Spine section: Cervical- (number of vertebrae) 7
Pectoral -13
Lumbar – 6
Sacral – 5
Tail – 18–20
Total – 49–51
The rib cage is formed by the ribs and sternum. Ribs - paired arcuate bones, movably attached to the right and left to the vertebrae of the thoracic region spinal column... They are less mobile in the front of the chest, where the scapula is attached to them. In this regard, the anterior lobes of the lungs are more often affected in diseases of the lungs. All ribs make up a fairly voluminous conical chest, in which the heart and lungs are located.
The peripheral skeleton, or skeleton of the limbs, is represented by 2 thoracic (front) and 2 pelvic (hind) limbs.
The thoracic limb includes: a scapula attached to the body in the area of the first ribs; the shoulder, consisting of the humerus; forearm, represented by the radial and ulna; a hand (Fig. 4), consisting of the wrist (6 bones), the metacarpus (2 fused bones) and the phalanges of the fingers (2 fingers having 3 phalanges, the third phalanx being called the coffin bone).
Rice. 4. The skeleton of an autopodium (hand) of a cow:
1 - radius bone; 2 - the ulna; 3 - for metacarpal bones; 4 - metacarpal bones; 5 - phalanges
The pelvic limb consists of a pelvis (Fig. 5), each half of which is formed by a nameless bone, at the top is the ilium, below the pubic and ischial bones; thigh, represented by the femur and knee cap that slides over the femur block; tibia, consisting of the tibia and fibula; the foot, represented by the tarsus (6 bones), metatarsal (2 fused bones) and phalanges of the fingers (2 fingers having 3 phalanges, with the third phalanx called the coffin bone).
Rice. 5. Bones of the pelvic girdle (pelvis) of a cow:
1 - wing of the ilium; 2 - maklokovy tubercle; 3 - the body of the ilium; 4 - sacral tubercle; 5 - large ischial notch; 6 - glenoid cavity; 7 - ischial spine; 8 - cavity of the pubic bone; 9 - suture branch of the pubic bone; 10 - ilio-pubic eminence; 11 - the hollow branch of the ischium; 12 - plate of the ischium; 13 - ischial tubercle; 14 - sciatic arch; 15 - small ischial notch; 16 - locked hole
It must be remembered that the maturity of the skeleton occurs later than the maturity of the body or puberty, and deprivation of motor activity in animals leads to the birth of calves with an underdeveloped skeleton. During the embryonic period, a rapid growth of the peripheral skeleton occurs, since after birth the calves must move independently and reach the nipples of the mother, who feeds them while standing. After birth, the ribs, spine, sternum, and pelvic bones grow rapidly. An increase in body size in a large cattle ends at 5-6 years old. The aging process begins in the skeleton from the caudal vertebrae and the last ribs. All this affects the mineralization of bones, which must be taken into account when developing the diet of animals at different stages of development.
Ligaments- These are bundles of collagen fibers that connect bones or cartilage to each other. They experience the same body mass load as the bones, but by connecting the bones to each other, the ligaments impart the necessary buffering to the skeleton, significantly increasing the resistance to the loads on the bone junctions as supporting structures.
There are 2 types of bone connection:
›Continuous. This type of connection has great elasticity, strength and very limited mobility;
. Discontinuous (synovial) type of connection, or joints. It provides more range of motion and is built more complexly. The joint has an articular capsule, consisting of 2 layers of the outer (fused with the periosteum of the bone) and the inner (synovial, which secretes synovium into the joint cavity, due to which the bones do not rub against each other). Most of the joints, except for the capsule, are fixed with a different number of ligaments. In case of ruptures and severe sprains of the ligaments, the bones are separated from each other and the joint is dislocated.
Among diseases of the organs of the apparatus of movement in animals, there are more often than others pathological processes at the junction of bones, especially the joints of the limbs. Pathology at the junction of the bones is dangerous with consequences such as loss of mobility, which is accompanied by the loss of the ability to move normally and significant pain.
Muscle has an important property: it contracts, causing movement (dynamic work), and provides the tone of the muscles themselves, strengthening the joints at a certain angle of combination with a motionless body (static work), while maintaining a certain posture. Only the work (training) of the muscles contributes to the increase in their mass both by increasing the diameter of the muscle fibers (hypertrophy) and by increasing their number (hyperplasia).
Muscle tissue is of 3 types, depending on the location of muscle fibers: smooth (vascular walls), striated (skeletal muscles), cardiac striated (in the heart). By the nature of their activity and the work performed, they are divided into flexion and extension, adduction and abduction, locking (sphincters), rotating, etc.
The work of the muscular apparatus is built on the principle of antagonism. In total, the body contains up to 200–250 paired muscles and several unpaired ones.
Muscle mass in cattle is approximately 42–47% of the total body weight. Each muscle has a supporting part (connective tissue stroma) and a working part (muscle parenchyma). The greater the static load a muscle performs, the more developed the stroma in it.
Skin covering
The body of cattle is covered with hairy skin and organs, or derivatives of the skin. Their appearance, consistency, temperature and sensitivity reflect the state of metabolism and functions of a number of organ systems.
Leather protects the body from external influences through a variety of nerve endings, acts as a receptor link in the skin analyzer external environment(tactile, pain, temperature sensitivity). Through many sweat and sebaceous glands, a number of metabolic products are secreted through the skin; through the mouths of hair follicles and skin glands, the surface of the skin can absorb a small amount of solutions. The blood vessels of the skin can hold up to 10% of the blood of the animal's body. Reduction and dilation of blood vessels are essential in the regulation of body temperature. The skin contains provitamins. Under the influence of ultraviolet light, vitamin D is formed.
In cattle, the skin makes up 3–8% of the total weight of the animal. In a bull, the mass of the skin can be in the range of 60–80 kg, its thickness ranges from 2 to 6 mm.
In the skin covered with hair, the following layers are distinguished:
›Cuticle (epidermis) - the outer layer. It determines the color of the skin, and keratinized cells slough off, thereby removing dirt, microorganisms, etc. from the skin surface. Hair grows on the epidermis;
›Dermis (skin itself) formed by:
a) the pilar layer, which contains the sebaceous and sweat glands, hair roots in hair follicles, muscles - hair lifters, many blood and lymphatic vessels and nerve endings;
b) a mesh layer consisting of a plexus of collagen and a small amount of elastic fibers.
subcutaneous base (subcutaneous layer), represented by loose connective and adipose tissue. This layer is attached to the superficial fascia covering the body of the cattle (Fig. 6). It stores reserve nutrients in the form of fat. Skin with hair and subcutaneous tissue removed from the body of an animal is called the skin.
Rice. 6. Scheme of the structure of the skin with hair (according to Techver):
1 - epidermis; 2 - dermis; 3 - subcutaneous layer; 4 - sebaceous glands; 5 - sweat glands; 6 - hair shaft; 7 - hair root; eight - hair follicle; 9 - hair papilla; 10 - hair bag
Derivatives of the skin include sweat, sebaceous, mammary glands, hooves, crumbs, horns, hair, nasolabial speculum.
Sebaceous glands located at the base of the skin, and their ducts open into the mouth hair follicles... The sebaceous glands secrete a sebaceous secretion, which, by lubricating the skin and hair, gives them softness and elasticity, prevents fragility, and protects the body from moisture penetration.
Sweat glands located in the reticular layer of the skin. Their excretory ducts open to the surface of the epidermis, through which a liquid secretion - sweat - is released. The secretion of sweat helps to cool the animal, that is, the sweat glands are involved in thermoregulation. In cattle, a large number of them are located on the head.
Breast cattle is called the udder. It consists of four quarters, or lobes, formed by the fusion of two pairs of glands. Inside the udder there are alveoli lined from the inside with secretory epithelium. The alveoli pass into the milk ducts. The latter, merging, form a milk cistern, passing into the nipple canal. Each part of the udder has a teat for milk withdrawal (fig. 7). The upper udder is covered with elastic skin. The more productive the animal is, the softer and more elastic this skin is.
Rice. 7. The structure of the cow's mammary gland:
1 - leather; 2 - alveoli; 3 - milk ducts; 4 - milk tank; 5 - nipple canal
Hoof- this is the hard dermal tip of the third phalanx of the fingers (3 and 4) of artiodactyls. It is represented by an area of skin, the epidermis of which, in certain places of the hoof, forms stratum corneum. different structure and consistency. According to the location and nature of the produced stratum corneum on the hoof, 4 parts are distinguished: the border, the corolla, the wall and the sole (Fig. 8).
Rice. 8. The structure of the hoof:
a - border; b - a whisk; в - wall; d - sole: 1 - epidermis; 2 - skin base; 3 - subcutaneous layer; 4 - tendon of the common digital extensor; 5 - subcutaneous layer of the border; 6 - the basis of the skin of the border; 7 - epidermis of the border; 8 - corolla epidermis; 9 - wall glaze; 10 - tubular horn; 11 - leaf horn; 12 - lamellar layer of the base of the skin; 13 - white line; 14 - the epidermis of the sole; 15 - base of sole leather; 16 - periosteum; 17 - the epidermis of the digital crumb; 18 - crumb skin base; 19 - crumb cushion epidermis; 20 - crumb pillow skin base; 21 - subcutaneous layer of the crumb cushion
Myakishi- these are the supporting areas of the limbs. They are rich in nerve endings, due to which they act as an organ of touch. In cattle, only modified digital crumbs remained, which became mainly shock absorbers of the horny capsules of the hoof.
Horns- These are hard formations in the head region of cattle, located on the horny processes of the frontal bones. Outside, they are covered with a horny capsule formed by the horn epidermis. The growth of the horn depends on the metabolism of the whole organism, which is expressed in the appearance of rings. Changes in metabolism during pregnancy retard horn growth.
The growth of two horn buds in young animals is terminated by cauterization or excision. To dehydrate adult animals, it is necessary to squeeze the wax or rim of the horn (soft horn at the border of the base of the horn with the skin) with rubber rings, which contributes to the cessation of blood supply and innervation of the horn, leading to its necrosis.
Hair. The entire body of cattle is covered with wool. For 1 cm2 of skin, these animals can have up to 2500 or more hairs. Hair is spindle-shaped filaments of stratified keratinized and keratinized epithelium. The part of the hair that rises above the surface of the skin is called the shaft, which is inside the skin - the root, which is surrounded by blood capillaries. The root passes into the bulb, and inside the bulb is the hair papilla. Each hair has its own muscles that allow it to straighten, as well as sebaceous glands.
According to the structure, 4 main types of hair are distinguished: guard (short integumentary hair of the body and long hair at the end of the tail), down (hair around the guard and covered by them), transitional, vibrissae, or sensitive hair (hair on the skin in the area of the lips, nostrils, chin and century).
In cattle, like in other animals, there is a change in the integument of the body, or molting. In this case, the hair or coat is completely or partially replaced (except for the tactile hairs). When molting, the skin thickens, becomes looser, and the stratum corneum of the epidermis is often renewed. Distinguish between physiological and pathological molting. The physiological change in the coat is divided into 3 types: age, seasonal and compensatory.
Nervous system
The structural and functional unit of the nervous system is a nerve cell - neurocyte- together with gliocytes. The latter dress the nerve cells and provide them with support-trophic and barrier functions. Nerve cells have several processes - sensitive tree-like branching dendrites, which conduct excitation to the body of the neuron that occurs on their sensitive nerve endings located in the organs, and one motor axon, through which a nerve impulse is transmitted from a neuron to a working organ or another neuron. Neurons come into contact with each other using the endings of the processes and form reflex circuits along which nerve impulses are transmitted (propagated).
The processes of nerve cells in conjunction with neuroglia cells form nerve fibers... These fibers in the brain and spinal cord make up the bulk of the white matter. From the processes of nerve cells, bundles are formed, from a group of bundles, dressed with a common sheath, are formed nerves in the form of cord-like formations.
Anatomically, the nervous system is divided into the central, including the brain and spinal cord with spinal ganglia, and the peripheral, consisting of the cranial and spinal nerves connecting the central nervous system with receptors and effector apparatus of various organs. This includes the nerves of the skeletal muscles and skin (the somatic part of the nervous system), as well as the vessels (the parasympathetic part). These last two parts are united by the concept of "autonomous, or autonomic, nervous system."
Brain- This is the head of the central nervous system, located in the cranial cavity. The brain consists of 2 hemispheres, separated by a groove. The hemispheres have convolutions and are covered with cortex, or cortex.
The following sections are distinguished in the brain: the large brain, the telencephalon (olfactory brain and cloak), diencephalon (visual hillocks (thalamus), supra-hillock (epithalamus), hypothalamus (hypothalamus), peri-hillock (metathalamus), midbrain(legs large brain and quadruple), rhomboid brain, hindbrain (cerebellum and pons) and medulla oblongata.
The brain is dressed in 3 membranes: hard, arachnoid and soft. Between the hard and arachnoid membranes there is a subdural space filled with cerebrospinal fluid (its outflow is possible into the venous system and into the lymph circulation organs), and between the arachnoid and soft - the subarachnoid space. The brain is composed of white and gray matter. Gray matter it is located on the periphery of the cerebral cortex, and white - in the center.
The brain is the highest part of the nervous system, which controls the activity of the whole organism, unites and coordinates the functions of all internal organs and systems. With pathology (trauma, swelling, inflammation), the functions of the entire brain are impaired.
The absolute weight of the brain of cattle varies widely from 410 to 550 g, and the relative is inversely proportional to the weight of the animal and is 1 / 600-1 / 770.
Spinal cord Is part of the central nervous system. It is a cord of brain tissue with remnants of the cerebral cavity. The spinal cord is located in the vertebral canal and starts from the medulla oblongata and ends in the region of the 7th lumbar vertebra. The spinal cord is conditionally subdivided without visible boundaries into the cervical, thoracic and lumbosacral regions, consisting of gray and white medulla. In the gray matter there are a number of somatic nerve centers that carry out various unconditioned reflexes, for example, at the level of the lumbar segments, there are centers that innervate the pelvic limbs and abdominal wall... The gray matter is located in the center spinal cord and in cross-section it is similar in shape to the letter "H", and the white matter is located around the gray.
The spinal cord is covered with three membranes: hard, arachnoid and soft, between which there are gaps filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
In cattle, the length of the spinal cord is on average 160–180 cm. The mass of the spinal cord is 220–260 g, which is on average 47% of the mass of the brain.
Peripheral department nervous system- a topographically separated part of the unified nervous system. This section is located outside the brain and spinal cord. It includes the cranial and spinal nerves with their roots, as well as plexuses, ganglia and nerve endings embedded in organs and tissues. So, 31 pairs depart from the spinal cord peripheral nerves, and from the head - 12 pairs.
In the peripheral nervous system, it is customary to distinguish 3 parts - somatic (connecting centers with skeletal muscles), sympathetic (associated with smooth muscles of the vessels of the body and internal organs), visceral, or parasympathetic (associated with smooth muscles and glands of internal organs), and trophic (innervating connective tissue).
Autonomic nervous system has special centers in the spinal cord and brain, as well as a number of nerve nodes located outside the spinal cord and brain. This part of the nervous system is subdivided into:
›Sympathetic (innervation of smooth muscles of blood vessels, internal organs, glands), the centers of which are located in the thoracolumbar spinal cord;
. Parasympathetic (innervation of the pupil, salivary and lacrimal glands, respiratory organs, as well as organs located in the pelvic cavity), whose centers are located in the brain.
A feature of these 2 parts is their antagonistic nature in providing them with internal organs, that is, where the sympathetic nervous system acts excitingly, the parasympathetic one has a depressing effect.
The central nervous system and cerebral cortex regulate all higher nervous activity through reflexes. There are genetically fixed reactions of the central nervous system to external and internal stimuli - food, sexual, defensive, orienting, sucking reaction in newborns, the appearance of saliva at the sight of food. These reactions are called innate, or unconditioned, reflexes. They are provided by the activity of the brain, the spinal cord stem and autonomic nervous system. Conditioned reflexes- acquired individual adaptive reactions of animals, arising on the basis of the formation of a temporary connection between the stimulus and the unconditional reflex act. An example of such reflexes is the milking of cows at a specific time. If the clock is changed, milk yield may decrease.
farm animal crossbreeding
The apparatus of movement is represented by the skeleton, ligaments and muscles, which, unlike other systems, form the physique of cattle, its exterior.
Bone is a part of the skeleton, an organ that includes various tissue elements. It consists of 6 components, one of which is red. Bone marrow- an organ of hematopoiesis. The longest red bone marrow remains in the spongy substance of the sternum and vertebral bodies. All veins (up to 50% of the veins in the body) come out of the bones mainly where there is more spongy substance. Intraosseous injections are made through these sites, which replace intravenous ones.
Rice. 1.
1 - nasal bone; 2 - incisor bone; 3 - maxillary bone; 4 - frontal bone; 5 - occipital bone; 6 - parietal bone; 7 - temporal bone; 8 - orbit; 9 - zygomatic bone; 10 - mandibular bone; 11 - opener; 12 - epistrophy; 13 - cervical vertebra; 14 - thoracic vertebra; 15 - scapula; 16 - brachial bone; 17 - lumbar vertebra; 18 - rib; 19 - xiphoid cartilage; 20 - sternum; 21 - radius bone; 22 - ulna; 23 - wrist; 24 - metacarpus; 25 - sesamoid bones; 26 - fetlock bone; 27 - coronoid bone; 28 - hoof bone; 29 - sacrum bone; 30 - the ilium; 31 - maklok; 32 - pubic bone; 33 - ischium; 34 - caudal vertebrae; 35 - femur; 36 - trochanter; 37 - kneecap; 38 - tibia; 39 - process of the fibula; 40 - tarsus; 41 - calcaneal tubercle; 42 - metatarsus; 43 - finger
The skeleton of cattle (Fig. 1) consists of 2 sections: axial and peripheral.
The axial section of the skeleton is represented by the skull, spine and thorax.
The bones of the cerebral skull form the vagina for the brain, and the bones of the facial region form the oral and nasal cavities and the orbits of the eyes; v temporal bone the organs of hearing and balance are located. The bones of the skull are connected by sutures, except for the mobile ones: the lower jaw, the temporal and hyoid bones.
The spine is located along the body of the animal, in which the vertebral column is distinguished, formed by the vertebral bodies (the supporting part that connects the work of the limbs in the form of a kinematic arc) and the spinal canal, which is formed by the arcs of the vertebrae surrounding the spinal cord. Depending on the mechanical load created by the body weight and the mobility, the vertebrae have different shapes and sizes.
Number of vertebrae in cattle
Spine: Cervical - (number of vertebrae) 7, - Thoracic -13, - Lumbar - 6, - Sacral - 5, Tail - 18-20, Total - 49-51
The rib cage is formed by the ribs and sternum. Ribs - paired arcuate bones, movably attached to the right and left to the vertebrae of the thoracic spine. They are less mobile in the front of the chest, where the scapula is attached to them. In this regard, the anterior lobes of the lungs are more often affected in diseases of the lungs. All ribs make up a fairly voluminous conical chest, in which the heart and lungs are located.
The thoracic limb includes: a scapula attached to the body in the area of the first ribs; the shoulder, consisting of the humerus; forearm, represented by the radius and ulna; a hand (Fig. 4), consisting of the wrist (6 bones), the metacarpus (2 fused bones) and the phalanges of the fingers (2 fingers having 3 phalanges, the third phalanx being called the coffin bone).
The pelvic limb consists of a pelvis), each half of which is formed by a nameless bone, the ilium is located at the top, the pubic and ischial bones below; the thigh, represented by the femur and patella, which slides over the femur block; tibia, consisting of the tibia and fibula; the foot, represented by the tarsus (6 bones), metatarsal (2 fused bones) and phalanges of the fingers (2 fingers having 3 phalanges, with the third phalanx called the coffin bone).
The shin bones - ossa cruris - consist of the tibia and fibula, the first of which is the main one (Fig. 42).
Tibia- tibia (cneme) - long, tubular, characterized by a massive proximal triangular end divided into two condyles - lateral (smaller) and medial (larger) - condylus lateralis et medialis - and a thinner distal end, compressed dorso-plantar and bearing a blocky articular surface for the talus. Flat, convex-concave articular surfaces of the condyles- facies articularis - separated by an intercondylar groove - sulcus intercondyloideus - with pits for ligaments. On both sides of the intercondylar groove, the articular surfaces form intercondylar lateral and medial tubercles - tuberculum intercondyloideum. On the dorsal side, the condyles are separated by a muscular groove - sulcus muscularis (s. Incisura extensoria), and from the plantar side - popliteal notch- incisura poplitea; in the first lies the extensor of the fingers, and in the second - the popliteal muscle. On the lateral surface of the lateral condyle, at the place of attachment of the head of the fibula, either a facet or roughness is visible (excluding ruminants).
Rice. 42. Bones of the left lower leg in front: A - dogs; B - pigs; B - cows; G - horses (behind); D - horses from the lateral side 1 - tuberositas tibiae (rough thickening); 2 - eminentia intercondyloidea (intercondylar elevation); 4- condylus lateralis (lateral condyle); 5 - condylus medialis (medial condyle); 6 - sulcus muscularis (muscular groove); 7 -. crista tibiae (tibial crest); 8 - =. corpus tibiae (body of the tibia); 9 - malleolus lateralis (lateral ankle); 10 - malleolus medialis (medial ankle); And - cochlea tibiae (block); 12 - incisura poplitea (popliteal notch); 13 - linea poplitea (popliteal line); 14 - for. nutritium (vascular opening); 15 - capitulum fibulae (head of the fibula); 16 - fibula (fibula); 17 - os malleolare (ankle bone).
The plantar surface of the body of the tibia at the proximal end is flat, with oblique muscle combs- linea muscularis; on the border of the middle and proximal third of it there is a vascular opening - for. nutritium. A large ridge descends on the dorsal surface of the body from the medial condyle tibia- crista tibiae. The medial side of the ridge is convex, the lateral side is grooved; its proximal end forms a rough thickening - the tubercle of the tibia - tuberositas fibiae, the ligaments of the patella are attached to it.
The distal end of the tibia bears a blocky articular surface - cochlea tibiae - of two grooves separated by a crest, running dorso-plantar. The medial protrusion of the block is called the medial malleolus - malleolus medialis. On the lateral surface of the block, there is either a lateral malleolus, or a facet, or a roughness for the distal end of the fibula.
Peculiarities.
In a dog, the tibia is long, thin, cylindrical in the distal half, generally S-shaped curved. The tibia crest is well defined. Intercondylar tubercles are small, equal in height. On the lateral condyle, a facet for the head of the fibula is visible, and on the lateral surface of the distal half of the body there is a roughness for the fibula.
The pig has a short, massive tibia. Its crest is powerful. Of the intercondylar tubercles, the lateral one is somewhat more developed. Proximally and distally on the lateral surface of the bone there are roughness to connect with the fibula.
In cattle, at the distal end, there is a third grooved facet for ankle bone- facies articularis malleoli. On the lateral condyle, there is a small tubercle, a rudiment of the proximal end of the fibula. The medial intercondylar tubercle is more pronounced.
In a horse, the distal block-like articular surface is limited by two ankles - medial and lateral; the grooves and crest between the ankles run obliquely. Roughness is noticeable on the lateral condyle (for the head of the fibula). The medial intercondylar tubercle is more strongly developed.
Tibia- fibula, s. perone - among domestic animals, it is present only in a dog and a pig in the form of a long, thin, straight and narrow bone, the distal end of which forms the lateral ankle - malleolus lateralis.
Peculiarities.
In a dog, the proximal half of the fibula is columnar, and the distal half is lamellar. The epiphyses are thickened. The proximal epiphysis is equipped with one facet (for the tibia), and the distal one with two (for the tibia and talus). On it: the plantar groove for the peroneal longus muscle passes.
In a pig, the fibula is lamellar, long, narrow. Its proximal half is wider than the distal one. The lateral surface is grooved. On the distal epiphysis, a roughness for the tibia and two facets for the talus and calcaneus are visible.
In cattle, the head of the fibula is attached to the lateral condyle of the tibia; the body is absent or occurs in the form of a bony wire with winding ends. The distal pineal gland is represented by a well-developed ankle bone - os malleolare. It articulates with its narrow, elongated from front to back, provided with a proximal spine articular surface with the distal epiphysis of the crested bone. Distally, the ankle bone articulates with the calcaneus, and medially with the talus block.
In a horse, the proximal end of the fibula - capitulum fibulae - is flattened, widened, has a roughness for the tibia. Distally, the bone rapidly narrows, becomes awl-shaped and becomes a ligament, which is anchored at the distal end of the tibia.
For a livestock breeder, it is important to know how to keep cattle, look after, feed, but it is equally important for farm owners to know how the animal's body works. Knowing how the anatomy of a cow works, you can foresee the loads that the animal will withstand, as well as prevent many diseases.
History of cattle breeding
The ancestor of modern domesticated cows was wild bulls or turs. In the history of mankind, cattle play an important role. Cows began to be domesticated in the early Neolithic period after the domestication of goats, pigs and sheep. It came from India, Altai and Asia. Earlier in Asia, they bred turs and zebu.
The inhabitants of the Neolithic, in addition to milk and skins, used them as a pulling force. Owning a herd of cows was considered a sign of wealth. In some countries, oxen are still used as a pulling force.
Over time, breeding began to develop very progressively. Currently, there is a wide variety of breeds of cows, both beef, dairy and combined beef and dairy types.
This cattle gives a man a lot: meat, milk, liver, skin. Perhaps cows are the most bred and valuable animals themselves.
Exterior
A cow is a massive large animal, the weight of which can be 700–1300 kg, the height at the withers is from 120 to 150 cm, depending on the breed characteristics. The peculiarity of the structure of the teeth is such that they are adapted to chew only vegetable food. Young individuals of milk teeth have 20 pcs, adults have 32 teeth, and there are no incisors. Cows nibble the grass so that they do not damage the root system, but only, as it were, cut it off, so the grass always grows well on their pastures. Sharp, long incisors set obliquely, directed forward and present only on the lower jaw. The two middle incisors are called toes; two on either side of them on both sides - inner middle; the next two incisors are the outer middle ones; and the last two are the edges. The place of the incisors on the upper jaw is the gingival ridge. The lower jaw makes circular movements. The tongue is mobile, rough, covered with papillae.
The cow's skull is very strong. The muzzle is large, the forehead is wide, covered with curly hair, the brow ridges are well pronounced. There are two hollow horns on the head. There are hornless individuals (hornless). The horns are usually directed to the sides or upward. The ears are horn-shaped, set low, covered with short hair on the outside, and long on the inside. The eyes are round and large. The neck is massive, short, the tail is thick and long, at the end of the tassel, located deep between the pelvic bones. There is a hump behind the neck. The back is somewhat concave. The thighs are massive, the pelvis protrudes. The udder of a cow is located in the groin of females - the mammary gland, divided by a septum into two halves (right and left), each of the halves is divided into nipple quarters, 2-3 cm in diameter, 5-10 cm long. The nipple consists of a glandular part and a cistern ... The nipples are paired, divided into front and rear, they are not communicated with each other, which is very helpful in the treatment of mastitis. A strong cow is a sign of strong musculature and strong bones. There are cow breeds that just look like bodybuilders and have huge muscle mass.
Skeleton
Such an animal has a very large, large skeleton with an exemplary structure of the locomotive apparatus. Bones are incredibly strong, capable of supporting a huge mass. The skeleton of a cow can be divided into axial and peripheral parts. The axial line includes the cow's skull, ribcage, and spine. The peripheral consists of the limbs.
Let's take a closer look at the skeleton of a cow:
The spine is divided into two parts, differing in shape and size. The cervical region stretches from the skull to the chest and consists of seven vertebrae. They are very mobile and strong, they allow you to keep your head down for a long time. Chest part identifies 13 vertebrae in itself, ribs are attached to each of the vertebrae. Collectively, this constitutes the ribcage. The ribs of the back are mobile because the lungs are located there. This is followed by a part of the spine, called the lumbar, it consists of 6 vertebrae, then the sacrum, which is formed by five vertebrae and the tail section of 18–20 vertebrae.
The forelimbs belong to the thoracic part and are called thoracic, respectively, the hind limbs are called pelvic, since they belong to the pelvic region. The limbs are considered not only the legs, but also the pelvic bones and shoulder blades.
Forelimbs - scapula, shoulder, forearm, hand (wrist, metacarpus and fingers). The toes are the part of the foot where the hoof is placed. Hind limbs - pelvic bone, thigh, lower leg, foot. The femur is the largest tubular bone in the body of an animal.
Both the front and the hind legs have hooves. Each hoof has two toes, so a cow is a cloven-hoofed animal. There are two more hanging rudimentary fingers on top.
Muscular system
The structure of the cow includes well-developed muscles. The muscles on the head are chewing and facial. Facial make it possible to open and close the mouth, lower and raise the eyelids, inflate the nostrils, move the lips, are the basis of the cheeks. The chewing gum spreads and closes the jaws, and also displaces lower jaw right and left.
The muscles of the trunk include the muscles of the shoulder section, the chest of the spinal column, and the abdominal wall.
Cow anatomy is extensive and includes a large number of different systems and organs.
Reproductive organs
The reproductive organs of bulls and cows are different. In bulls, these are testicles (testes) with appendages and accessory glands, spermatic cords, vas deferens, scrotum, penis, urogenital canal, prepuce. The main genital organ is the testis, in which sperm mature. It also produces male hormones... Its thickness is 6–7 cm, length is 12–15 cm, weight is about 300 g. The length of the penis is about 150 cm in an erect state. It itself resembles a pointed cylinder in shape. Two ligaments stretch from the bend to the root of the penis, pulling it into the prepuce. 
In a cow, the reproductive system is represented by the ovaries, the oviduct (fallopian tube), and the uterus. The ovaries weigh 14–19 grams and are located at the level of the ilium, 40 cm from the vagina. The right ovary is usually larger than the left. Oviduct- a highly convoluted narrow tube 21–28 cm, connected to the uterine horn. In it, the fertilization of the egg takes place and the further transfer of the fertilized egg to the uterus. The uterus is a membranous hollow organ. The fetus develops in it. The width of the uterine horn is 2–3 cm, the length is 16–18 cm, and the wall thickness is 2–5 mm. She weighs from 300 to 700 grams, and by the end of pregnancy without a fetus has a weight of 6-10 kg. On the body of the uterus and on the mucous membrane of the horn there are curuncles - the rudiments of the placenta. According to them, the timing of the animal's pregnancy is determined. The vagina is a 20–28 cm tube, copulation takes place in it, located between the urogenital opening and the cervix. 
Digestive system
V digestive system in a cow, feed moves through the pharynx and esophagus into the stomach. Also, the esophagus promotes the waste of gases formed in the rumen. The cow's teeth are adapted only for picking grass, but practically do not chew it, so a lot of saliva is released 100-200 liters per day, depending on the roughness and dryness of the feed. Saliva is easier to swallow, but does not contain enzymes that break down. It is a smoothing buffer between feed acids and volatile acids in the rumen.
The stomach of a cow, like other ruminants, has four whole pieces: a net, a scar, an abomasum and a book. Mesh, scar and ridge are considered pancreas. They store food, digest it, and absorb waste products. When food is swallowed, it enters the rumen, where microorganisms secrete enzymes and break down fiber and other substances. When chewing, food is belched in portions, chewed, and returned to the rumen. The first sign of cow disease is the absence of chewing gum. The ruminant process in calves occurs in the third week of life. It comes in 30–70 minutes after a meal and lasts 40–50 minutes. Approximately 6-8 ruminant periods pass per day. Scar volume in adult reaches 200 liters, this is about 80% of the volume of all stomachs. There is a scar on the left side abdominal cavity... The mesh is the proventriculus, with a volume of 4–10 liters, the smallest of all stomachs. The inner surface is mesh, like a honeycomb, hence the name. Food is in the grid for 20–48 hours. Microbes in the mesh form gases with a volume of 30-50 liters per hour, which are removed through the esophagus by belching.
The book is the third stomach and films thin, like sheets, through which liquid is absorbed from the feed. These sheets greatly increase the volume of the stomach to 10–20 liters. The food in the book is delayed by 5 hours. Due to the absorption of liquid into the sheets, the fodder mass becomes semi-solid, the dry matter content in it increases to 22-24%.
Abomasum is the stomach that secretes hydrochloric acid and digestive enzymes that digest food. Thanks to hydrochloric acid, the rennet medium is acidic (pH 1-3), prevents the development of microbes and improves digestion. The volume of rennet is 5–15 liters, the feed is kept in it for 1–2 hours.
The length of the intestine in cows is 39–63 m long. Body length refers to the length of the intestine as 1:20. The following sections are distinguished in the intestine: thin and thick. Small intestine stretches from the stomach, dividing into the duodenum, jejunum and ileum. The duodenum is 90–120 cm long and contains pancreatic ducts and bile ducts. The jejunum is 35–38 cm long, suspended on an extensive mesentery in the form a large number loops. Ileum has a length of 1m. The small intestine, like the pancreas, in cows is located in the right hypochondrium and stretches to the fourth lumbar vertebra. The pancreas secretes several liters of pancreatic secretion per day. The liver is also located there, its mass is in the range of 1.1-1.4% of the animal's body weight.
The large intestine is formed by the colon, rectum and cecum. Blind - a blunt short tube, about 30–70 cm in length, located at the top of the abdominal cavity on the right. Colon- a short, 6–9 m long tube. The rectum is located in the region of the 4–5 sacral vertebra in the pelvic region, has a developed muscular structure, and has an anal canal with an anus at the end. In the large intestine, absorption and breakdown of fiber up to 15–20% occurs.
The movement of food along the digestive tract occurs within 2-3 days at a speed of 17.7 cm per hour (4.2 m per day), fiber passes in 12 days. When feeding livestock with green mass, for best digestion, you need to give 25-40 liters of water, and when feeding dry food, up to 80 liters. Feces should normally be excreted from 15 to 45 kg per day. They resemble dough in consistency and have dark brown with a percentage of water up to 85%.
Excretory system
The urinary organs include the ureters, kidneys, urethra and bladder... Urine is formed in the kidneys, then it is excreted through the ureter into the bladder, when it is full, urine is excreted through the urethra to the outside. The weight of the kidneys of an adult animal can vary from 1 to 1.4 kg. A healthy individual excretes 6–20 liters of urine per day.
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Perceptual organs in cows
Vision in cows is colored central binocular and lateral monocular. The pupil is stretched horizontally, the field of view is panoramic. What is behind, the animal can see only by turning its head. There is a blind spot at a distance of 0–20 cm to the end of the muzzle. The field of view of binocular vision is a small area directly in front of the cow, allowing her to estimate distance and terrain. They see the grass in front of them clearly, and do not distinguish distant details. When changing lighting, they do not immediately adapt, they need some time for this. They respond well to movement. Shades of red are distinguished, but not very blue, green and gray.
Hearing in these animals is acute. Differentiate sounds with a frequency of up to 5000 Hz. The ears are movable, turnable, easy to establish the localization of sound. With sharp loud sounds may panic.
The sense of smell is also highly developed. The smell of ammonia is distinguished even when diluted in a ratio of 1: 100,000. Pheromones are perfectly captured by the vomeronasal organ. Moreover, the cow will never eat grass in those places that were fertilized with mineral fertilizers.
The taste characteristics of cows are also well developed. There are more than 25,000 taste buds on the tongue, making it possible to recognize salty, sour, bitter and sweet. They are sensitive to pain and temperature. The most sensitive areas are the cheeks, throat, neck, thighs, vulva, and nipples. Pain receptors are concentrated in the nostrils and near the base of the horns. Humidity and wind speed, along with temperature the environment, animals are evaluated due to thermoreception. Sensitive to changes in the electric field generated by television or radio.
Behavior
Cows are herd animals. Each herd forms its own dominant hierarchy through collisions of individuals with each other. Once established, the hierarchy does not change. Animals become attached to each other, get used to it. Stay close to each other, lick. These are mostly submissive, peaceful animals, but sometimes aggressive bulls are very valuable for bullfighting in Spain or in the battle of queens in Switzerland.
With the help of their sense of smell, these animals can sense the emotions of their fellow tribesmen, and the head posture, which shows the mood, helps in communication. Emotions can also be expressed by roaring or mooing, which indicates thirst, hunger, calf calling, pain, suffering.
Reproduction and life cycle
Cows live for about 20 years, in rare cases up to 35. The growth of young animals continues up to 5, in late-maturing breeds up to 7 years. Sexual maturity occurs in heifers at 7-9 months, in bulls at 6-8, although there are breeds that reach sexual maturity only by 24 months (some African breeds). But puberty does not yet indicate the possibility of reproductiveness. Usually, the body of animals is already ready to reproduce offspring when the weight reaches about 50-60% of the weight of an adult animal. Young heifers and bulls are kept separately to avoid spontaneous calving. Heifers begin to happen at 18-22 months, bulls at 14-18. Cows can be fertile all year round regardless of the season. 
Cows are polyester animals with a sexual cycle of about 21 days. It is divided into four parts: estrus, ovulation, pregnancy and lactation.
Estrus (hunting) takes 12 to 18 hours. The animal becomes agitated and ready to mate. Moos, sniffs other animals, drinks a lot, eats little, cloudy mucus is released from the vagina. Cuts can be produced both naturally and by artificial insemination. Natural can be tame and free. When free, the bulls cover the queens on their own. Ovulation occurs 10-15 hours after the hunt. The period of pregnancy is called pregnancy, and the heifer is pregnant. After four months - heifer. 1.5–2 months before calving, the udder stands out in the heifer. The gestation period lasts about 285 days. Most often, cows are singleton, twins are very rare, no more than 2%, twins are born fraternal. Most often, heifers from twins are not capable of producing offspring and even outwardly look like gobies (freemartins). At birth, calves weigh, depending on the breed, 18–45 kg, sometimes 50–60. The mass of gobies is slightly more than the mass of heifers.
Immediately after calving, the lactation period begins. In the first 7-10 days, the cow does not produce milk, but colostrum. Young animals are fed by their mother up to 9 months. But at three months it is already possible to wean, since the calves are already able to feed on their own. For regular milk production immediately after lactation, the cow needs to be re-hatched.
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Video-Anatomy of the reproductive system of a cow
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