Polysemy, synonymy, antonymy, homonymy, paronymy in the Russian language
Most Russian words have not one, but several meanings. They're called polysemantic or polysemantic(gr. poly - many + semantikos - meaning) and are contrasted with unambiguous words. The ability of lexical units to have several meanings is called polysemy or polysemy.
The ambiguity of a word is usually realized in speech: the context (i.e., a complete segment of speech in semantic terms) clarifies one of the specific meanings polysemantic word. For example, in the works of A. S. Pushkin we encounter the word house in these values: The secluded manor house, fenced off from the winds by a mountain, stood above the river(house - building, structure); I'm scared to leave the house(house - dwelling); The whole house was ruled by one Parasha(house - household); Three houses are calling for the evening(home - family); The house was in motion(house - people living together).
Usually even the narrowest context is enough to clarify the shades of meaning of polysemantic words; cf.: quiet 1 voice - quiet, quiet 2 disposition - calm, quiet 3 driving - slow, quiet 4 weather - calm, quiet 5 breathing - even, etc. Here the minimum context - a phrase - allows you to distinguish the meanings of the word quiet.
Different meanings of a word, as a rule, are interconnected and form a complex semantic unity, which is called semantic structure of the word. The connection between the meanings of a polysemantic word most clearly reflects the systemic nature of language and, in particular, vocabulary.
Among the meanings inherent in polysemantic words, one is perceived as main, main thing, and others - like derivatives from this main, initial value. The main meaning is always indicated first in explanatory dictionaries, and it is followed, under numbers, by derivative meanings. There can be quite a lot of them.
Yes, the word go in the seventeen-volume "Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language" (BAS) 26 meanings are noted, and in the "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" edited by D. N. Ushakov - 40 meanings.
Taken in isolation, out of context, a word is perceived in its basic meaning, in which it most often functions in speech. Derived meanings are revealed only in combination with other words. So, when mentioning the verb go action arises in consciousness - move with one's feet: Tatiana walked alone for a long time(P.). But when we encounter this word in speech, we easily distinguish its various meanings; Wed from A. S. Pushkin: Go where your free mind takes you(go 1 - follow, move in some direction to achieve something); There the stupa with Baba Yaga walks, wanders by itself(go 2 - go somewhere (about objects); What motivates a proud soul?.. Is war going to Rus' again?(go 3 - oppose someone); P I received your letter... It took exactly 25 days(go 4 - be on the way, being sent); The hours go by and the days go by(go 5 - flow, pass (about time, age)); I took a few steps where there seemed to be a path, and suddenly I got stuck waist-deep in the snow.(go 6 - have a direction, fly over, extend); And there are some rumors about you(go 7 - spread (about rumors, news)); Steam comes from the fireplace(go 8 - come out, flow out from somewhere); It seemed like it wanted to snow...(go 9 - about precipitation); How's your bargaining going?(go 10 - complete, pass); Go to anything with hope and cheerful faith(go 11 - show readiness for something); Red goes better with your black hair(go 12 - be to the face), etc.
The word acquires ambiguity in the process of historical development of the language, reflecting changes in society and nature, their cognition by man. As a result, our thinking is enriched with new concepts. The volume of the vocabulary of any language is limited, so the development of vocabulary occurs not only through the creation of new words, but also as a result of an increase in the number of meanings of previously known ones, the death of some meanings and the emergence of new ones. This leads not only to quantitative, but also to qualitative changes in vocabulary.
At the same time, it would be incorrect to assume that the development of word meanings is caused only by extralinguistic (extralinguistic) factors. Polysemy is also determined purely linguistically: words can be used in figurative meanings. Names can be transferred from one item to another if these items have common characteristics. After all, the lexical meaning of words does not reflect all the differential features of the named object, but only those that attracted attention at the time of nomination. Thus, many objects have common connections, which can serve as the basis for the associative rapprochement of these objects and the transfer of names from one of them to another.
Synonyms (gr. synonymos - same name) are words that differ in sound, but are identical or similar in meaning, often differing in stylistic coloring: here - here, wife - spouse, look - look; homeland - fatherland, fatherland; brave - courageous, courageous, fearless, fearless, undaunted, daring, dashing.
A group of words consisting of several synonyms is called synonymous row(or nest). Synonymous series can consist of both multi-root and single-root synonyms: face - face, overtake - overtake; fisherman - fisherman, fisherman. The first place in the synonymous row is usually given to the word that is decisive in meaning and stylistically neutral - dominant(Latin dominans - dominant) (it is also called the core, main, support word). Other members of the series clarify, expand its semantic structure, and complement it estimated values. So, in the last example the dominant of the series is the word brave, it most succinctly conveys the meaning that unites all synonyms - “not experiencing fear” and is free from expressive and stylistic shades. The remaining synonyms are distinguished in semantic-stylistic terms and by the peculiarities of their use in speech. For example, intrepid- a book word, interpreted as “very brave”; daring- folk poetic, means “complete prowess”; dashing- colloquial - “brave, taking risks.” Synonyms brave, courageous, fearless, fearless differ not only in semantic nuances, but also in the possibilities of lexical combinability (they are combined only with nouns that name people; you cannot say “brave project”, “fearless decision”, etc.).
Members of the synonymous series can be not only individual words, but also stable phrases (phraseologisms), as well as prepositional case forms: a lot - over the edge, without counting, the chickens don’t peck. All of them, as a rule, perform the same syntactic function in a sentence.
Synonyms always belong to the same part of speech. However, in the word formation system, each of them has related words that relate to other parts of speech and enter into the same synonymous relationships with each other; Wed handsome - charming, enchanting, irresistible --> beauty - charm, enchantment, irresistibility; think - think, reflect, ponder, ponder --> thoughts - thoughts, reflections, thoughts, thoughts. Such synonymy is consistently preserved between derived words: harmony - euphony; harmonious - euphonious; harmony - euphony; harmonious - euphonious[Peshkovsky A. M. Selected works. M., 1959. P. 174]. This pattern clearly demonstrates the systemic connections of lexical units.
The Russian language is rich in synonyms; rare synonymous series have two or three members, more often there are many more. However, compilers of synonym dictionaries use different criteria for their selection. This leads to the fact that the synonymous series of different lexicographers often do not coincide. The reason for such discrepancies lies in the different understanding of the essence of lexical synonymy.
Some scientists consider it an obligatory sign of synonymous relations between words that they designate the same concept. Others take their interchangeability as a basis for identifying synonyms. The third point of view comes down to the fact that the decisive condition for synonymy is the proximity of the lexical meanings of words. In this case, the following criteria are put forward: 1) proximity or identity of lexical meanings; 2) only the identity of lexical meanings; 3) proximity, but not identity of lexical meanings.
In our opinion, the most important condition synonymous words - their semantic proximity, and in special cases - identity. Depending on the degree of semantic proximity, synonymy can manifest itself to a greater or lesser extent. For example, synonymy of verbs hurry - hurry up is expressed more clearly than, say, laugh - laugh, burst into laughter, roll up, roll, giggle, snort, splash, having significant semantic and stylistic differences. Synonymy is most fully expressed when the words are semantically identical: here - here, linguistics - linguistics. However, there are few words in the language that are absolutely identical; As a rule, they develop semantic nuances and stylistic features that determine their uniqueness in vocabulary. For example, in the last pair of synonyms there are already differences in lexical compatibility; compare: domestic linguistics, But structural linguistics.
Full (absolute) parallel scientific terms are most often synonymous: orthography - spelling, nominative - nominative, fricative - fricative, as well as single-root words formed using synonymous affixes: wretchedness - wretchedness, guard - guard.
As language develops, one of a pair of absolute synonyms may disappear. Thus, for example, the original full-voice variants have fallen out of use, giving way to those of Old Church Slavic origin: licorice - sweet, good - brave, shelom - helmet. Others change the meanings, and, as a result, there is a complete break in synonymous relations: lover, lover; vulgar, popular.
Synonyms, as a rule, denote the same phenomenon of objective reality. The nominative function allows us to combine them into open series, which are replenished with the development of language, with the emergence of new meanings for words. On the other hand, synonymous relationships can disintegrate, and then individual words are excluded from the synonymous series and acquire other semantic connections. Yes, word scrupulous , formerly synonymous with the word haberdashery[cf.: scrupulous London trades (P.)], now synonymous with the words thin, delicate; word vulgar ceased to be synonymous with words widespread, popular(cf. the hope expressed by the writer Trediakovsky that the book he wrote would be at least a little vulgar) and came close to the following: vulgar - rude, low, immoral, cynical; at the word dream the semantic correlation with the word is currently broken thought[cf.: What a terrible dream! (P.)], but preserved with the words dreaming, daydream. The systemic connections of related words change accordingly. The semantic structures of the given lexical units influenced the formation of such, for example, synonymous series: scrupulousness - refinement, delicacy; vulgarity - rudeness, baseness; dream - daydream.
Since synonyms, like most words, are characterized by polysemy, they are included in complex synonymic relationships with other polysemantic words, forming a branched hierarchy of synonymous series. With other words, synonyms are connected by relations of opposition, forming antonymic pairs with them.
Antonyms(gr. anti- against + onyma- name) are words that differ in sound and have directly opposite meanings: truth - lie, good - evil, speak - remain silent . Antonyms usually refer to one part of speech and form pairs.
Modern lexicology considers synonymy and antonymy as extreme, limiting cases of, on the one hand, interchangeability, and on the other, opposition of words in content. At the same time, synonymous relations are characterized by semantic similarity, while antonymic relations are characterized by semantic difference.
Antonymy in language is presented as narrower than synonymy: only words that are correlative on some basis - qualitative, quantitative, temporal, spatial and belonging to the same category of objective reality as mutually exclusive concepts - enter into antonymic relations: beautiful - ugly, much - little, morning - evening, remove - bring closer . Words with other meanings usually do not have antonyms; compare: house, thinking, write, twenty, Kyiv, Caucasus. Most antonyms characterize qualities ( good - bad, smart - stupid, native - alien, dense - rare and under.); There are also many that indicate spatial and temporal relationships ( large - small, spacious - cramped, high - low, wide - narrow; early - late, day - night ) ; fewer antonymous pairs with quantitative meaning ( many - few; single - numerous ). There are opposite names for actions, states ( cry - laugh, rejoice - grieve ), but there are few of them.
The development of antonymic relations in vocabulary reflects our perception of reality in all its contradictory complexity and interdependence. Therefore, contrasting words, as well as the concepts they denote, are not only opposed to each other, but are also closely related to each other. Word Kind , for example, evokes in our minds the word wicked ,far reminds of close , speed up - O slow down .
Antonyms “are at the extreme points of the lexical paradigm” [Fomina M.I. Modern Russian language: Lexicology. P. 140], but between them in the language there may be words that reflect the specified attribute to varying degrees, i.e., its decrease or increase. For example: rich - wealthy - poor - poor - beggar; harmful- harmless - useless - useful . This opposition suggests a possible degree of strengthening of a characteristic, quality, action, or gradation(lat. gradatio- gradual increase). Semantic gradation (graduality), therefore, is characteristic only of those antonyms whose semantic structure contains an indication of the degree of quality: young - old, big - small, small - large and under. Other antonymic pairs are devoid of the sign of gradualism: up - down, day - night, life - death, man - woman .
Antonyms that have the attribute of gradualism can be interchanged in speech to give the statement a polite form; so, it's better to say thin , how skinny ; elderly , how old . Words used to eliminate the harshness or rudeness of a phrase are called euphemisms(gr. eu- good + phemi- I say). On this basis they sometimes talk about antonyms-euphemisms, which express the meaning of the opposite in a softened form.
In the lexical system of a language we can distinguish antonyms-converts(lat. conversio- change). These are words that express the relation of opposition in the original (direct) and modified (reverse) statement: Alexander gave book to Dmitry. - Dmitry took book from Alexander; Professor accepts test from the trainee.- Trainee rents out test for professor[See: Novikov L.A. Antonymy in Russian. M., 1973. S. 35, 145].
There is also intra-word antonymy in the language - antonymy of the meanings of polysemantic words, or enantiosemy(gr. enantios- opposite + sema - sign). This phenomenon is observed in polysemous words that develop mutually exclusive meanings. For example, verb move away can mean “come back to normal, feel better,” but it can also mean “die, say goodbye to life.” Enantiosemy becomes the reason for the ambiguity of such statements, for example: Editor looked through these lines; I listened to divertissement; Speaker misspoke and under.
According to their structure, antonyms are divided into multi-rooted (day Night ) And single-rooted (come - go, revolution - counter-revolution ). The former constitute a group of actual lexical antonyms, the latter - lexico-grammatical. In single-root antonyms, the opposite meaning is caused by various prefixes, which are also capable of entering into antonymic relationships; compare: V lay down - You lay down at put - from put, behind cover - from cover. Consequently, the opposition of such words is due to word formation. However, it should be borne in mind that adding prefixes to qualitative adjectives and adverbs Not- , without- most often gives them the meaning of only a weakened opposite ( young - middle-aged ), so that the contrast of their meaning in comparison with prefix-free antonyms turns out to be “muted” ( middle-aged - this does not mean “old”). Therefore, not all prefix formations can be classified as antonyms in the strict sense of the term, but only those that are extreme members of the antonymic paradigm: successful - unsuccessful, strong - powerless .
Antonyms, as already mentioned, usually form a pairwise correlation in a language. However, this does not mean that a particular word can have one antonym. Antonymic relations make it possible to express the opposition of concepts in an “unclosed” polynomial series, cf.: concrete - abstract, abstract; cheerful - sad, melancholy, dull, boring .
In addition, each member of an antonymic pair or antonymic series can have its own synonyms that do not intersect in antonymy. Then a certain system is formed in which synonymous units are located vertically, and antonymous units are located horizontally. For example:
Such a correlation of synonymous and antonymic relations reflects the systemic connections of words in the lexicon. Systematicity is also indicated by the relationship between polysemy and antonymy of lexical units.
Paronyms(gr. para - near + onima - name) are words with the same root, similar in sound, but not the same in meaning: signature - painting, dress - put on, main - capital. Paronyms, as a rule, refer to one part of speech and perform similar syntactic functions in a sentence.
Taking into account the peculiarities of word formation of paronyms, the following groups can be distinguished.
1. Paronyms that differ prefixes: O signets - from signets, at to pay - O to pay;
2. Paronyms that differ suffixes: no response n y - unanswered stvenn y, noun eats o - noun ness; commander ovanna y - commander vegetable th;
3. Paronyms that differ the nature of the basis: one has a non-derivative base, the other has a derivative. In this case, the pair may include:
a. words with a non-derivative base and prefixes: height - WHO growth;
b. words with a non-derivative base and non-prefixed words with suffixes: brake - braking tion ;
c. words with a non-derivative base and words with a prefix and suffix: cargo - on cargo To A.
Semantically, two groups are found among paronyms.
1. Paronyms that differ subtle shades of meaning: long - long, desirable - desirable, maned - maned, life - everyday, diplomatic - diplomatic and under. There are a majority of such paronyms; their meanings are commented on in linguistic dictionaries (explanatory dictionaries, dictionaries of difficulties, dictionaries of single-root words, dictionaries of paronyms). Many of them are characterized by features in lexical compatibility; compare: economic consequences - economical farming, rich inheritance- heavy heritage; fulfill exercise - perform song.
2. Paronyms, sharply different in meaning: nest - nesting place, defective - defective. There are few such units in the language.
A special group of paronyms consists of those that are distinguished by functional-style fixation or stylistic coloring; compare: work(common use) - work(simple and special) live(common use) - reside(official).
Some authors interpret the phenomenon of paronymy in an expanded manner, classifying as paronyms any words that sound similar in sound (and not just words with the same root). In this case, such consonant forms as drill - trill, lancet - tweezers, mince - farce, escalator - excavator, turn - stained glass etc. However, their convergence in speech is random and is not fixed by the whole variety of systemic relations in language. In addition, the comparison of consonant words with different roots is often subjective in nature (one may think similar words turn - stained glass, to another - turn - mirage).
22. SYNCHRONIC LEXICOLOGY. POLYSEMY. HOMONYMY. SYNONYMY. ANTONYMY
Lexicology is the science of the vocabulary of a language. It is also called lexical, and the units included in it are lexemes. We can also call these units lexical forms of words. The fact is that the word is realized in speech in different forms: during the lexical period of phrase formation it is realized in its lexical form, in the morphological period - in morphological form, and in the syntactic period - in syntactic form.
The lexical form of a word (lexeme) is the starting point in constructing a new sentence. That is why it represents the initial, initial form of a word. The latter is usually understood as the nuclear form of the morphological paradigm. For nouns, for example, this is the nominative and singular form. In the morphological period, it can acquire the form of an oblique case or plural, and in the syntactic period, it can acquire one or another syntactic function (for example, become a carrier of new information - a rheme). Thus, lexemes are forms of words that the speaker deals with in the initial period of his activity, when he selects words as construction material for the offer it creates.
Suppose we are creating a sentence, one of the objects of which is man of science. What lexical possibilities do we have to designate it?
The first such possibility is nuclear(main, main) lexeme – “ scientist". The second possibility is synonym – « researcher" The third possibility is associated with the use of words with a generic meaning - hypernyms – « author, specialist, analyst", etc. The fourth possibility will be words with a specific meaning - hyponyms – « philosopher, physicist, biologist, psychologist, cultural scientist" Fifth possibility - proper name (onym)- For example, " IN AND. Vernadsky" Finally, the sixth possibility for designating a man of science would be trails, i.e. words with a figurative meaning (for example, transferred from the religious sphere - “ soothsayer, soothsayer, prophet, magician, magician" and so on.).
What follows from this? It follows that the lexical system of a particular language can be constructed in the following sequence: nuclear vocabulary – synonymy – hyperonymy – hyponymy – onymy – polysemy(polysemy). But one more thing should be added to this chain. antonymy And homonymy. Antonyms and homonyms can also be associated in the speaker’s mind with words that he selects in the act of phrase formation (thus, in connection with the name of a person of science, antonyms may arise in his mind “ pseudoscientist, amateur, layman, adventurer, schemer, scholastic" and so on.). We will consider here, according to tradition, only four lexical phenomena - polysemy, homonymy, synonymy and antonymy.
Polysemy. Polysemy (polysemy) of a word is understood as its ability to act not only in a direct (primary) but also in a figurative (secondary) meaning. There are two types of polysemy - metaphor and metonymy. In the first case, the transfer of a word from the designation of one object to another is carried out by the similarity of these objects, and in the second - by contiguity (proximity, connection, relationship).
Metaphor is a characteristic feature of poetic speech. By the unusualness and novelty of the metaphors used in it, we largely judge the skill of its author. A brilliant metaphorist was A.S. Pushkin:
…Memory silently in front of me
Its long develops a scroll:
And, with disgust reading my life
I I'm in awe, and I curse
AND bitterly I'm complaining and bitterly I'm shedding tears -
But lines sad I don’t wash it off.
And take H.A. Nekrasova:
It's stuffy! without happiness and will,
Night infinitely long.
Storm would have struck, or what?
Bowl full to the brim!
Every first word in this quatrain is a metaphor.
However, metaphor is a sign not only of poetic, but also of our everyday prosaic speech. Let's not look far for an example and remember how men can call women. On the one side: swallow, darling, kitty, doe, sunshine etc., and on the other: cobra, cow, pig, mare, board, mop etc.
Metonymy is less common than metaphor, but it is also a frequent phenomenon in language. Her shining example– transfer of a proper name to an object associated with it: attic(named after the French architect), French(named after the English field marshal), Mauser And browning(by the names of their inventors), bolivar(the hat is named after General Bolivar), etc. This also includes examples of this kind: I read Pushkin, listened Mozart, admired Repin etc., where we are not talking about artists as such, but about their works.
Homonymy. If with polysemy we are dealing with different meanings of the same word, then with homonymy we are dealing with different words that just sound the same. Take for example English words spring« spring» , spring« spring» , spring« source, spring", and even simpler - Russians: braid(curled hair) braid(as a tool) and braid(near the shore).
Some homonyms appear in the language as a result of the disintegration of a polysemantic word: world(Universe)- world(friendship); feather(in a bird)- feather(as a writing tool), and the other - as a result of a random coincidence of words in form: onion(weapon) - onion(plant, germ, origin); marriage(marriage, from “to take”) – marriage(poor quality product, borrowed from German).
We see here only an external, sound similarity between these words, while in meaning they are different to such an extent that it is not possible to talk about polysemy here.
But it is not always easy to distinguish homonymy from polysemy. Let's start with this example: in English the word hand can be used in different meanings. Let's take only three of them: it can mean 1) wrist (he had a book in his hand); 2) handwriting (I know his hand); 3) worker, performer (a factory hand). How should we regard these meanings - as meanings of the same word or as homonyms? A.I. Smirnitsky in his book “Lexicology of the English Language” (Moscow, 1965, p. 156) considers the word hand as ambiguous. In a similar way it is also considered in “ English-Russian dictionary" VC. Muller (M., 1967. P. 351). Moreover, to the four indicated meanings, this dictionary adds fourteen more! A.I. Smirnitsky and V.K. Müller is right: despite the fact that these meanings differ significantly from each other, the semantic proximity between them is still recognized, they are united by the image of a hand.
What about such cases: man in meaning " Human" and in the meaning " man» , men in meaning " men» ( men and women) and in the meaning " privates» ( men and officers)! Apparently, we have polysemy, since the “male” seme continues to unite all these meanings. We can think of these examples as a type synecdoche, which is included in metonymy and which involves the use of a part instead of the whole ( pars pro toto): men instead of people, privates instead of men.
But what about this example? Word table used in the following meanings: table(nuclear meaning), food, board, table. If the first three values still remain connected to each other ( food is on the table, the table is made of boards), then with table the situation is more complicated. Obviously, in this case we are no longer dealing with polysemy, but with homonymy. But V.K. Mueller disagrees.
He considers all these meanings as semantic variants of the same word, adding five others to them.
Lexicographers (compilers of lexical dictionaries) strive not to disperse a word into many homonyms, considering, as a rule, only undisputed cases as homonyms.
Homonyms are divided into full and partial. In the first case, we are dealing with the coincidence of homonymous words in all forms. Complete homonymy is possible only if the homonym words belong to the same part of speech (the case braids in Russian or spring in English). To belong to different parts speech provides partial homonymy: poem(poem)- poem(from " subside"), three(numeral) – three(from " rub"); English bear(bear)– bear(carry). Partial homonyms are otherwise called homoforms. In rare cases, homoforms belong to the same part of speech: I'm flying(from treat)- I'm flying(from fly), where homonymy disappears in other forms of the specified verbs ( you heal, you fly). A similar example was used by A.S. Pushkin:
And what does he do? spouse
Alone in absence spouse?
Homonymy allows poets to choose very beautiful rhymes:
In the mists, above the sparkle grew up,
Merciless, holy and wise,
I'm in the old grandfather's park grew up
And the sun gilded the curls.
It is necessary to distinguish from homonyms paronyms And homographs. The first are words that sound similar, but not completely ( dictation - dictate, addressee - addressee), and others are similar in spelling, but in sound diverge from each other in the place of stress ( castle - castle, flour - flour).
Synonymy. Synonyms are words that sound different but either have the same meaning ( alphabet - alphabet, export - export, linguistics - linguistics), or close (so, in English in a meaning close to the Russian word “ silence", use the following synonyms: stilness, silence, calmness, quietness, tranguillity). In the first case, we are dealing with absolute (doublet) synonymy, and in the second - relative (relative).
There are few doublet synonyms in the language, since there is no particular need to have two (or more) words with exactly the same meaning. Another thing - relative synonymy. It allows you to express different semantic and stylistic shades of words with similar meanings ( wind - storm - blizzard - blizzard - blizzard, good - wonderful - wonderful - magnificent - lovely, sleep - rest - sleep, deceive - lie - lie - lie). Here is a poetic example from the last synonymous series:
I could have done more, but it was in a hurry,
However, treasure that
What happened lied for a laugh,
Never lied for lies.
(A.T. Tvardovsky)
In speech, synonyms act as homogeneous members of a sentence. A synonymous series can acquire such a breadth in speech that is absent in the language (synonymous dictionaries). Occasional synonyms are given a general meaning by the context: “ Let everything be - illness, prison, accident, but don’t fly like that, life!"(L.A. Filatov).
Antonymy. Antonyms, as you know, are words with opposite meanings ( god - devil, faith - unbelief, truth - lie, beauty - ugliness, poor - rich, good - evil).
There are two types of antonyms - single-rooted and multi-rooted. Examples of single-root antonyms: evolution - involution, moral - immoral, calm - restless, popular - anti-national, pass - fail. The opposite meaning here is due to the presence of a prefix with a negative meaning. Most of antonyms have different roots: light - darkness, day - night, life - death, youth - old age, love - hate etc. They were often used in his poems by M.Yu. Lermontov:
Was without joy Love,
There will be no separation sadness.
Antonymy is associated with enantiosemy. The latter refers to the appearance of opposite meanings for the same word. For example: I'll give you peace of mind(with ironic intonations) life!
Synonymy, antonymy, homonymy
Changes in language lead to the formation of synonymy, homonymy, and antonymy.
As for synonymy, the enrichment of the language with synonyms occurs continuously. Synonyms in linguistics are words of the same part of speech, different in sound and spelling, but having the same or very similar lexical meaning. Each synonym has its own special connotation of meaning, distinguishing it from other synonyms, for example: red--scarlet--scarlet--crimson.
There are also antonyms in the language. Antonyms are words of the same part of speech, different in sound and spelling, having directly opposite lexical meanings. Let's give examples: straight - curved, big - small (Russian language); weak - strong, long - short. Antonymy is based on association by contrast, reflecting significant differences in objects, phenomena, actions, qualities and characteristics that are homogeneous in nature.
And finally, homonyms are language units that are different in meaning but identical in spelling (words, morphemes, etc.). For example, outfit (clothing) - outfit (order), forge (blacksmith) - forge (wind instrument). You can give examples from the English language: bow - an instrument that shoots arrows, bow - a long wooden stick, bow - to bend, bow - to obey, etc. It is believed that homonyms are all individual meanings of polysemantic words. In this case, polysemy is a special case of homonymy.
All these phenomena (synonymy, polysemy, antonymy, homonymy) appeared in the language in connection with human linguistic activity. Since language functions only thanks to human intervention.
Therefore, internal changes to different levels occur in a language under the influence of people of the same culture.
Changes at the external level
As for external linguistic changes, these changes occur in the fate of the language, in the nature of its use, in people’s attitude towards the language. For example, over time, the social functions of language may expand or narrow. External changes are associated with the history of peoples: migrations, conquests, contacts with neighboring peoples.
Consequently, language changes precisely because it is not something ready-made , and is continuously being created in the course of language activity. In other words, language changes because it is spoken, because it exists only as a technique of communication and transmission of information. Speech is understood as creative activity, free and focused; speech always acts as a new, newly set goal - to express something. The speaker creates his utterances using the pre-existing technique and material that his language skills provide him. Thus, language can be said to offer itself to the speaker; the speaker uses language to realize one's freedom of expression.
Control questions
1. What systemic connections exist in vocabulary? Name possible subsystems.
2. Indicate possible discrepancies between lexical systems and subsystems of different languages ( varying degrees detailing and generalization; lacunae; differences in connotations).
3. The concept of a semantic field.
4. Homonyms. What connection exists between polysemy and homonymy? Criteria for distinguishing the meanings of a polysemantic word (lexico-semantic variants - LSV) and homonyms.
5. Sources of homonymy.
6. Types of homonyms. Homophones. Omoforms. Homographs.
7. Synonyms. How are synonyms different?
8. Types of synonyms.
9. How is the dominant of a synonymous series determined?
10. Antonyms. What types of antonyms are possible? Can all words have antonyms?
Practical tasks
1. Select words from the languages you are studying different volumes values (see question 2).
2. Can the same word be included in different semantic fields? Give examples.
3. Select examples of homonyms of all types from Russian and the target languages (3 examples for each type).
4. Select examples of synonyms of all types from Russian and the target languages (2–3 synonymous rows).
5. Select examples (2–3) of antonyms from Russian and the target language.
6. What type of homonyms should these words be classified as? Roy(rev. oblique from the verb. dig) – Roy(noun m.r.); guilt(noun f.r. im.p.) – guilt(noun s.r. gen.p.); tea(noun m.r.) – tea(from verb. hope, introductory word); tourniquet(noun m.r.) – tourniquet(3 l. plural from ch. burn).
7. Can the meaning of the following words be determined without context? Indicate the meanings in which these words are used: wait, sometimes, given, my, build, scold, led, caress, bank, month, set up, keep up, wind, hunt, bow, key, fold, punish, chat, carve, quilt, pass, convey, work out.
8. Indicate the sources of the following homonyms: salt– note and chemical substance; the battle– battle and servant boy; marriage– marriage and low-quality products; club– a puff of smoke and a resting place; watering can– for watering flowers and a camera; onion- weapons and vegetables.
9. Select synonyms for the following words: disorder, courage, cold, complain, hot, big, shine.
10. From each synonymous series, highlight the extra one:
a) wallet, capital, pouch, purse;
b) mute, voiceless, quiet, wordless, soundless;
c) coolness, shade, chill, freshness;
d) lord, landowner, gentleman, gentleman;
e) traveler, wayfarer, tourist;
f) to grieve, to grieve, to grieve, to grieve, to grieve, to sob, to be killed.
11. What is the difference between the words in these synonymous series:
a) battle, fight, fight, battle, slaughter, slaughter;
b) submit, obey, submit, listen;
c) rest, repose, respite, peace;
d) eat, eat, devour, swallow;
e) enemy, foe, foe, ill-wisher, adversary, adversary, adversary, adversary;
g) poet, poet, singer, singer;
h) doctor, doctor, healer, aesculapian.
12. Indicate the difference between the following synonyms: big - huge, poor - beggar, neck - neck, open - unlock, army - army, moon - month, horse - horse, cheeks - cheeks, mountain - hill.
13. Replace the following phraseological combinations with synonyms: prick your eyes, walk around the world, a stumbling block, nod off, hack on your nose, let loose a red rooster, not from your hand, in an Adam costume, hang your nose, circle your finger, turn a blind eye to..., you can’t spill water, soap your neck.
14. Choose antonyms for the following words and justify your answer: water, air, work, question, life, beauty, cold, darkness, wealth, joy, love, mind, come, get together, fly, open, win, put on, take, buy, freeze, fall asleep.
additional literature
1. D.I. Shmelev Modern Russian language. Vocabulary. M., 1974.
2. Yu.D. Apresyan. Lexical semantics, M., 1974.
3. V.G. Hook. Comparative lexicology. M., 1977.
4. Lexicology of the English (German, French) language (any edition).
Assignments for independent work of students
1. What is lexical polysemy (polysemy)? What other types of polysemy exist?
2. What are the reasons for lexical polysemy?
3. How to distinguish a polysemantic word from a single-valued one? What criteria have been developed?
4. What types of value transfers exist? Give examples of each in Russian and the target language. Name the most common types of metaphors and metonymies. Show with examples the discrepancy between metaphors and metonymies in different languages.
5. What connection exists between polysemy and homonymy? How to distinguish a polysemantic word from a pair of homonyms?
6. What are the sources of homonyms in languages? Give examples of homonyms of all types of origin in Russian and the target languages.
7.*Why is homonymy much more common in French and English than in Russian?
8. What are homographs? Homophones? Omoforms? Give examples from the language you are learning.
9. What are synonyms? Doublets? How can synonyms differ? What words usually have synonyms? Give examples different types synonyms from the target language. How is the dominant of a synonymous series determined?
10. What are antonyms? Words with what meanings can have antonyms? How are antonyms related to synonyms? What types of antonyms are possible? Give examples from the language you are learning.
Literature.
1. Reformatsky A.A. Introduction to linguistics. M., 1995.
2. Shmelev D.I. Modern Russian language. Vocabulary. M., 1974 (or another textbook for Russian departments).
4. Gak V.G. Comparative lexicology. M., 1977.
5. Lexicology of the English (German, French) language (any edition).
Lesson No. 3. Onomasiology.
Control questions
1. What does onomasiology do?
2. What is the name of the characteristic by which the name of an object is derived?
3. Motivation of the word. Internal form of a word.
4. Types of motivation.
5. Nomination methods.
Practical tasks
1. Give examples (4-5) of names of the same object from different languages, explain what motivating feature is used as the basis for the name.
2. Select from the dictionary 5 motivated words, 5 unmotivated words, 5 words with erased motivation, 5 demotivated words (such as beef).
3. Below are groups of words denoting similar or identical objects. Explain what feature is the basis for each of these names: a) wattle fence, palisade, fence; b) gloves, mittens; c) beak, snout; d) garden, grove; d) bed, den.
4. Is it possible to determine the original motivational feature in the following words? If yes, please indicate this attribute:
glass, wedding, result, city, hoof, protection, predator, cloud, dean, belt, territory, roof, viburnum, bison, temple, swing, October, stalls, beetle, rooster, smallpox, ghost, by heart, decade, window, glove, sadness, square.
5. Which of these words do you consider motivated and which do not? Why?
Awl, snowdrop, wheel, window, breakfast, peer, ink, powder, harvest, cottage cheese, barrel, mouse, boletus, mouth, shirt, belt, butter, beef, loop, see, blizzard, potion, ring, linen, time, treasure, carpenter, oar, snowdrift, towel, battle, sorcerer, appearance, porch, increase, ham, bumpkin, lace, okroshka, felt boots.
6. Highlight words that can be defined internal shape:
shoot, teapot, strawberry, spindle, vent, cutter, arctic fox, rolling pin, tin, crumble, burden, drop, snout, edge, wasteland, palisade, crime.
7. These words are not used in modern Russian or are used very limitedly. Name derivatives of these words: great('big'), finger('finger'), vaga(‘weight, heaviness’), with a helmet('helmet').
Dictionaries
Shansky N.M., Ivanov V.V., Shanskaya T.V. Brief etymological dictionary of the Russian language.
Tsyganenko G.P. Etymological dictionary of the Russian language.
Chernykh P.Ya. Historical and etymological dictionary of the modern Russian language.
Vasmer M. Etymological dictionary of the Russian language.
Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language / Ed. N.M. Shansky.
Polysemy
Polysemy (from the Greek poIysCmos - polysemous), polysemy - the presence of more than one meaning in a language unit. Many words (as well as certain grammatical forms of words, phraseological units and syntactic structures) have not one, but several (two or more) meanings, i.e.
E. (in relation to words) this means that they serve to designate various objects and phenomena of reality. The fact that a word appears in one meaning or another is associated with the peculiarities of the combination of this word with other words, sometimes context, situation. Each of the highlighted meanings of the word is regularly implemented in certain phrases. Wed, for example, look at the street, out the window, in the mirror, at the clock, where the verb look means “to direct the gaze to see something”, and look for order, for children, where the same verb appears in the meaning "to have care, to take care of someone or something." The adjective stale is capable of realizing its first meaning (“withered and hard”) with nouns denoting objects that can dry out and become hard (bread, pie, etc.). In combinations such as callous person, callous character, the same adjective appears in a different meaning - “unresponsive, soulless.”
There is a certain semantic connection between the meanings of a polysemantic word, which gives reason to consider them to be the meanings of the same word, in contrast to the meanings of homonym words (see Homonyms). This connection may be based on the fact that common semantic elements are found in the meanings; for example, at noun. wall in explanatory dictionaries the trace stands out. meanings: 1) “vertical part of the building, serving to support the floors and to divide the room into parts”, 2) “high fence”, 3) “vertical side the surface of something.", 4) "close row or continuous mass of something., forming a curtain, a barrier.” The general semantic element here can be defined as “a vertical barrier separating something.” However, in many cases the meanings of words that are directly perceived as “figurative” are the meanings of precisely “the same words” (cf. .: the shadow of a tree and the shadow of a smile; push in the back and push into a crime; pour sand and pour words) are connected with the basic meanings not by general elements of meaning, but only by those features that can be called associative, because , not being semantically essential for the basic meanings (for example, a shadow in the combination shadow of a smile is defined as “a faint trace or faint resemblance of something, a hint of something.”), they are associated with the idea of a corresponding object or phenomenon, which determines their connection with the basic meaning of the word.
The development of polysemy usually occurs on the basis of the similarity or contiguity of the objects and phenomena of reality denoted by a given word, in connection with which metaphorical (see Metaphor) and metonymic (see Metonymy) transfers are distinguished; cf., for example, the meanings of the words leg, neck in combinations such as table leg, bottle neck, regarded as linguistic metaphors, and different meanings the words earth, united by metonymic connections: 1) “our planet; place of human life”, 2) “land (as opposed to water space)”, 3) “ upper layer the crust of our planet; loose dark brown substance that is part of the crust of our planet,” etc.
The meanings of a polysemantic word form a certain semantic unity. There are primary (basic, main, direct) and secondary (derived, figurative) meanings. The least contextually determined meanings can be considered primary (cf.: heavy - “having a lot of weight” and heavy - “difficult”; boil - about liquid and boil - “appear with force”; source - “a stream of liquid flowing from the ground”, and source - “that which gives rise to something.”). The relationship between primary and secondary meanings does not remain unchanged - for some words, secondary (historical) meanings have come to the fore over time (cf. the meanings of the words slum, curb, hearth).
Homonyms are words that differ in meaning, but are the same in sound and spelling.
They are divided into lexical and lexico-grammatical. Lexical ones are different in meaning, but the same in sound and spelling in all grammatical forms: faucet: construction and water supply.
Lexico-grammatical homonyms do not coincide in sound and spelling in all grammatical forms: plant (enterprise) and factory (device for operating a mechanism) - the word in the second meaning does not have a plural.
It must be distinguished from polysemy: with homonymy there are no identical meanings, because the words are completely different.
Formation: most often during the formation of new words (suffix formation: . wallet (wallet) and wallet (working paper. factory) and during the disintegration of polysemy (put out: 1. cook; 2. fire).
Reasons for the collapse: 1. As a result of archaization and loss of the intermediate meaning of the word (bench - bench - bench for goods - premises). 2. The change is not in the meaning of the word, but in the object itself (paper - cotton, and paper - fabric). 3. Phonetic processes in a word (onion is a plant, and onion is a weapon). 4. Coincidence of borrowed words (cook - a type of hairstyle - French, and cook - a cook on a ship - goal).
Homophones - different in meaning and spelling, but identical in sound (raft and fruit).
Homographs - different in meaning and sound, but identical in spelling (carnations - flowers, nails).
"Dictionary of homonyms" by O. A. Akhmanov. 1st edition 1967, 2nd - 1974. Over 2 thousand articles containing pairs/groups of homonyms. The dictionary entry contains indications of the type of formation of homonyms, grammatical, stylistic and other information that emphasizes the opposition of homonyms. Instead of interpretation - translation into English, French. and German languages. There is theoretical content, applications (functional homonymy).
1976 "Dictionary of homonyms of the Russian language" N.P. Kolesnikov, ed. N. M. Shansky. About 4 thousand names. Includes both homophones and homographs. There are no examples or stylistic notes.
Sources of homonymy.
1. As a result of borrowing foreign words: horn (spiritual instrument - German, horn, crucible - Russian).
2. When creating new words: Criticalßcriticism, criticalßcrisis (from similar bases), gasßgas (fabric) and gasßgas (state of a thing) – from homonyms of the bases, zavodßstart (Put into action) and zaovßgas (arrange, equip) – from different knowledge of 1 word.
3. Originally Russian words, they underwent a change in change as a result of phonets and morph processes: onion (weapon) had small yus at the root, nose sound U, and onion as an ordinary plant U. In RYa they are in pronunciation - and they coincided.
4. The collapse of polysemy: Debt is an obligation, debt is something borrowed.
Synonyms are words that sound different but have general meaning with different shades.
Depending on the characteristics, differences are divided into ideographic, stylistic, and emotionally expressive.
Ideographic (idea - concept, grapho - record) or actually semantic:
1. with different root values (bend, meander, meander).
2. meanings of different degrees of abstraction (hide - concrete; hide - abstract).
3. differing in degree of intensity (raw - wet).
Stylistic: prohibit and forbid.
Emotionally expressive coloring: smell-fragrant.
Not synonymous: vocabulary of regional dialects, jargon and words belonging to different historical eras.
Two or more lexical synonyms, correlated with each other when denoting the same phenomena, objects, features, etc., form a certain group in the language, a paradigm, otherwise called a synonymous series.
Each row has a core word or dominants, usually of a neutral color.
Polysemy - 1 and the same word can be included in different synonymic series: quiet - 1. quiet; 2. meek; 3. serene, peaceful.
Synonymy is a coincidence in basic meaning with differences in the meaning, shades and style of different language units. Synonyms are words that sound and are spelled differently, but have the same or very similar meaning. Existence abs lex synonyms (doublets0, but there are few of them: linguistics - linguistics, hippopotamus - hippopotamus.
In speech, synonyms serve as a replacement when it is impossible to repeat the same word, for subtle differences in shades of meaning, in a different style of function.
Types of synonyms:
1. Semantic (differing in shades of meaning): wet-moist;
2. Stylistic (having a difference in expressive-emotional coloring and used => in different styles of speech): sleep-sleep-rest;
3. Semantic-stylistic (1+2): brain - think.
Synonym series (minimum number of members -2) – an open series of synonyms that denotes 1 subject. He has a dominant - the bearer of basic knowledge. The polysemantic word is included in the synonym rows in 1 of its meanings: general - universal - general - continuous; common – joint – collective.
Origin of synonyms:
1. By word formation: from large - small, synonym - small.
2. Due to the development of new meanings of the word: chain - string, row; ridge, ridge.
3. As a result of replenishment with dialect and special vocabulary: frail - from dialects.
4. As a result of mastering foreign words: fatal - fatal (borrowing).
The following do not enter into synonymous relationships: proper names, many specific names of everyday objects, words-terms.
Contextual synonyms (occasional) are determined by synonymous meaning only within the context.
Synonym dictionaries:
1783 - in the "Interlocutor of Lovers of the Russian Word" D.I. Fonvizin published "The Experience of a Russian Estatesman" - 32 groups of synonyms.
1840 - “The Dictionary of Russian Synonyms or Estates, compiled by the editors of moral works” was published, prepared by A. I. Galich - 226 synonymous groups.
1). "Brief dictionary synonyms of the Russian language" 1st edition in 1956 (1500 words), 2nd - 1961 (3000). Includes 622 synonymous series. The given synonymous series are accompanied by a brief explanation of the synonyms and their literary use. Negative trait- ignoring polysemy.
2). Two-volume "Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language" 1970-1971. Created in the Dictionary Sector of the Russian Language Institute of the ANSSSR by a group of employees under the leadership. A. P. Evgenieva. 7000 rows. Material - card index of synonyms based on the academic explanatory "Dictionary of the Russian Language" in 4 volumes. The task is to highlight and describe that part of the vocabulary that is connected by synonymous relations, i.e. collect and group words with identical and similar meanings and characterize the semantic shades in which they differ.
3). Yu. D. Apresyan "New explanatory dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language" 1995. Dictionary active type, which implements the principles of systemic lexicography and is focused on reflecting the linguistic or “naive” picture of the world. 132 synonym. series follow the principle of anthropocentricity. The task is to reflect the lexical system of the Russian language through ideographic classification.
Antonyms are words that are opposed according to a common semantic feature that is most essential for their meaning.
Antonymic relations are entered into by words that are correlated with each other in terms of logical connections, general semantics and grammatical meanings (belonging to the same part of speech).
The logical basis of antonymy is formed by opposing generic concepts, which represent the limit of manifestation of the quality defined by the generic concept.
The logical basis is formed by two types of opposition:
contrarian - specific concepts, between which there is an intermediate term: young-old (there is an elderly, a middle-aged);
complementary - specific concepts that complement each other to the point of being ordinary and are extreme in nature: true-false.
From a linguistic point of view, antonyms have special characteristics:
1. Opposition, regularly reproduced in context. 2. Generality of compatibility, i.e. possible connection with the same words:
joyful - event, day, life
sad - with them.
They do not have antonyms: nouns with a specific meaning (table, house), numerals, most pronouns, qualitative adjectives denoting the names of flowers.
Structural relationship: different-rooted and single-rooted.
Cognates arise due to prefixes: a) the meaning of prefixes is opposite - undercook/overcook; b) the antonymic meaning of the prefix appears only in combination with certain words - literate/illiterate.
Antonymy is also closely related to polysemy: alive - 1. dead; 2. lethargic; 3. expressionless.
Ox(i)humor is a combination of words that are incompatible from a logical point of view: sweet sorrow.
Antithesis - is built on the opposition of antonyms.
Antonym dictionaries:
1). "Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language" 1st edition 1971 - 1982 - reissue. Rostov-on-Don State University (the dictionary was published according to the resolution of the Academic Council of the Faculty of Philology of the Russian State University). The main purpose is to serve as a tool for studying the system of Russian antonyms. Composition - 862 antonymous pairs. There is an introduction in which short review dictionaries of antonyms in English, French, German. and other languages.
The main provisions that guided the compiler: 1. Antonyms are characterized by a certain stability in lexical connections; 2. Structurally, they belong to the same part of speech; 3. To determine which words actually enter into antonymic relationships, it is necessary to analyze the connections of each word of one series with each word of another series.
2). "Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language" M. Lvov (edited by L. A. Novikov) 1978 - 1st edition, 1984 - 2nd. About 2000 antonymous pairs. For many antonyms, synonyms are given, and all of them are illustrated with examples from fiction, science. and public. literature.
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