interacting levels... On the the first of them the subject acts as an individual - a researcher, a scientist, whose scientific work is not necessarily joint in nature, but is always a universal labor, since it is conditioned partly by the cooperation of contemporaries, partly by using the labor of predecessors. Thus, a scientist is not an abstract individual or an "epistemological Robinson," but a "product" of socio-historical development; his individual creative activity, being quite autonomous, at the same time is always socially determined. On the second level the subject of scientific cognition is the collective, the scientific community, in which the integration of many minds is carried out, that is, it acts as a "collective scientist" (laboratory, institute, academy, etc.). Finally, at the third level the subject of scientific knowledge is society as a whole, the problem of the social organization of science and its features in various socio-economic structures are brought to the fore.

Thus, the isolation of levels allows you to reflect the objective dialectics of the individual and collective in the subject of scientific knowledge. Each of these levels is represented in science, and each is important in its own way.

The purpose of scientific activity- obtaining new scientific knowledge about the object of research, identifying the laws according to which objects can be transformed by people into the product they need.

Object of scientific activity- this is what a given science is studying, that is, everything that the scientist's thought is directed at, everything that can be described, perceived, named, expressed in thinking, etc.

An object scientific activity becomes such only as a result of the active material, practical and theoretical activity of the researcher. A fragment of reality, having become an object of cognition, is exposed, first of all, to the subject-tool influence, for example, in the course of a physical experiment, and in order for it to become an object of theoretical thinking, it is “converted” into an ideal object by presenting it through a network of scientific concepts, a specially created system scientific abstractions. Hence, it becomes necessary to introduce the concept "Subject of science", which fixes the signs of the object of cognition, necessary for its cognition in the course of active cognitive activity, in general, the socio-historical practice of the subject.

One and the same object of cognition can become the basis for the formation of the subject of a number of sciences, for example, a person has become the subject of research for several hundred sciences, natural and social and humanitarian, the same can be said about such objects as language, science, technology, etc. In the future, it may be necessary to create a general theory of this object, which is possible only on the basis of combining data from different sciences by applying the principles of a systematic approach and leads to the creation of a new scientific discipline. This was the case, for example, in the case of science of science, ecology, and today the task of creating a human science is being put forward. Another situation is also possible: subject of science is formed as a reflection of the essential parameters of a set of objects, taken in a certain respect. So, the subject of chemistry is the transformation of various substances, accompanied by a change in their composition and structure; the subject of physiology is the functions of various living organisms (growth, reproduction, respiration, etc.), the regulation and adaptation of organisms to the external environment, their origin and formation in the process of evolution and individual development.

Means of activity- what can be used to gain knowledge: textbooks, maps, instruments, etc.

Facilities scientific activities include material and technical devices, instruments, installations, etc., as well as various kinds of symbolic means, primarily the language - a special scientific and natural. The means should also include the methods of obtaining, checking, substantiating and constructing knowledge, which, like language, are singled out as an independent factor due to their specificity and special significance in scientific and cognitive activity. It should be especially noted the fundamental change in all means of scientific activity in connection with the ongoing technical re-equipment of science with information technology, the radical improvement of technical means in the field of public information exchange.

Scientific research goes through a number of stages that make up the structure of scientific research.

Most often, there are seven successive stages, each of which characterizes the stages of scientific research. In a short version, the structure and stages of scientific research look like this.

1. First of all, you need to decide on the problem... This stage consists not only in finding a problem, but in a clear and precise formulation of the research objectives, since the course and effectiveness of the entire research largely depends on this. At this stage, it is required to collect and process the initial information, to think over methods and means of solving problems.

2. At the second stage, it is necessary to put forward and then substantiate the initial hypothesis... Usually, the development of a hypothesis is carried out on the basis of the formulated tasks and the analysis of the collected initial information. A hypothesis may have more than one option, and then the most appropriate one must be selected. To clarify the hypothesis of the working order, experiments are being carried out that allow a more complete study of the object.

3. The third stage - theoretical research... It consists in the synthesis and analysis of the basic laws that are given by the fundamental sciences in relation to the object under study. At this stage, with the help of the apparatus of various sciences, additional, new, not yet known regularities are obtained. The purpose of the research at the level of theory is to generalize phenomena, their connections, to obtain more information to substantiate a working hypothesis.

4. Experimental research continues the theoretical stage... An experiment, as a scientifically proven experience, is the most difficult and time-consuming part of the study. Its goals may be different, since they depend on the nature of the entire study, as well as the sequence of its conduct. In the case of a standard course and procedure for conducting research, the experimental part (experiment) is carried out after the stage of theoretical study of the problem. In this case, the experiment, as a rule, confirms the results of theoretical hypotheses. Sometimes, after the experiment, the hypothesis is refuted.

In some cases, the order of the research is changed. It happens that the third and fourth stages of scientific research are reversed. Then the experiment can precede the theoretical part. This sequence is typical for exploratory research, when the theoretical basis is insufficient for hypothesis. In this case, the theory is intended to generalize the results of experimental studies.

5. Analysis of the results and their comparison... This stage implies the need to compare the theoretical and experimental stages of scientific research for the final confirmation of the hypothesis and further formulation of conclusions and consequences following from it. Sometimes the result is also negative, then the hypothesis has to be rejected.

6. Final conclusions... The results are summed up, conclusions are formulated and their correspondence to the initially set task.

7. Mastering the results. This stage is typical for technical work. It is a preparation for the industrial implementation of the research results.

These seven steps are the main stages of scientific research, which must be passed from a working hypothesis to the implementation of the research results in life.

Classification of scientific research (SRW).

Scientific research is classified by the types of communication with social production, by the degree of importance of research for the national economy, depending on the sources of funding, by the duration of development and by the intended purpose.

Research and development work is classified according to various criteria.

By types of communication between research and development and social production:

1) work aimed at creating new processes, machines, devices, structures, etc .;

2) work aimed at improving industrial relations, increasing the level of organization of production without creating new means of labor;

3) work in the field of social, humanitarian and other sciences, which are aimed at improving social relations, increasing the level of spiritual life of people.

In terms of the importance of research for the national economy:

1) the most important work performed according to scientific and technical programs approved by the State Committee for Science and Technology;

2) work performed according to the plans of line ministries and departments;

3) work performed according to the plans of research organizations;

Depending on funding sources:

1) state budget research, financed from the state budget;

2) contractual research and development, financed in accordance with concluded agreements between customer organizations that use the results of research in this area, and organizations performing research;

3) works financed from the regional budget;

4) works financed by private firms, banks, sponsors.

By the duration of R&D development:

1) long-term, developed over several years;

2) short-term, usually completed in one year.

According to its intended purpose, research and development work is classified into three types:

- fundamental,

- applied and

- development.

Basic research- obtaining fundamentally new knowledge and further development of the system of already accumulated knowledge. The goal of fundamental research is the discovery of new laws of nature, the discovery of connections between phenomena and the creation of new theories. Basic research is associated with significant risk and uncertain in terms of obtaining a specific positive result, the probability of which does not exceed 10%. Despite this, it is fundamental research that forms the basis of the development of both science itself and social production.

Applied research- creation of new or improvement of existing means of production, consumer goods, etc. Applied research is particular research in the field of technical sciences, aimed at "illuminating" the scientific knowledge gained in fundamental research. Applied research in the field of technology does not, as a rule, have a direct relationship with nature; the object of research in them is usually machines, technology or organizational structure, i.e. "Artificial" nature. The practical orientation (focus) and the clear purpose of applied research makes the probability of obtaining the results expected from them very significant, at least 80-90%.

Development- the use of the results of applied research for the creation and development of experimental models of equipment (machines, products), production technology, as well as the improvement of existing equipment. At the stage of development, the results, the products of scientific research take such a form that allows them to be used in other branches of social production.

Between fundamental research and industrial production lies an area of interrelated stages: applied research - development - project - development... Design and development belong both to the field of science and to the field of technology.

Yekaterinburg

Considered and approved at meeting No. ___ of the Central Methodological Council of the College on 02/11/2009

Chairman of the CMS _____________________ O. V. Ledyankina, Ph.D.

Dear colleagues!

If in science the main goal is the production of new knowledge, then in education the goal of research activity is to acquire a functional research skill as a universal way of mastering reality, to develop the ability for a research type of thinking, to activate the student's personal position in the educational process based on the acquisition of subjectively new knowledge ( that is, independently acquired knowledge that is new and personally significant for a particular student).

Research beginners face many challenges. These problems are connected, first of all, with the fact that students do not have a good idea of what exactly they are going to do.

Research presupposes self-reliance. You yourself have to determine the direction of interest (or simply relevant), choose a research topic, study the literature on this topic, organize an experiment, obtain and process data, compare your results with those already available in science and draw conclusions.

In order not to get lost in a huge amount of information, each student-researcher has a scientific advisor - an experienced teacher. However, the supervisor only guides the student, helps him navigate, but does not do the work for him.

1. The structure of the research work ………………………………… .5

2. Determination of the topic of research work ……………………… ... 8

3. Working with literature ………………………………………………… .8

4. Who are the subjects and where to get them …………………………… .10

5. Choice of research methods and techniques ……………………………… .11

6. How to handle research data …… ... 12

7. How to start writing a research paper …………… ..12

8. How to arrange a research paper ……………………………… 13

9. What needs to be done to defend the research work ……… ..16

10. Creation of electronic presentations to accompany the defense of research works ……………………………………………………… .17

11. Report at the defense, SSS conference ………………………………… ..20

12. Registration of theses of research work ……………………… 21

Literature

Applications

STRUCTURE OF THE RESEARCH WORK

The research work has the following structure: title page (page number 1), table of contents (content), list of abbreviations (if any), introduction, main part, conclusion (with conclusions and practical recommendations), list of references and applications.

In administered(3-6 pages) the author can justify the choice of the research topic, reflect its relevance, show the scientific novelty, theoretical and practical significance of the work. The logical conclusion of the introduction will be the wording goals, objectives of the research, object and subject of research, working hypothesis(what was supposed to be obtained as a result of the study) and the main provisions for the defense.

Relevance

A) socio-political relevance - justification of the need to develop this topic from the point of view of the current socio-political situation, accumulated social problems.

B) scientific relevance - the situation that has developed within science of the need to develop this particular topic right now. The theoretical aspect is the insufficient development of this issue in theory. The practical aspect is ineffective work in this direction at the present stage.

Object, subject of research

The object of research is a phenomenon or process of objective reality, towards which the scientific search for the author of the work is directed. The object is distinguished on the basis of the analysis of the problem chosen by the researcher; in medicine, research objects can be:

Disease or group of diseases,

One of the aspects of medical work (direction, technology, etc.).

The subject of research is a fragment of an object, some side of it. In medicine - the processes, methods, forms, technologies studied in the study of the object. The subject sets the cognitive boundaries of research. One and the same object can imply many subjects of research. The subject of research most often either coincides with its topic, or they are very close in sound (Novikov A.M.).

The object and the subject of research are related to each other as general and particular. The part that serves as the subject of research is highlighted in the object (Kuzin Fayu, Uvarov V.M.).

The purpose and objectives of the study

The goal is the research strategy, its boundaries. What should be achieved in the end of the work.

Objectives - research tactics; the way to achieve the goal. Separately - consecutive steps towards the goal.

The goal is formulated by a verb in an indefinite form (study, describe, establish, find out, consider, analyze, etc.), or a noun in the nominative case (study, analysis, identification, etc.).

Tasks are formulated with verbs in an indefinite form.

The classification of tasks and an approximate list of verbs used to formulate them are presented in Appendix 4.

Research objectives may include the following elements:

1. Solving certain theoretical issues that are part of a general problem (for example, identifying the essence of the concept under study, phenomenon).

2. Studying the practice of solving this problem (identifying its usual state, typical shortcomings and difficulties, their causes), best practices.

3. Justification of the necessary system of measures to solve the problem.

4. Experimental verification of the proposed system of measures from the point of view of compliance with the optimality criteria (achieving the maximum possible results in the appropriate conditions in solving this problem).

The theoretical work should contain clauses 1.2

Practical work - I, 2, 3

Experimental work - 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

Hypothesis

A hypothesis is an assumption, the truth of which has not yet been proven, a prediction:

a) The expected solution of the research problem (what conclusions do you expect to receive) - ascertaining hypothesis, OR / AND

b) The expected way of solving the research problem (how do you plan to conduct the research) - predictive hypothesis.

In the course of the study, the hypothesis can be confirmed, refined, refuted. This must be indicated in the conclusion.

Let us consider how the goals, object and subject of research are formulated using the example of the topic "Opinion of the urban population about the organization and quality of pulmonary care." Purpose of the study- development of recommendations for improving pulmonary care. Research object is the contingent of subjects (groups of people, animals, etc., in our example, the urban population), and subject- what you are researching in a given contingent (psychological, physiological or other parameters, in our example this is an opinion).

The main part consists of 2-3 chapters.

Chapter 1(10-20 pages, should be named in accordance with its content, for example: "The current state of the problem of providing pulmonary care") is review and analysis of literature on the research topic.

It is advisable to consider the state of the selected scientific direction at the present stage, which has already been done by other authors, which in this matter is still unclear and therefore requires further research.

Chapter 2(5-8 pages, may be called "Research methods") usually contains a description of research methods and the contingent of subjects. The organization of the experiment should be described in sufficient detail, the methods should be described, and detailed information about the subjects should be given. After reading this chapter, there should be no questions about how this or that data was obtained. Anyone who reads it should understand how to conduct similar research.

Chapter 3(10-15 pages, may be called "Research results") is usually a summary of your own research findings. It often contains tables with the obtained data (not initial, but already processed), figures summarizing or illustrating the results, the author's explanations about certain data obtained. Usually, this chapter is divided into paragraphs, in accordance with the logic of the presentation of the material.

Quantity conclusions in research work should correspond to the number of tasks set (and, ideally, represent a solution to these tasks). However, this is rarely the case in practice. Two conclusions can correspond to one task, less often - the conclusions correspond little to the tasks set. Inconsistency of conclusions with the tasks set should be avoided.

The research work also gives practical advice formulated on the basis of experimental data.

Bibliography(usually at least 10 sources) is drawn up according to the current GOST.

V annexes research work includes tables that are not included in the main text, samples of questionnaires, tests (if they are developed independently), etc. If the appendix consists of several sheets, then the first one is signed from above: Appendix 1, and each subsequent one: Appendix 1 (continuation) (without quotes).

Research volume(excluding the list of references, appendices, figures and tables) is usually 30-50 typewritten pages.

A rather difficult point is the correct design of the research work. It is necessary to very strictly adhere to all the requirements (such and such an indent from the beginning of the chapter to the text, such and such - from the beginning of the paragraph to the text, etc.).

Requirements for the wording of the topic

1. Relevance.

2. Arises from the interests of the researcher and / or department (supervisor).

3. The object and subject of research should appear in the formulation of the topic.

4. In the formulation of the topic, in the first place - the subject, in the second - the object, in the third - restrictions.

There must be (implicitly or explicitly) a problem in the wording of the topic.

WORKING WITH LITERATURE

It is necessary to study the literature to determine the state of the selected problem in modern science, what has been done by other authors in this direction, and what is still not clear enough. After obtaining experimental data and formulating preliminary (working) conclusions, it is necessary to compare the obtained data with those already available in science.

Once you start working with literature, immediately form card index of studied literary sources... That is, for each literary source, enter a registration card similar to the library one, in which you enter the full bibliographic indication of the source, and on the back side - a short annotation, as well as the place where the extracts from this source are located, if you did. You can arrange such cards in your own filing cabinet alphabetically, or by major topics and alphabetically. Immediately fill in these cards correctly (according to GOST) so that you do not have to re-take the book in the future to clarify, for example, the number of pages in it. Collecting the card index is important for the subsequent preparation of the list of references, as well as in order to find the source of interest to you in a short time.

When working with literature, it makes sense to make extracts indicating the page of the book (magazine) on which you found the information you need. This is necessary in order not to have problems in the future when writing a literary review - the first chapter of a research work.

It is also advisable to have a card index of the studied literary sources on a computer with an indication of the file, which contains brief extracts from each source. Think carefully about how to organize your abstract files and how to name them. This is very important to be able to quickly find the information you need. Be sure to do backups important data!

Remember that the most "valuable" for your research work are literary sources in recent years. They can be found mainly in scientific journals that match your profile. In the library of your educational institution, you can find enough medical literary sources (Appendix 1). When you find an article related to the topic of your research, look at the list of references at its end - so you will find out what other publications are available on this topic.

In addition to the literature on the topic of research work, it is also necessary to study everything related to indicators that you will film from your subjects, and research methods... You must clearly understand what is hidden behind each indicator and be able to interpret them correctly. You will learn how to interpret the indicators correctly only when you start receiving your own data, but you need to have a rough idea in advance.

If you conduct your experiment on humans, be prepared for the fact that a person is always interested in knowing the results of his measurements. The subjects are often asked to answer questions like: "Well, what have I got?" Don't neglect the answers. This is not only scientific ethics or a manifestation of respect and intelligence, it is also the practice of interpreting data. While you explain to the subject at length how this or that indicator can be evaluated, it may suddenly dawn on you what this indicator actually means.

Learning how to work effectively with literature is not easy, but it is very important. Work with literature will continue throughout your life.

Bibliography

Bibliographic descriptions of documents in the bibliography are drawn up in accordance with the requirements of GOST 7.1-2003. In bibliographic descriptions, abbreviations in the field of output data are allowed in accordance with GOST 7.12 and 7.11.

Auxiliary pointers

The structure of auxiliary indexes of work (project) may include:

List of abbreviations;

List of symbols;

Index of tables;

Index of illustrations, etc.

Applications are designed to facilitate the perception of the content of the research work and may include: materials supplementing the text; intermediate formulas and calculations; tables of auxiliary data, illustrations of an auxiliary nature, instructions, questionnaires, methods; protocols, expert opinions, etc.

Application presentation rules:

Appendices are placed at the end of the research project;

Every application should start on a new page and have a meaningful title;

Applications are numbered with Arabic numerals by ordinal numbering. The application number is placed in the upper right corner above the application title after the word "Application";

Applications should have end-to-end pagination in common with the rest of the work (project);

All applications in the main part of the work (project) must have links.

In the text of any scientific work, links are used to concretize and confirm the accuracy of the data, figures, facts, citations.

structural elements of work(tables, illustrations, attachments),

In educational research works, they most often use combined links when it is necessary to indicate the pages of the cited works in combination with the general numbers of other sources.

For instance:

As you can see from the research ...

Bibliography

The location of literature in the list is chosen by the author depending on the nature, type and purpose of the work.

The most often used alphabetical and in the order of mention of literature in the text methods of positioning literature in the list.

Tables are a form of organization of the material that allows you to systematize and shorten the text, to ensure the visibility and clarity of information.

Rules for naming tables:

Each table should have a title that accurately and concisely reflects its content. The name of the table is placed above it;

Tables are numbered with Arabic numerals by ordinal numbering within the entire text;

The word "Table" and the serial number of the table are placed above it in the upper right corner above the table name;

If there is only one table in the text, then it is not numbered, the word "Table" is not written.

Tables, depending on their size, are placed after the text in which they are mentioned for the first time, or on the next page, and, if necessary, in the appendix.

All tables in the text of the work should be referenced.

Illustrations

Illustrations include: photographs, reproductions, drawings, sketches, drawings, plans, maps, diagrams, graphs, diagrams, etc. The use of illustrations is advisable only when they replace, supplement, disclose or explain the verbal information contained in the work.

Illustration design rules:

Illustrations are denoted by the word "Fig." and are numbered in Arabic numerals by ordinal numbering within the entire text;

If there is only one illustration in the text, then it is not numbered and the word "Fig." do not write);

The word "Fig.", The serial number of the illustration and its title are placed under the illustration. If necessary, explanatory data is placed in front of this information;

Illustrations are located immediately after the text in which they are mentioned for the first time, or on the next page.

Formulas should be selected from the text on a separate line.

Formulas should be numbered sequentially with Arabic numerals.

Explanations of the symbols included in the formula should be given directly below the formula.

Mathematical equations. The order of presentation of mathematical equations is the same as for formulas.

Text research work should be carried out using printing and graphic computer devices.

Pages of the text of the work, including printouts from a computer, must correspond to the A4 format.

The text should be placed on one side of a sheet of paper, observing the following margins: left at least 30 mm, right at least 15 mm, top at least 20 mm, bottom at least 20 mm.

Text font: Times New Roman, 14 point size, black color, one-and-a-half spacing.

Pagination research work.

Pages of the text are numbered with Arabic numerals, observing continuous numbering throughout the text, including the Appendices.

The title page is included in the general page numbering of the text. There is no page number on the title page.

Parts, chapters are numbered in Roman or Arabic numerals.

Paragraphs, paragraphs, sub-paragraphs of the text are numbered in Arabic numerals with a period, for example: 1., 1.1., 1.1.1. etc.

Introduction, body chapters, conclusion, bibliography, indexes and appendices should start on a new page and have a heading in capital letters or in bold. Paragraphs, clauses and subclauses are arranged in order one after another

Headings of structural text elements should be positioned in the middle of the line or left-aligned without a period at the end, without underlining. Word hyphenation in titles is not allowed. The distance between headings and text should be at least 2 spacing.

The text of the research work prepared in accordance with the above requirements is drawn up in a special folder or bound.

Graphs and maps

Plots with sectors reveal the relationship between the whole and its parts at a given time.

Curve plots represent evolution over time and highlight trends.

Graphical visual documents can sometimes be used in place of horizontal column charts.

Maps are only a means of support and provide the ability to quickly determine a geographic location.

The research presentation should include:

1) the name of the study;

2) the purpose of independent work;

3) the course and result of the research;

5) an annotated list of used resources.

The main flaws in the presentations of the study:

The course of research activity is not reflected at all, there is no problem statement, no conclusion.

Instead - a presentation of theoretical material or just information on a topic.

At the same time, there are many unjustified various technical effects that divert attention from the content.

The mistake most often made when displaying visual materials is the use of too small print in the texts: column names, numbers, dates, etc.

FORMATION OF RESEARCH ABSTRACTS

All works presented at the Regional Conference of SSS are published in the collection of conference materials in the form of abstracts.

Abstracts - briefly formulated main provisions of the report, lectures, messages, etc .;

Abstracts are drawn up in the "Microsoft Word" format, the volume is up to 3 pages, without graphs, figures and tables; Times New Roman font, font size - 14, spacing - one and a half; page parameters: margins - top - 2 cm, bottom - 2 cm, left - 3 cm, right -1.5 cm, paper size - A4.

Registration scheme:

Job title (bold, centered)

Leader - surname, initials, (Petrov V.V.)

Institution where the work was done, city

Text (double spaced indent)

LITERATURE

1. GOST 7.1. - 2003. Bibliographic record. Bibliographic description [Text] Int. 2004-07-01. - M .: Gosstandart of Russia: Publishing house of standards. - M., 2004 .-- p. 2 - 47.

2. Information culture of a teacher: didactic materials to help listeners of IRRO educational programs - 40 p.

3. Kuznetsov, I.N. Essays, term papers and theses. Methods of preparation and execution [Text]: teaching aid. - 4th ed., Revised. and add. - M .: Dashkov and Kº, 2007. - 340 p.

4. Improving the pedagogical skills of a teacher: the experience of creating a system of methodological work at school / auth.-sost.N. V. Shirshina. - Volgograd: Teacher, 2008 .-- 172 p.

5. Formation of personal information culture in libraries and educational institutions / NI Gendina, NI Kolkova, IL Skipor, GA Starodubova. - 2nd ed., Rev. - M.: School Library, 2003 .-- 296 p.

Annex 1

List of medical periodicals

1. Obstetrics and gynecology

2. Antidose (supplement to the magazine "People's Commissariat")

3. Be healthy

4. Bulletin of otorhinolaryngology

5. Bulletin of psychosocial and correctional and rehabilitation work

6. Bulletin of the Ural Medical Academic Science

7. Bulletin of surgery named after Grekov

8. Military Medical Journal

9. Questions of balneology, physiotherapy

10. Nutrition issues

11. Management and economics issues for health leaders

13. Physician and information technology

14. Hygiene and sanitation

15. Chief Nurse

16. Journal of Microbiology, Epidemiology and Immunology

17. Journal of Russian Law

18. Health

19. Public health and habitat

20. Healthcare

21. Healthcare of the Russian Federation

22. Dental technician

23. Clinical gerontology

24. Clinical laboratory diagnostics

25. Clinical medicine

26. Medical assistance

27. Nurse

28. Health Manager

29. New in dentistry

30. Panorama of Prosthetic Dentistry

31. Pediatrics

32. Applied Psychology

33. Applied Psychology and Psychoanalysis

34. Problems of social hygiene

35. Problems of healthcare management

36. Problems of standardization in health care

37. Russian Bulletin of Perinatology and Pediatrics (appendices are issued)

38. Russian medical journal

39. Nursing (supplements are released)

40. Directory of the head of the CDL

41. Handbook of a paramedic and midwife

42. Ecology and life

43. Health Economics

44. Epidemiology and infectious diseases

1. Healthy lifestyle

2. Medical bulletin

3. Medical newspaper

4. Pharmaceutical Bulletin

Appendix 2

RESEARCH EVALUATION CRITERIA

criteria	grade
1.relevance	2 - The topic is aimed at resolving or highlighting issues related to the development and implementation of new technologies, improving the social sphere 1- The topic repeats well-known works and developments, some aspects are of interest for consideration 0 - The topic is not relevant
2. Novelty	3 - Qualitatively new knowledge obtained as a result of research, original solution of the problem, scientific refutation of known provisions 2 - New representation or new vision of a known problem based on analysis or generalization 1 - New presentation, solution of individual issues, particular aspects, particular problems
3. Research element	5 - A full cycle of research, including observations or conducting an experiment, processing and analysis of the obtained material, creating a new product 4 - Research involving primary observations made by other authors, own processing, analysis 3 - Research conducted on the basis of literature sources, published works and etc. 2- There are elements of research or generalization, abstract work with the folding of known information. 1 - Elementary compilation work, presentation of known facts, truths.
4 the relevance of research	4 - The work can be recommended for publication, used in the practical activities of the medical institution 3 - Can be used for the subsequent scientific activities of the author, in the work of the SSS OU 2 - Has a partial applied nature 1 - Has value only for the author, is the first experience of scientific activity
5. Presentation	3 - Expressive, logical, compact, with elements of rhetoric. 2 - Orderly, more or less coherent, but the vocabulary is not expressive, pauses, references to the text of the report are allowed. 1 - The report is read out according to the prepared text.
6. Composition of the report	3 - There is an introduction, a goal is indicated, the logic of construction, scope and design requirements are maintained. 2 - Basic requirements are met mediocre. 1 - There is no harmony and consistency of presentation, the goals, objectives, conclusions are poorly visible.
7. Bibliography	2 - Presented quite fully, corresponds to the concept of the work, used monographs, works; quotes are provided, there are links, the requirements for list 1 are met - The number of sources is limited, works of a popular nature are used, they are studied superficially.

Appendix 3

Sample title page design

MINISTRY OF HEALTH OF SVERDLOVSK REGION

STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

SECONDARY PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

SVERDLOVSK REGIONAL MEDICAL COLLEGE

Aspect marker

Content aspect	Aspect marker
SEMANTIC BLOCK 1 - "INTRODUCTION"
Known solution	It is known that ... Methods are known ... They have been widely used ... A significant number of publications (1-15) are devoted to the problem ... -18) Coverage of the problem ... found reflection in monographs (9-11); in a number of articles (12-18); theses (3-5)
Advantages of the known solution	The method proposed in (19) compares favorably with ..., allowing to increase ..., improve ..., eliminate ... Among the advantages of the approach described in monograph (7) should be attributed ... The advantage of the proposed by V.P. Dubrovin (9) of the method is ... The concept ..., formed by the team of authors of the monograph (3), allows ..., opens up opportunities ...
Disadvantages of the known solution	The disadvantage of the known methods ... is ... Use ... is associated with serious difficulties. High labor intensity ... does not allow ..., does not allow. However, despite ..., there are obstacles ... Along with the advantages, the approach proposed by the authors of (8) has the following disadvantages ... Nevertheless, the solution proposed in (4) does not allow ..., does not allow ... However, the approach to solving the question of ..., described in (11), does not give an answer to ..., unjustifiably narrows the possibilities ... The method proposed in (17) ... limits ..., has a negative effect on ...
Target setting	The purpose of this work ... The purpose of this work is ... The purpose of this work is ... The main objectives of the study are ...
SEMANTIC BLOCK 2 - "MAIN PART"
Description of the proposed solution or subject matter	The proposed ... form ... is based on ... A method is proposed ... in which ... One of the methods is proposed below ... The proposed approach ... is based on ...
Feature (novelty) of the proposed solution	A feature of the proposed method ... is ... A feature ... is ... A distinctive feature of our proposed method ... is ... A distinctive feature of our proposed method ... is ... A characteristic feature that distinguishes our method ... is ... The novelty of the proposed approach is ... The novelty ... is manifested in ... The fundamental difference and novelty of the model we proposed is ...
Purpose of the subject of consideration	... used for ... intended for ... ... used for ... ... can be used as ... ... possibly used as ...
Research location	Developed at Moscow State University ... VINITI employees proposed ... KemGAKI is conducting research ... On the basis of gymnasium school No. 32 in Novokuznetsk, ...
Technical means, equipment	During the study, the following equipment was used ... The technical base of the system was a computer network ... For ... equipment was used, including ... For the purpose of ... an apparatus was used ...
Research method	In this work, the method is used ... The study assumed the complex use of such methods as ... For ... an interview was used ... The combination of observation and testing allowed ... The use of methods such as ... made it possible ... The composition of the methods that ensured this research work included ... ... the methodology was applied …… The method is based on…
Experimental verification	The experiment showed that ... The experiment was carried out in ... The purpose of the experiment - ... Our experiments proved that ... Experimentally it was shown ... The experiments confirmed that ... The tests were carried out ... A series of tests made it possible to establish ...
Examples of	For example, ... Let's look at an example ... Let's give an example ... Let's look at an example ... This example confirms that ... This example gives reason to say ...
Mathematical apparatus	Let's use the formula ... (presence of mathematical symbols) Calculations show that ... Based on the formula ...
Visual presentation of information	See fig .: See table. (graph, diagram ...) In fig. 1 clearly shows the data given in table. 6, allow us to assert that ... The graph demonstrates the dependence ... The diagram clearly reflects ...
SEMANTIC BLOCK 3 - "CONCLUSION"
results	The results showed the following ... The results were as follows ... From the results obtained it is clear that ... The main results of the study are as follows ... The main result of the analysis should be considered ... The results obtained ... make it possible to assert that ...
conclusions	So, we can conclude that ... The conducted studies allow us to conclude about ... So, summing up, we can state the following ... In conclusion, we note that ... Summarizing the previous reasoning, we can say ... Summing up our analysis, it should be noted ... From all that has been said, the conclusion follows o ... Thus, we can conclude ... Therefore, we come to the conclusion ... ... the work allows us to conclude that ...
Advantages of the proposed solution	This method has the advantage that ... Therefore, the advantages are ... The analysis showed the advantages of the method ... The proposed method allows you to increase ..., accelerate ..., reduce ...
Recommendations	The system can be recommended for ... Both ... and ... could be recommended for ... This method can be recommended for ... ... can be used for ...

Appendix 6

RESEARCH PREPARATION

Yekaterinburg

Preparation of research work / Comp. Kostyleva E.O., Limushin V.P., Schepelina E.V., Egoshina Yu.V., - Yekaterinburg: GOU SPO SOMK, 2009. - 33 p.

A problem for oneself and for everyone, for science and for practice. The study begins by identifying a problem that is highlighted for special study. You should distinguish between a problem for yourself and a problem for everyone. The problem for myself is a gap in the knowledge of the research itself, in its personal experience. For science, perhaps this problem has already been solved. But there are also problems that have not yet been resolved by anyone. If they are relevant to everyone, they need to be investigated. When starting a scientific work, sometimes a researcher does not have a sufficiently clear idea of what has been done before him in this area. He runs the risk of doing wasted work that only he needs.

Another circumstance that must be taken into account is the difference between scientific problem and practical task. In a science that studies one of the types of practical activity, the researcher proceeds, directly or indirectly, from the requests of practice, and, ultimately, the solution of any scientific problem contributes to its improvement. But the request for practice itself is not yet a scientific problem. It serves as a stimulus for the search for scientific means of solving the problem and therefore presupposes an appeal to science. A practical task and a scientific problem do not correlate with each other in a straightforward "one-to-one" manner. To translate a practical task into the language of science, to correlate it with scientific problems, it is necessary to take into account all the structural links connecting science with practice, with their specific content. One practical problem cannot be solved on the basis of studying many scientific problems, and, conversely, the results of solving one scientific problem can contribute to solving many practical problems.

Research topic.

The problem should be reflected in the research topic. It is not easy to formulate a topic. It is necessary to designate it in such a way that it reflects the movement from what has been achieved by science, from the familiar to the new, the moment of collision of the old with what is assumed in research. First of all, the researcher himself should be clear, on the one hand, with what broader categories and problems it relates, and on the other, what new cognitive and practical material he intends to master. The first approach to defining a topic is rarely successful. As a rule, only what lies on the surface, something self-evident, is caught. It is necessary to delve into the problem in order to reflect it in the title of the work. The topic of scientific research can be various issues and tasks that arise both in the field of science and in the field of technology (production). A scientist, depending on his experience, can choose the topic itself and the object of scientific research based on his past activities, the study of this branch of science.

Topic requirements:

a) the topic must be relevant, i.e. research and conclusions from it must meet the needs of human activity at a given time.

b) the research topic should be sufficient
significant and should raise a new issue.

c) the topic should be included in a specific scientific
problem.

d) the distinctive properties of a scientific topic should be - the novelty of the object and setting, the attraction of sufficiently significant and reliable factual material and the use of the principles and methods of science, where for a long time humanity has established important laws and principles.

e) everything known, obvious and self-evident
cannot be the subject of scientific research.

Repetition of research already done is not scientific research. A simple explanation is not entirely science. Citing examples as evidence is not scientific evidence.

So, in order to formulate a topic, it is necessary to familiarize yourself with the issue in a wider area and study this broader area in order to acquire a sufficiently good outlook. Only against this background is it possible to identify individual unknown issues and focus on a narrower issue, which will be the topic of the study. A much more favorable environment for a scientist in those cases when he begins his work in a relatively large and experienced team of scientific workers who are collectively involved in the development of a complex problem. In such a collective as, for example, a department of a university or departments of a research institute, there is a collective production of science in accordance with the aspiration of the time. In such a team, a significant role is played by discussion and criticism of both the planned works and their methodology, and partially and completely completed works.

Individual employees of such a team are united into groups to develop themes, or they develop themes each separately, and there is a demarcation of the theme and methodology between them at the direction of the head. In the collective production of scientific research, the main team leader plays a significant role, who provides continuous advice and criticism of the work being done.

After preparing sufficient materials for the formulation of the topic, the scientist must make a report to the manager or the team on the proposed scheme for setting the topic, its methodology and methodology in all possible or planned results. In this report on the formulation of the topic, the guiding scientific idea of the work should be expressed - a hypothesis, which is a draft of the theoretical solution of the topic. In cases where a researcher plans to defend a dissertation and obtain a scientific degree, it is necessary that his scientific research meets the requirements of WAKOM for dissertation topics. The dissertation work for the degree of candidate of sciences should contain new scientific and practical conclusions and recommendations, reveal the applicant's ability for independent scientific research, deep theoretical knowledge on the issues of the dissertation. The dissertation work for the degree of Doctor of Science should be an independent research work containing a theoretical generalization and solution of a major scientific problem that represents a significant contribution to science and practice.

The relevance of scientific research.

The raising of the problem and the formulation of the topic presuppose an answer to the question: why is this problem necessary at the present time to be studied?

There is a difference between the relevance of a scientific direction in general and the relevance of a specific topic within this direction.

The relevance of the direction, as a rule, does not need a complex system of evidence. She is, as it were, asked a different matter - the substantiation of the relevance of the topic. It is necessary to convincingly show that it is precisely this among others (some of which have already been studied by others) - the most urgent. Any research, by definition, should be significant, firstly, for science, and secondly, for practice. When awarding a scientific degree, a dissertation research submitted by an applicant for defense is certainly evaluated from these positions.

The study can be considered relevant if not only the given scientific direction, but also the topic itself is relevant in two respects: firstly, they meet the urgent need of practice, and secondly, the results obtained fill the gap in science, which is currently not has the means to solve this urgent scientific problem.

Object and subject of research.

On the one hand, it is necessary to distinguish between the whole range of phenomena to which the attention of the researcher is directed, that is an object, a on the other, what he undertakes to acquire new knowledge about - thing his scientific work.

Highlighting the subject allows the author to focus on the main characteristics for him, the properties of the object and the facts related to this main thing. To solve specific research problems, it will be necessary to attract a lot of knowledge that has already been obtained by science by this time. But new knowledge will be provided only about one thing, allocated as special and original subject of study, and this will be a real contribution to this scientific discipline.

When this condition remains outside the field of vision of a scientist, it turns out that his conclusions repeat well-known provisions. This means that the research actually did not take place, because the ultimate goal for the sake of which it, in fact, was carried out - the acquisition of new knowledge, has not been achieved. The need to obtain such knowledge determines everything else in the study. Therefore, when revealing any characteristic of a study, it is imperative to establish the relationship of this characteristic to obtaining a new result. Determining the relevance, the researcher thinks about how important the need of science and practice for knowledge of a certain type, and establishes the place and specifics of the missing knowledge, putting forward the problem. The subject, as noted, designates that aspect of the object of research, regarding which such knowledge will be obtained.

Finally, at the end of the study, it is necessary to describe and briefly state what is the novelty of the results obtained.

Determining the object of research, one should answer the question: what is being considered? And the subject denotes the aspect of consideration, gives an idea of \ u200b \ u200bthe how the object is viewed in this particular study, by this scientist. A subject is a model of an object. Sometimes the requirement to single out the object and the subject of research is considered formal.

In fact, it is truly meaningful, since it helps the researcher, at the beginning of the work, to determine the direct path to the set goal, to focus on the main direction.

The purpose and objectives of the study.

By setting a goal, the scientist determines what result he intends to obtain in the course of research, and tasks give an idea of what needs to be done to achieve the goal. Forming the tasks, the scientist thereby designates the logic of his research, sets a number of intermediate goals, the fulfillment of which is necessary for the realization of the general goal.

Hypothesis and defended provisions.

One of the methods for the development of scientific knowledge, as well as a structural element of the theory, is a hypothesis - an assumption in which, on the basis of a number of facts, a conclusion is made about the existence of an object, connection or cause of a phenomenon, and this conclusion cannot be considered completely proven. It is important to keep in mind that such assumptions usually refer not just to the statement of the existence of an event or phenomenon, but to clarify the connection between them and the observed known phenomena. The hypothesis as an assumption about the lawful order of phenomena and other essential connections and relationships also has in mind the assumption about individual connections. In all cases, the hypothesis is not reliable, but probable knowledge. It is such a statement, the truth and falsity of which has not been established. The process of establishing the truth or falsity of a hypothesis is the process of cognition. One and the same in content assumption, referring to the same subject area, appears, depending on the degree of its confirmation, either as a hypothesis or as an element of theory.

In the development process, a hypothesis unfolds into a system or hierarchy of certain statements, in which each subsequent element follows from the previous one. Therefore, in order to put forward a hypothesis, you need to know a lot about the object under study, thoroughly study it. Only then can you develop a truly scientific, detailed assumption, a theoretical concept that needs solid proof.

It should be noted that this attitude, which stems from the very nature of scientific work, often runs counter to research practice. A hypothesis is often put forward at the very beginning, barely starting research. This hypothesis requires a serious, laborious substantiation and thorough, detailed verification. Since in this case it actually does not exist, there is no proper research work either. Therefore, at the initial stage, it is better not to call the hypothesis regularly appearing and very vague assumptions about how things should be - what the object chosen for study is, what will be the system of actions to achieve the planned result, etc. Suffice it to call all this with the words "working assumption".

Even at the stage of forming a hypothesis, before testing it, it is necessary to comply with some of the requirements for it. The hypothesis should be fundamentally verifiable. At the moment, science may not yet have at its disposal technically feasible means of empirical testing of the hypothesis. However, this does not mean that the scientist has no right to put forward it at all. The hypothesis should reflect stable and necessary connections, inherent in the studied phenomena, which can, if necessary, acquire the character of a law or regularity. Finally, the most essential feature of a scientific hypothesis is its non-standard or not obvious.

The hypothesis must be hypothetical. The hypothesis and the defended provisions reveal the researcher's idea of what is not obvious in the object, that the scientist sees in it something that others do not notice.

The novelty of the results, their significance for science and practice.

It is necessary to clearly understand that in this case, novelty acts as a separate characteristic of research and refers to its results. This means that it is possible to give a final answer about the novelty, or, so to speak, fill in the corresponding heading only after the scientific work is completed. However, this does not mean that the researcher remembers the novelty only at the end of the path and does not think about it at the beginning. On the contrary, the entire course of research is subordinated to the need to acquire new knowledge; all other methodological characteristics are oriented towards it. Actually, in a broad sense, this is the purpose and meaning of scientific work - to obtain such knowledge.

As a first approximation, the question of novelty arose even at the stage of substantiating the relevance and defining the subject. Then it was necessary to designate with respect to what new knowledge should be obtained. New knowledge in the form of assumptions was put forward in the hypothesis and in the defended positions. When the work is completed, when comprehending and evaluating its results, it is necessary to give a concrete answer to the question of their novelty: what has been done from what others have not done, what results have been obtained for the first time? If there is no convincing answer to this question, serious doubts can arise about the meaning and value of the entire work. At this stage, the correlation of the main methodological characteristics is manifested: the more specifically the problem is formulated and the subject of research is highlighted, the practical and scientific relevance of the topic is shown, the clearer it is for the researcher himself what he did for the first time, what is his specific contribution to science. In the case when each of the characteristics included in the system mutually reinforces and complements the other, this system acts as an integral indicator of the quality of the research.

So, the general process of performing theoretical and experimental research as a separate topic as part of the problem being developed by the team, and the dissertation work can be represented by the following scheme in stages:

Stage 1. General acquaintance with the area of upcoming research and the formulation of the topic. Drawing up an annotation. Drawing up a general preliminary plan for the development of the topic. General statement of the topic and its main purpose (in most cases coinciding with the name of the topic). Allocation of the main tasks (questions) into which the entire development is divided. Report. List of basic literature.

Stage 2. Selection of literary, archival sources. Drafting
source annotations. Analysis, comparison and criticism of the
data. Drawing up your views on separate sources and on
separate questions. Critical review of the literature and
state of the issue.

Stage 3. Clarification of the wording of the topic. The final formulation of the goal and objectives of the topic. Clarification and detailing of the plan. Development of a theoretical solution to the topic (hypothesis) based on the development and criticism of worked out sources. Justification of the need for experiments. Reports.

Stage 4. Development of a plan and methodology for an experiment or experienced
research to test theoretical solutions. Rationale for the topic and
experimental techniques. Systematic processing and analysis of the received
results and current findings.

Stage 5. Processing of the entire complex of experimental data, comparison with
theoretical solutions. Charting and derivation
empirical dependencies. Analysis of the discrepancy between the hypothesis and
experience. Checking experiments or setting new ones if necessary.
Refinement of theoretical solutions based on empirical verification and
development of the final solution. Drawing up general and specific conclusions,
preparation of final tables, graphs, etc. Providing
to the head. Reviewing. Report. Reworking and fixing the software
reviews.

Stage 6. Literary processing of all research material. Presentation of the topic by stages of research (setting goals and objectives, state of the art, presentation and criticism of primary sources, preliminary solutions, tasks and experimental technique, experimental data in tables and graphs, comparison with a preliminary solution, presentation of the final solution). Editing and finishing of text. Fine production of graphs, drawings, photographs. Final design.

Rationale (Synopsis) is a presented and structured research problem of the research that the graduate student intends to conduct during his studies and the result of which will be the Dissertation.

The structure of the Synopsis generally corresponds to the structure of the Introduction of the Dissertation (or other qualifying work: term paper, thesis, dissertation for the degree of candidate and doctor of sciences), opens

The title page, which contains the wording of the topic of the proposed research,

and includes the following sections:

Title, rationale for the choice of the topic, characteristics of the research problem (correlates with the formulation of the research problem on the title page of the Synopsis);

Relevance and novelty of the topic: analysis of the relevance of the proposed research / problem that is supposed to be solved during the project. The purpose of this section is to formulate an idea of the need for the proposed research / project and the implementation of the Dissertation;

Formulation of the main idea (hypothesis);

Description of the material on the basis of which the thesis will be written: analysis of the research literature identified and studied by the undergraduate on the stated problems. The complex of research literature includes works in Russian and foreign languages, identified in various media. When preparing the Synopsis, as a rule, these are several dozen works (minimum for term paper - 40, minimum for master's thesis - 80). As the Dissertation is being prepared, the complex of literature is replenished with newly identified and studied literature. The depth of retrospection is determined by the goals and objectives of the research being carried out, as well as the specific requirements of the relevant branch of science. The purpose of this section is to formulate a position on the degree of study of the research problems proposed by the master's student;

Goals and objectives of the work: formulation of the purpose of the proposed research / project. It is necessary to try to formulate the goal in the grammatical categories of the result, not the process. For example: identify the main characteristics ...; formulate the main stages ...; identify and characterize the features of the process ...; to form and justify the sequence of preparation ... It is not recommended to: study the main characteristics ...; explore the features of the process ...; analyze policy ... In this case, the goal should be formulated in such a way that it points to a result that is important for political science and public policy science and analysis.

Formulation of tasks that need to be solved in order to successfully achieve the goal (as a rule, two or three major tasks of the proposed research are formulated);

Theoretical and methodological basis of the research. It is necessary not only to list the theoretical and methodological approaches on which the student will rely, but also to reveal how the listed approaches will help to achieve the goal and solve the research problems;

Research methodology with justification of the selected research methods and data sources

The degree of scientific elaboration of the research topic and the scientific novelty of the research

Work structure: substantiation of the approximate structure of the proposed research / project

If necessary, a characteristic of the corpus of sources of the research being carried out in terms of the information content of the sources, the degree of completeness and reliability of the information they contain;

If necessary, a description of the chronological and geographical scope of the proposed study;

If necessary, the theoretical value and practical significance of the work, the main provisions for the defense, approbation of the research results, justification of the selected "cases" for analysis

Basic bibliography on a selected topic.

The volume is 300 words. Presentation - A4 sheet, date

APPENDIX 7. Registration of components (parts) of a master's thesis in accordance with the requirements for master's theses

The master's thesis should contain:

Title page;

Introduction;

Chapters of the main part;

Conclusion;

Bibliographic list;

Applications.

The title page is filled in according to strictly defined rules. The table of contents, which lists all the titles of the dissertation work and indicates the pages from which they begin. Table of contents headings must be identical to headings in the text. Headings begin with an uppercase letter without a dot at the end.

The introduction should be brief, it substantiates the relevance of the chosen topic, the goal, the content of the tasks, the object, subject and hypothesis of the research are formulated, the chosen research method, the theoretical significance and practical value of the results obtained are indicated, the provisions submitted for defense are reported.

The relevance of the study is determined by:

The need to supplement theoretical foundations related to the problem under study;

The need for new theoretical, historical, experimental data; the need for new methods;

The need for practice.

The purpose of the research is the desired, end result of the research. Specific research tasks are solved in accordance with the goal. The description of the solution of the problems should constitute the content of the chapters of the dissertation work. Object and subject of research. An object is a process or phenomena that give rise to a problem situation and are selected for study.

Subject - certain properties of an object, their relationships, dependence of the object and properties on any conditions. The characteristics of an item are measured, determined, classified. The subject of research can be phenomena as a whole, their individual aspects, aspects and relations between individual parties and whole.

Research hypothesis. The word "hypothesis" can be disclosed as "a scientific assumption put forward to explain a phenomenon and requiring experimental verification and theoretical justification in order to become a reliable scientific theory." The hypothesis for a graduate study would be Gg. specific and put forward an assumption about the existence of some phenomenon, its properties, relationship with some other phenomena. Research can either confirm or refute the hypothesis put forward in the thesis. In any case, the obtained experimental material, its analysis makes it possible to determine the further study of the problem under study.

Research methods are a tool for obtaining material to achieve the goal set in the work. The main methods of scientific research are: observation, experiment, modeling. When working on a thesis, a comprehensive use of all groups of methods is possible, which is due to the characteristics of the object and subject of research and the goals set.

At the end of the introduction, you can reveal the structure of the dissertation work.

Chapters of the main part. Most often, the text of the main part contains 2-3 chapters. The content of the chapters should correspond to the topic of the dissertation work, reveal it.

The main part deals with the methodology, research technique, summarizes the results.

Conclusion. In the conclusion, a generalized final assessment of the work done is given in accordance with the objectives of the study, in terms of confirming the hypothesis. In the conclusion, possible ways of applying the results obtained in theory and practice can be noted.

Bibliographic list of used literature. The list is arranged in alphabetical order. Each literary source must have a complete bibliographic description and be reflected in the dissertation.

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH, ITS STRUCTURE,

STAGES AND LEVELS

4.1. Research structure

4.2. Stages and levels of scientific research

4.3. The problem as the beginning of scientific research and a special form of knowledge

4.1. Research structure

The structural components of research activities include the subject, object and means. In this case, the epistemological system "subject - object" (considered by us in the first lecture) is concretized as "researcher - research means - object of research".

The subject of scientific activity functions in modern society at three interacting levels. In the first of them, the subject acts as an individual - researcher, scientist, whose scientific work is not necessarily joint in nature, but is always universal labor, since it is conditioned partly by the cooperation of contemporaries, partly by using the labor of predecessors. Thus, a scientist is not an abstract individual or an "epistemological Robinson," but a "product" of socio-historical development; his individual creative activity, being quite autonomous, at the same time is always socially determined. At the second level, the subject of scientific cognition is the collective, the scientific community, in which the integration of many minds is carried out, that is, it acts as a "collective scientist" (laboratory, institute, academy, etc.). Finally, at the third level, the subject of scientific knowledge is society as a whole, the problem of the social organization of science and its features in various socio-economic structures are brought to the fore. Thus, the isolation of levels makes it possible to reflect the objective dialectics of the individual and the collective.

in the subject of scientific knowledge. Each of these levels is represented in science, and each is important in its own way.

The object of scientific activity becomes such only as a result of the active material, practical and theoretical activity of the researcher. A fragment of reality, having become an object of cognition, is exposed, first of all, to the subject-tool influence, for example

v in the course of a physical experiment, and in order for it to become an object of theoretical thinking, it is "converted" into an ideal object by presenting it through a network of scientific concepts, a specially created system of scientific abstractions. Hence, it becomes necessary to introduce the concept "subject of science", which fixes the features of the object of cognition, necessary for its cognition in the course of active cognitive activity, in general social and historical practice of the subject.

In the future, it may become necessary to create a general theory of this object, which is possible only on the basis of combining data from different sciences by applying the principles of a systematic approach and leads to the creation of a new scientific discipline. This was the case, for example, in the case of science of science, ecology, and today the task of creating a human science is being put forward. Another situation is also possible: the subject of science develops as a reflection of the essential parameters of a set of objects taken

v a certain attitude. So, the subject of chemistry is the transformation of various substances, accompanied by a change in their composition and structure; the subject of physiology is the functions of various living organisms (growth, development

reproduction, respiration, etc.), regulation and adaptation of organisms to the external environment, their origin and formation in the process of evolution and individual development.

The means of scientific activity include material and technical devices, instruments, installations, etc., as well as various kinds of symbolic means, primarily the language - a special scientific and natural one. The means should also include the methods of obtaining, checking, substantiating and constructing knowledge, which, like language, are singled out as an independent factor due to their specificity and special significance in scientific and cognitive activity. It should be especially noted the fundamental change in all means of scientific activity in connection with the ongoing technical re-equipment of science with information technology, the radical improvement of technical means in the field of public information exchange. The presence of personal computers and the Internet becomes the principal points,

connecting the researcher not only to databases, but also to expert systems for consultations; the ability to integrate national and international information databases and provide a fundamentally new level of knowledge in various fields.

4.2. Stages and levels of scientific research

The considered components of scientific activity reveal its static structure, while the analysis of the structure of activity in dynamics presupposes the isolation of the main stages of scientific research. In the most generalized form, the following stages can be distinguished: formulation of the problem, isolation of the object and subject of research; experiment; description and explanation of the facts obtained in the experiment,

- creation of a hypothesis (theory); prediction and verification of the knowledge gained. Obviously, the stages of research vary depending on the specifics of the science of natural science, mathematics or social and humanitarian disciplines.

For the structural differentiation of an integral system of scientific knowledge and cognitive activity in methodology, there are concepts of empirical and theoretical levels. Let's consider these concepts. The empirical is not reduced to ordinary practical knowledge, since it is the level of specialized scientific knowledge, which presupposes, in contrast to the ordinary, purposeful

systematic activity based on special methods

and systems of concepts. For the same reason, all mental activity cannot be considered theoretical. It is also wrong to identify the empirical and theoretical with the sensual and logical. As sides of a single process, sensory and logical characterize any cognition, the direct relationship of the subject to the object, the peculiarities of individual cognitive activity. The division into sensuality and thinking is based on data from the physiology of higher nervous activity and psychology, while the division into empirical

and the theoretical is distracted from processes of this kind, refers to scientific knowledge and classifies the methods and forms of knowledge, types of

followings. Finally, and it is especially important to emphasize, the sensory and logical are presented and combined in a certain way both at the empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge.

The empirical and theoretical levels differ, firstly, in the ways and methods of activity: the basis of the empirical level is subject-tool, scientific-practical activity, thanks to which the accumulation and primary generalization of the initial cognitive material is ensured; at the heart of the theoretical level -

abstract theoretical activity on the creation of ideal models and the construction of various knowledge systems. Secondly, the levels of scientific knowledge differ in the nature and forms of knowledge: at the empirical level, factual knowledge is formed, empirical generalizations, directly reflecting the properties and relationships of the phenomena of reality in the unity of the essential and the nonessential; at the theoretical level, in a logically organized form of theoretical knowledge, the essential characteristics of phenomena and their regularities are reflected. The specificity of each of the levels will be characterized in more detail in the further consideration of the methods and forms of scientific knowledge in accordance with their belonging to one or another level.

The relativity of the division of scientific knowledge into levels is manifested in the fact that they are closely interconnected, interdependent. Not a single type of empirical research is possible without theoretical premises, which represent a kind of initial "conceptual framework", a system of concepts and principles that reproduce certain ideas about the subject of research. This coordinate system acts as a prerequisite and reference point for empirical research. Not a single branch of knowledge is preconditioned with respect to the initial conceptual representations of its subject.

In the same way, any theory, no matter how abstract, ultimately rests, as you know, on practice, on empirical data, which does not require special proof. The opposition of the empirical and the theoretical in relation to, is a kind of abstraction, the result of methodological constructive activity, which allows structuring the types of activity and forms of knowledge "by floors". This always means a deep inner connection that really exists between the individual and the general, phenomenon and essence, empirical facts and their theoretical explanation, which makes possible empirical, practical confirmation of the theory. Accordingly, it should be borne in mind that the abstractions of the empirical and theoretical levels are rather approximate and do not fully reflect the structural components of real knowledge. Thus, the division into “levels”, in essence, does not take into account such an important component of scientific knowledge as the philosophical and worldview prerequisites and foundations through which the social and cultural conditioning of the entire cognitive process ultimately manifests itself.

Each of the levels is characterized by its own set of methods and forms of knowledge; at the same time, a number of methods, which will be specially noted, are applied at both levels. It should also be noted that there are sciences in which separation into theoretical and empirical levels is impossible, they seem to belong to one of the levels,

for example, the logical and mathematical disciplines are presented at the theoretical level, while the natural history sciences - geology, paleontology and many others like them - exist mainly at the empirical level, and the theory functions, as a rule, are primary empirical generalizations and hypotheses.

Abstraction of knowledge at the empirical and theoretical levels gives rise to serious problems when referring to humanitarian knowledge. And the point is not only that empirical methods prevail in these sciences, the possibilities of formalizing and mathematizing knowledge, constructing an abstract theory are small, but also that the objects themselves, for the most part texts, "linguistic phenomena" are dual in nature and connect essentially inseparable material-sign and conventional, symbolic-ideal beginnings.

4.3. The problem as the beginning of scientific research

and special form of knowledge

V Translated from the ancient Greek, the term "problem" means a difficulty or obstacle, to overcome which appropriate practical or theoretical efforts are made. Accordingly, a distinction is made between practical and theoretical problems.

V scientific research deals with problems of empirical

th and theoretical nature, which arise in the process of growth and development of scientific knowledge. No matter how different these problems may differ in their generality, level and content, their purpose is to accurately and clearly indicate the difficulty that has arisen at one stage or another of cognition, in order to begin its study and give its solution a purposeful and exploratory character.

The emergence of a new problem is usually preceded by the appearance of a problem situation in science.

A problem situation is an objective state of inconsistency and inconsistency of scientific knowledge, resulting from its incompleteness and limitations. Depending on what elements of knowledge come to mismatch or confrontation, the following main types of problem situations are identified:

· discrepancy between theories and some experimental data. Thus, the discovery of paradoxes in the system of physical knowledge when correlating new facts and new theoretical consequences was transformed into problems, the search for a solution to which led to the construction of the special theory of relativity and quantum mechanics;

· confrontation of theories applied to one subject area, according to different parameters.

There are three types of competition between theories:

1 - equivalent both in the empirical (equally well consistent with empirical data) and in the semantic (carry the same content) plan, but differing linguistically - by means (language) of description. For example, quantum mechanics is represented by wave mechanics by L. de Broglie and E. Schrödinger and matrix mechanics by W. Heisenberg, M. Born;

2 - equivalent in empirical terms, but nonequivalent in semantics, when different hypotheses are built on the basis of the same experimental data, different theoretical content is singled out. Thus, the theories of A. Ampere and his followers, who stood on the point of view of long-range action, competed with the theory of T. Maxwell, who defended short-range action;

3 - competition of theories that are not empirically equivalent and have different semantics. For example, chemists accepted the oxygen theory of A. Lavoisier, although her ability to explain experimental facts (in comparison with the prevailing phlogiston theory) seemed too complicated and obscure;

Finally, the third type is a problem situation that arises as a clash of paradigms, research programs, styles of scientific thinking, which, in turn, gives rise to the so-called con-

and in the Copernican system); 2 - the contradiction between theory and methodological

kami of the scientific community. For example, in the seventeenth century. the model of scientific theory was considered mathematics with its deductive method, and in the eighteenth - early nineteenth century. the prevailing belief was that only theories obtained with the help of inductive and experimental methods can be truly scientific;

3 - the contradiction between theory and one or another worldview, which is considered a more serious test for theory than empirical anomalies. Thus, Newtonian mechanics was not rejected for inaccurate prediction of planetary motion, but many, in particular G. Leibniz and H. Huygens, did not agree with its philosophical foundations, which contradicted the prevailing worldview.

These types and types appear as fundamental problematic situations that can play an essential role in the development of science.

The problematic situation as an objective state of scientific knowledge is fixed in the system of statements - thereby the pro

a problem in which contradictions and incompleteness, implicitly contained in a situation, take an explicit and definite form. Having formulated the problem, the researcher, in fact, chose the path along which the search for its solution will go. That is why the identification of an objectively existing problem situation and the formulation of the problem are considered by most methodologists to be the beginning of a research search. At the same time, the very question of the "beginning" of research is not indisputable, since science is known

and another situation is when the formulation of a general theoretical problem is the goal and result of a preliminary solution of a number of particular problems and questions, as, for example, in the classical case of the statement of twenty-three problems by the mathematician D. Hilbert.

V the problem as a special form of knowledge, the essence of the mismatch of knowledge is fixed by the question. It is the question that allows you to focus

and identify the main contradiction and the content of the problem situation. However, one should not equate every question with a problem. Problem

– this is such a question, the answer to which is absent in the accumulated knowledge of mankind, while the answer to the problem-question is derived from the knowledge contained in the problem statement itself. The answer to the information question (for example, in what century did writing appear in Russia?) Is sought in the accumulated information using a special search. In special cases, the formulation of a scientific problem may be preceded by the solution of special problems, for example, the restructuring of the empirical substantiation of theoretical knowledge in accordance with new facts, which, in turn, poses the problem of changing the picture of the world, as, for example, in the case of a radical transformation of the electrodynamic picture of the world by A. Einstein ...

As knowledge formulated in an interrogative form, the problem has a number of features. First of all, this knowledge cannot be obtained with the help of deductive inference, in which the conclusion (formulated problem) would logically follow from the premises. The formulation (formulation) of the problem is carried out using a certain set of logical procedures and operations, in particular, the fixation of contradiction and uncertainty in the form of a question; spatial-temporal orientation, localization and assessment of the problem (differentiation of the known and the unknown, assimilation - the search for samples, assignment to a certain type, etc.); development of a conceptual apparatus, etc.

Another feature is specific types of assessments of this knowledge. The truth assessment is inapplicable to the interrogative form of the problem, but such types of assessments as correctness, meaningfulness, admissibility, practical and theoretical significance, etc. are possible.

physical version of problems, as imaginary, or pseudo-problems. Imaginary problems, by virtue of their closest connection with the formulation and solution of real problems of science, act as necessary moments of developing knowledge. They are similar to real problems in their logical form, their fictitiousness is clarified only through empirical verification and logical analysis of the results obtained, comparison with scientific facts, material production and spiritual practice. That is why it is impossible to categorically and unconditionally put into the category of imaginary problems of extrasensory perception, telepathy, telekinesis or the existence of unidentified flying objects. Distinguish between relatively imaginary and absolutely imaginary problems. The former can include many physical problems that are quite real within the framework of classical physics, but lose their meaning in new physical theories. This happened with the problems of the absoluteness of space and time, the world ether as a fixed frame of reference, invariability of mass, length, etc., when they got into the context of the theory of relativity. To the second - those that contradict, as it is considered today, the laws of our physical world, such as, for example,

the problem of a perpetual motion machine or the problem of substantiating the mechanical properties of light ether, which (as imaginary) was defined by M. Planck, proceeding from the recognition of the non-mechanical nature of light vibrations. As the history of science shows, both these and other imaginary problems are integral to scientific research and have a certain cognitive value, since they stimulate the search and enrich it with even a negative result.

A general philosophical analysis of the existence of pseudo-problems in cognition made it possible to identify the following main groups and, accordingly, the sources of their appearance:

· “Ontological” pseudo-problems arising from the attribution of objective existence to phenomena that do not have such an existence (for example, the problem of the existence of caloric, phlogiston, ether);

· logical-epistemological pseudo-problems caused by the objective difficulties of cognition and the level of development of means of observation (these may include the problems of geocentrism or the search for an explanation of the expanding Universe, for example, due to the emergence of "out of nothing" an atom per unit of time, and space);

· logical-grammatical and semantic pseudo-problems generated by the inconsistency between the language, its structure, rules

and logic. The last group is exemplified by the paradoxes that arise when the object and metalanguages are not distinguished, as in the case of the paradox of set theory discovered by B. Russell. In his opinion, here

there is a shift in one sentence of words of different logical types or different semantic levels of the language.

Until now, it was mainly the logical and methodological characteristics of the problem as a form of knowledge that were considered, but when turning to the "mechanisms" of setting, choosing and solving scientific problems, it turns out that along with these parameters, it is also necessary to take into account the historical, scientific and socio-cultural aspects of cognitive procedures. Thus, the formulation of a new problem essentially depends on such an objective factor as the degree of maturity or development of the subject of research (for example, the problems of the ecological crisis on the planet were not posed by the scientists of the 16th century).

This question has its own social background, because society, as K. Marx wrote, “always sets itself only such tasks that it can solve, since upon closer examination it always turns out that the task itself arises only when the material conditions for its solution are already are present, or at least are in the process of formation. "

It should be noted that in the history of science, other situations are quite common when the formulation of the problem reflects the objective maturity of the subject of research, but does not take into account the preparedness of public scientific thinking for the perception of this problem. It is known that most of the contemporaries of the founder of the doctrine of heredity, G. Mendel, did not understand what was at stake in the laws discovered by him. The results obtained by the scientist were significantly ahead of the existing level of science. Mendel's work contradicted the traditional approaches of science of that time to the study of heredity, as well as the prevailing one in the middle of the 19th century. way of thinking. We meet a similar situation in the history of the discovery of vitamins (the work of N.I. Lunin) with the only difference that the author himself did not understand the meaning of his works. Thus, the formulation, choice and solution of scientific problems arising as a consequence of the discrepancy, contradictions and incompleteness of scientific knowledge are essentially conditioned not only by scientific, but also by social and cultural-historical factors.

The dependence of the formulation and nature of the problem on sociocultural factors is most clearly expressed in humanitarian knowledge, in general in the sciences of the spirit, where the problem as a form of scientific knowledge has its own characteristics.