In 1858, a new upsurge of the national liberation movement began in Italy. The idea of war against Austria was still popular among the Italian people. Preventing a new revolution and seeking to unite Italy under their auspices, the rulers of Piedmont had long been preparing for war and, for this purpose, in 1858 they entered into a secret conspiracy with Imperial France. The Bonapartist regime entered into an alliance with Piedmont because it was interested in ousting Austria from Italy and sought to replace Austrian dominance with French one. By concluding a deal with France, the Piedmontese government hoped to win over the Italian Republicans, using the sentiments of mainly those who believed in Piedmont as the banner of the liberation and unification of Italy. And so Cavour invites Garibaldi to his place and invites him to recruit volunteer units. Although the national hero was distrustful of Cavour's plans for a war against Austria, he nevertheless accepted this proposal, secretly thinking that in this war the Sardinian monarchy would fall along with others. If King Victor Emmanuel and his first minister Cavour wanted to use Garibaldi's popularity among the masses and the entire revolutionary democracy to their advantage, then Garibaldi counted on the fact that he would be able to use the well-armed Piedmontese army.
The war that began at the end of April 1859 caused a general patriotic upsurge in Italy, as the people pinned their hopes on liberating the country from foreign oppression and unifying it. The first significant victories over the enemy were won by Garibaldi's volunteers, among whom there were many staunch republicans. In 1848, Garibaldi was the last to leave Lombardy, and in 1859 he was the first to enter it. The inhabitants of Lombardy enthusiastically greeted their liberators from the Austrian yoke. After the victory at Varese, victories followed at Como, Bergamo, Palazzolo and others. Garibaldi occupied city after city, and the Austrians retreated in panic. By the beginning of June, detachments of Alpine riflemen cleared most Lombardy from the enemy. This was Garibaldi's first triumphal march in the revolution of 1859 - 1860.
The victories Garibaldi won and his popularity among the broad masses frightened Cavour and Victor Emmanuel, and terrified Napoleon III. Therefore, not only did the Piedmontese government poorly supply Garibaldi with weapons, he was deliberately sent to the most dangerous positions, and sometimes to certain death. The unkind attitude of the main command of the Piedmontese army towards Garibaldi was noted by military observers of that time. K. Marx and F. Engels wrote about this with indignation. “It is possible,” Engels wrote on May 30, 1859, “that by sending Garibaldi to Lombardy, Louis Napoleon and Victor Emmanuel expected to destroy him and his volunteers - elements perhaps too revolutionary for this dynastic war” 1 . Marx wrote almost the same thing: “In my opinion, Garibaldi is deliberately sent to positions where he should die” 2 . In his Memoirs, Garibaldi says that his corps was indeed deliberately placed in a difficult position.
One of the reasons for the hostility of the high command towards Garibaldi and the secret struggle of the Piedmontese government against him was the social politics in liberated areas. Garibaldi could not deal only with military
1 K. Marx and F. Engels. Op. T. 13, p. 380.
2 K. Marx and F. Engels. Op. T. 29, p. 360.
business, life forced him to decide and social issues. The acute problem for Italy was the agricultural one. Representatives of the bourgeois-democratic camp, to which Garibaldi belonged, again encountered it. He did not have a developed agrarian program, but he tried in every way he could to alleviate the lot of the peasants. In the areas he occupied, he freed peasants from exorbitant taxes.
The consequence of Garibaldi's policy was the desire of the broad masses to join his banner. But neither Cavour nor the main command agreed to increase the number of his detachment. Moreover, Garibaldi was under police surveillance. K. Marx wrote on this occasion: “The Paris correspondent of the Times writes today that the Bonapartists are already grumbling greatly about Garibaldi’s “glory” and that his detachment has been infiltrated by “several selected police agents” who are sending detailed reports about him” 3 .
The successful fight against the Austrians at the fronts contributed to the growth of the revolutionary movement. Popular uprisings broke out in Tuscany, Parma, Modena, and in the Papal State. National liberation the movement took on a wide scope and could lead to the creation of a united and independent Italy. This caused concern and was not part of Napoleon III's plans. Therefore, he, deciding that after the victories he would be able to obtain the concessions he needed from the Austrian emperor, hastened to end the war behind the back of his ally. On July 11, 1859, the Truce of Villafranca was signed. Garibaldi was full of anger and did not recognize the truce. But he was glad that this truce would finally free his hands and all Italian patriots: the royal war was over, and the real one would begin, people's war. This shameful truce, which consolidated the fragmentation of Italy and complemented Austrian oppression with French dictatorship, caused an explosion of indignation in the country. “The emergence of the Italian nation,” wrote K. Marx regarding the Treaty of Villafranca, “is accompanied by a sophisticated insult...” The democratic forces of Italy did not recognize this truce. A powerful movement of the masses arose throughout the country. Summarizing his article on the Treaty of Villafranca, Marx wrote that “the Italian revolution may intervene to change the picture of the entire peninsula” 4 . It happened as Marx foresaw. During the summer of 1859, the number of mass protests increased every day, and the intensity of revolutionary energy intensified. The indignation of the broad masses in Central Italy was especially threatening.
Beyond Central Italy, the South also rebelled. At the end of 1859, Sicily again rose up against the oppression of the Spanish Bourbons. On April 4, 1860, under the leadership of the leader of the Sicilian Republicans, Rosalino Pilo, an uprising began in Palermo. Mazzini's Republican Party decided to take the leadership of the movement in Sicily into its own hands. To assist the rebels in Genoa, the so-called “Sicilian Committee” was organized. He began to prepare an expedition to Sicily with the expectation of capturing the island, and from there, with the help of the rebels, launch a campaign to the mainland and take possession of the entire Kingdom of Naples. Garibaldi led this campaign. This is how the legendary campaign of the Red Shirts, Garibaldi’s “Thousand”, was conceived, which played a major role in the unification of Italy. Social composition The “thousands” were very diverse: almost half of the expedition consisted of proletarian strata - workers, artisans, the urban poor; there were many students, representatives of the petty bourgeoisie, and intellectuals (engineers, lawyers, doctors, artists, poets, writers). There was not a single peasant in the “Thousand,” as Garibaldi himself noted with great regret 5 .
Before the expedition set sail, on May 5, Garibaldi issued a proclamation “To the Italians.” “Italians!” wrote Garibaldi. “Sicilians are fighting the enemies of Italy for Italy. The duty of every Italian is to help them with words, money, weapons and most of all - with my own hand...Left to themselves, the brave sons of Sicily fight with the mercenaries not only of the Bourbons, but also of Austria and the Roman high priest... Let Marche, Umbria, Sabina, Rome and Naples rise to fragment the forces of our enemies... The brave will find everywhere weapons... Don't listen to cowards... A detachment of brave men from my former comrades in previous battles for their homeland is marching with
3 Ibid. , page 362.
4 K. Marx and F. Engels. Op. T. 13, pp. 442, 445.
5 G. Garibaldi. Le Mille. Paris. 1875, p. 4.
me to the rescue. Italy knows them: these are the ones who become V formation, as soon as danger appears, - good, generous comrades who dedicated their lives to their homeland, gave it up to last straw his blood, without expecting any other reward than clear conscience... To arms!.." 6.
The slogan “Italy and Victor Emmanuel”, under which the expedition was carried out, stemmed from the policy of the Action Party, carried out even before the start of the Austro-Italian-French War of 1859. The first to put forward this slogan in 1856 was the former head of the Venetian Republic, Daniel Manin, when he, together with La Farina, created " National Society". Conducting the campaign of the Thousand under the slogan "Italy and Victor Emmanuel", Garibaldi thereby gave the expedition an official character. No matter how Cavour dissociated himself from the expedition, hastily declaring to all diplomats his non-involvement in it, no matter how much he scolded Garibaldi in letters to his friends, this slogan, albeit temporarily, tied his hands. With this slogan Garibaldi rallied all under the banner of the unification of Italy national forces. His further activities Garibaldi proved that, while putting forward the slogan “Italy and Victor Emmanuel” for tactical reasons, he by no means abandoned his republican convictions and until the end of his life remained an ardent supporter of democracy and an opponent of the monarchy.
There is still a debate in the scientific literature on the question of Cavour’s attitude to the “Thousand” expedition. As you know, Cavour not only tried to force Garibaldi to abandon the expedition, but also intended to arrest him in order to disrupt the departure of the Thousand. Disregarding widely known documents, traditional bourgeois-liberal historiography asserts that Cavour could not help but more or less secretly facilitate the expedition to Sicily. Some authors who are more careful in their formulations say: yes, it is possible that Cavour did not contribute to the sending of the expedition, but his merit lies in the fact that he did not interfere with it. In fact, Cavour did not prevent the dispatch of the Thousand only because he was not able to do so, being forced to reckon with public opinion. Cavour himself wrote about this, and many memoirists, including Garibaldi, testify to this. Here is a letter from Cavour dated May 12, 1860 to the Ambassador of Piedmont in Paris C. Nigra: “I regret Garibaldi’s expedition, and I am doing and will do what is possible so that it does not cause new complications. I did not prevent Garibaldi from carrying out his project , since in order to do this, it would be necessary to use force. But the government cannot neglect the fact that an attempt to stop Garibaldi would cause great discontent... Wishing to dispel the intrigues of the opposition on the eve of the elections... I cannot use violent measures, to prevent aid destined for Sicily" 7 .
One cannot read Garibaldi's story about the battles for the liberation of Sicily and Southern Italy without excitement. With sincere pathos, he narrates in his “Memoirs” about the battles, which, according to F. Engels, bore the “stamp of a military genius.” Calatafimi, Palermo, Milazzo, Reggio, Volturno - each of these battles inspired Italian patriots and amazed their contemporaries: politicians, diplomats, and military specialists. Studying in detail Garibaldi's campaign from Marsala to Palermo, F. Engels noted that this is “one of the most amazing military feats of our century, and it would be almost inexplicable if the prestige of the revolutionary general had not preceded his triumphal march” 8 .
Garibaldi acted in Sicily in close contact with the rebel movement. After consulting with local leaders of the Republican Party, the partisan leader worked out overall plan actions. Rebels began to flock to Garibaldi, armed with whatever they could - pikes, sabers, knives, clubs, axes. Already in Salemi, located near Marsala, 4 thousand armed peasants joined Garibaldi’s detachment. Arose on the island new government. It was organized in the form of a revolutionary democratic dictatorship, and Garibaldi accepted the title of dictator of Si-
6 G. Garibaldi. Scritti e discorsi politici e militari. Vol. I. Bologna. 1934, pp. 239 - 241.
7 "II carteggio Cavour - Nigra, dal 1858 al 1861". Vol. III. Bologna. 1928, pp. 294 - 295.
8 K. Marx and F. Engels. Op. T. 15, pp. 63, 67.
cilia. He understood the need for dictatorship to completely suppress the counter-revolution and consolidate revolutionary gains. In Sicily, at the initiative of Garibaldi, some socio-economic activities were carried out. He freed tens of thousands of political prisoners languishing in prisons in Palermo and other cities, and began organizing schools and shelters for street children. Garibaldi also took care of families affected by the war. To provide a means of subsistence for the needy sections of the population, he organized public works; issued a decree abolishing the milling tax. Important socio-economic events were carried out by the revolutionary government of Garibaldi in Naples. A decree was issued banning Jesuit corporations - hotbeds of counter-revolution. The lands belonging to the Bourbons were nationalized; A decree was issued on the distribution of state lands to peasants.
The propertied classes of Southern Italy, frightened by the revolutionary nature of Garibaldi's campaign, did not sleep. Landowners and big bourgeoisie turned to Victor Emmanuel with petitions for the immediate annexation of Southern Italy to Piedmont. Cavour flooded Naples with his agents, who also campaigned for annexation. Garibaldi did not want to even think about annexing Southern Italy to the possessions of the Sardinian kingdom until the liberation of Rome and Venice. Victor Emmanuel marched with an army of 20,000 men into the Papal State and then entered the Kingdom of Naples. He published an appeal “To the Peoples of Southern Italy,” in which he called for reconciliation with the monarchy and declared “the end of the era of revolution.” In this situation, Garibaldi decided to call a plebiscite on the issue of joining Piedmont. The plebiscite was held on October 21, 1860, when the Piedmontese army led by Victor Emmanuel was already approaching Naples. It ended in victory for supporters of the annexation of the South of Italy to the Sardinian Kingdom. On November 6, Garibaldi was forced to announce the transfer of power in Southern Italy, which he had liberated, to King Victor Emmanuel. Soon the decrees issued by Garibaldi were canceled and his army was disbanded. After this, Garibaldi had no choice but to leave for a while political life. "I sought to return to my loneliness (on Caprera. - V. N.)", - Garibaldi finishes his story about the glorious campaign of the “Thousand”. A. I. Herzen wrote with deep bitterness about Garibaldi’s departure: “... he and a handful of people defeated the army, liberated the whole country and was released from it, as they release the driver when he has delivered it to the station" 9.
Garibaldi's expedition to the south of Italy was the largest action of the masses in their struggle for the unification of Italy through revolutionary means. This campaign united the anti-feudal, democratic forces of all Italian states. As a result of the war and revolution of 1859 - 1860. Italy was almost completely unified. The decisive role in the unification of the country was played by the struggle of the popular masses, led by the revolutionary elements of the bourgeoisie, the most prominent representatives of which were Garibaldi and Mazzini. Assessing the role of Garibaldi and the masses in the revolution of 1859 - 1860, F. Engels wrote: “In the person of Garibaldi, Italy had a hero of the ancient mold, capable of creating and actually working miracles. With a thousand volunteers, he overthrew the entire Kingdom of Naples, actually united Italy, broke the skillful network of Bonaparte's policy. Italy was free and, in essence, united - but not by the machinations of Louis Napoleon, but by the revolution" 10. However, what was created was not a democratic Italy, not the Italy for which Garibaldi dedicated his glorious life. The insufficient organization of democratic forces, the weak participation of the peasantry in the revolution, and the vacillations of the leaders of the republican bourgeoisie determined the incompleteness of the revolution of 1859 - 1860. in Italy. A balance of forces was created in which the Piedmontese monarchy was able to take advantage of the victories won by the revolution and annex the already liberated states to Piedmont.
V. E. Nevler
9 A. I. Herzen. Op. T. XI. M. 1957, p. 257.
10 K. Marx and F. Engels. Op. T. 21, p. 430.
This man left a major mark on the history of his country. Some accused him of starting the civil war for the independence of the Italian Republic, while others considered him a talented commander who saved his homeland. We are, of course, talking about the legendary politician Giuseppe Garibaldi. Today, not everyone knows about his personality and the exploits he accomplished. But those who lived during the era of the USSR remember very well how they called Giuseppe Garibaldi. He was a people's hero, a liberator warrior, and a revolutionary. Many squares, streets and avenues currently bear his name. Giuseppe Garibaldi established himself as an experienced general who had to fight on three continents: Africa, South America and Eurasia. In his worldview, he adhered to the views of idealist philosophers.
But what else is known about Giuseppe Garibaldi? Naturally, it would be inappropriate to talk briefly about such a colorful figure, so we will dwell on his biography in detail. And there were a lot of interesting things in it.
Years of childhood and youth
Garibaldi Giuseppe is a native of Nice. He was born on July 4, 1807. The details of the genealogy of the national hero of Italy were of interest to many scientists, but the revolutionary himself was little interested in this issue. It is known that Giuseppe Garibaldi was born into a sailor's family. His father was engaged in commerce, sailing the Mediterranean on his sailing vessel. The parents doted on their son. They surrounded him with maximum care and affection. And young Giuseppe reciprocated their feelings. The future hero treated his mother with tenderness and trepidation. “She is a real ideal, and I tried never to contradict her,” Giuseppe Garibaldi later wrote. A brief biography of history shows that the revolutionary carried his love for his parents throughout his entire life, filled with adventures and bright events.
First feat
Already in childhood, Giuseppe declared himself as a brave and sympathetic boy. One day, when he was only seven years old, he and cousin went hunting near the Var River.
Approaching the ditch, Giuseppe saw women caressing their laundry. And suddenly one of the washerwomen, having lost her balance, fell into the water. The next moment the boy rushed to the rescue and saved the woman.
As for the upbringing of the young man, it cannot be considered “aristocratic.” Disciplines such as fencing, horse riding, and gymnastics were not included in his “program.” But he mastered them on his own, using the trial and error method. As a teenager, Giuseppe was seriously interested in swimming, and he also learned this activity without outside help. And over time, the young man became an experienced swimmer.
Adventure gone wrong
In general, the teenager often got bored with school. He was more attracted to adventures and exploits. At one point, he invited his friends to take a boat trip to Genoa. They agreed, and the journey actually took place, albeit partially. Having reached Monaco, Giuseppe and his friends were forced to return. The further path was blocked. The fact is that Garibaldi’s father “found out” about his son’s plans. And he was told about them by a monk who saw the young men sailing away on a rented boat. But, despite some of the young hero’s antics, the characterization of Giuseppe Garibaldi does not contain anything negative or seditious.
Sea
And having matured a little, the young man discovered a great desire for sea travel.
However, Giuseppe's father was not happy about this, secretly hoping that his son would become a doctor or lawyer. But the young man did not give in to his father’s persuasion and went to sea. But these were far from the only goals of Giuseppe Garibaldi that he managed to achieve in his life. Well, the route of the young man’s debut journey by sea ended in the Ukrainian Odessa. After this cruise, Giuseppe no longer had the slightest doubt that he would connect his life with the sea.
The liberation movement is gaining momentum
By the age of sixteen, the young man from Nice had already explored the length and breadth of the Mediterranean Sea. In the early 20s, the political situation in southern Europe. Suddenly, pockets of the liberation movement flared up. Greek rebels began to fight against the Turkish occupation. The Hellenes had a serious chance of victory. Giuseppe joined the ranks of the rebels and immediately came to the attention of Turkish intelligence officers, who established round-the-clock surveillance of him even in his hometown. The young man understood that he had to flee the country, otherwise his family might suffer. He took a merchant ship and, under the pretext of purchasing grain, went to Russian Taganrog.
Fateful meeting
Some time later, in one of the taverns in the city, Giuseppe Garibaldi, whose biography is of great interest to historians, will hear the speech of an Italian named Mazzini. He will speak to those gathered about the difficult political situation in which his native republic finds itself. Mazzini, who had the skills of oratory, immediately attracted the attention of Giuseppe.
After this, the young man will decide to seriously participate in the liberation movement of Europe. In 1931, while in Marseille, the captain of a merchant ship got to know Mazzini better and began to actively contact him.
Riot in Piedmont
The Italian patriot, propagating the ideas of the utopian socialist Saint-Simon, “infects” Garibaldi with them. Giuseppe, having finally believed in the justice of the liberation movement, took part in the “Piedmontese” rebellion in 1934. According to the organizers, this political action was to transform into a revolution. But these expectations were not met. The court severely punished the rebels, but the captain of the merchant ship managed to escape death penalty only thanks to the fact that he managed to leave Italy in time.
South America
In the period from 1836 to 1848, Giuseppe Garibaldi, whose biography contains many interesting and remarkable things, lived in exile in the territory South America. During that period, the continent was also “in fever” from insurgent revolutions. The national hero of Italy takes part in some of them. For example, he fought on a ship belonging to the Rio Grante Republic for its autonomy against Brazil. It was then that he met his soulmate, Anna Maria Ribeiro da Silva, who would become not only his devoted wife, but also his faithful comrade-in-arms for the rest of his life.
After some time, Giuseppe resigns from the Rio Grante army and goes with his wife and son to the capital of Uruguay. Here he works in areas “unusual” for himself.
He was both a trade representative and a teacher, but Giribaldi was never able to get used to the conditions of peaceful life. And soon fate gives him the opportunity to realize himself in “military affairs.” In Uruguay, the liberation movement against the Argentine ruler Juan Miguel de Rosas is gaining momentum. And it’s not hard to guess what Giuseppe Garibaldi did in such conditions? Naturally, he joined the rebels and began to fight for the independence of Uruguay. A year later, the national hero of Italy began to command the “scarlet collars” - the detachment with which he won the battle of San Antonio. In 1847, Garibaldi, while defending the Uruguayan capital from the enemy, met Alexandre Dumas(father). It is he who will glorify the exploits of the general from Nice.
Italy
At the end of the 40s of the century before last, the revolutionary returns to Italy and begins to fight on the side of those who defend the ideas of separatism of the republic. First of all, the activities of Giuseppe Garibaldi were directed against the policies of the Roman Pontiff, but the army did not side with him. Then the commander decided to strike the forces of the monarch of Sardinia, Charles Albert. But he failed to win the confrontation with the king and Garibaldi retreated with his army to Milan. And there he led liberation wars his ideological inspirer Giuseppe Mazzini, who was ready to help Garibaldi. Charles Albert, realizing that he could not cope with two armies, agreed to compromise. Then the commander began to wage war with the Austrians and continued it almost until the end of the summer of 1848, after which Garibaldi, under enemy pressure, was forced to take refuge in Switzerland. But a few months later, Giuseppe returned to Nice, where he created the “second Italian Legion” numbering about four hundred soldiers. In the winter of 1948, he was already in Rome, where riots and riots began against the policies of the main clergyman.
The Pope was forced to urgently leave Italy, and Garibaldi began to lead the Roman Assembly, and his first step in this post was a call to recognize the sovereignty of the Italian Republic. The Papal States eventually received a different name. But soon a French army arrived, led by General Oudinot, who wanted to return the Roman Pontiff to the throne. The Austrians, led by Marshal Radetzky, and the troops of the Sicilian king Ferdinand II were also ready to encroach on the independence of Italy. The French decided to storm Rome. But Garibaldi's troops interfered with their plans, and the enemy was forced to retreat. Some time later, Giuseppe entered into confrontation with the Sicilian army and defeated it. He wanted to continue the offensive and destroy the enemy on his territory, but Mazzini did not support his comrade-in-arms.
Relations between him and Garibaldi began to worsen. Mazzini used liberal methods in politics, and his associate was a supporter of radical measures.
Rome became "papal" again
The French army, having received reinforcements, again attempts to capture Rome. General Oudinot managed to occupy the main defensive installations, and capital of Italy actually ended up in his hands. Power again passed to the Pope. Mazzini fled to England, and Garibaldi rushed to Venice, simultaneously fighting with the Austrian invaders. In the summer of 1849, his wife dies of malaria, and a few weeks after this, the leader of the liberation movement learns that the last stronghold of the revolution, the young Republic of San Marco, has lost its independence. Thus, Italy was unable to gain sovereignty. Giuseppe Garibaldi, short biography which was presented in many textbooks on Soviet history, decided to head for Sicily. Having reached the kingdom, the revolutionary fell into the hands of the authorities, was arrested, and then deported from the country.
After the failed revolution
But the ruler of Piedmont did not want Garibaldi to return to his homeland and again begin to excite the masses. Then the national hero of Italy goes to Tunisia, and after some time to Morocco. But, having lived on the African continent for only a few years, Garibaldi unexpectedly goes to the United States, where he decides to return to his original occupation - maritime trade. Giuseppe transported goods to Australia, China, Peru, and New Zealand.
Sardinia
Only in 1854 Garibaldi received the right to return to his homeland. The revolutionary bought an estate on the island of Caprera and settled on it. But the idea of a liberation movement still haunted Garibaldi. He makes an attempt to rescue the Neapolitan monarch, who came from the Bourbon royal dynasty, from “political isolation,” but ultimately it was unsuccessful. In the late 50s, already on the initiative of the authorities, Giuseppe began to fight on the side of the militia against the Austrian occupiers. Garibaldi was able to rally around himself a powerful volunteer army and drive the enemy back to the borders of Tyrol. Thanks to this military operation The territory of Lombardy was added to Piedmont. After peace was established in southern Italy, the revolutionary focused his attention on the center of the country. The fact is that Florence declared autonomy. He secured the military support of the Sardinian king in case Garibaldi decided to attack the papal borders. Moreover, the monarch put forward a condition: mandatory victory in this campaign. But then the “Sardinian” ruler changed his mind and abandoned the idea of helping the revolutionary.
In the 60s, the territory of Nice went to France, after which Giuseppe spoke in parliament, where he criticized the decision of the ruler of Piedmont.
Another liberation campaign
The revolutionary began to hatch a plan for the occupation of Naples and Sicily. Moreover, he understood that he would have to rely solely on his own strength, since the authorities would not approve of his plans.
But they were supported by the people, which gave strength to the commander. Arriving in Sicily with his troops, Garibaldi declared himself the rightful ruler of the island. The local population swore allegiance to him. And in the fall of 1860, Giuseppe occupied Naples and declared himself as the king of the two Sicilies. The revolutionary then initiated a plebiscite, as a result of which it was decided that the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies would become part of Sardinia. A few days after the referendum, Garibaldi met with the monarch of the Sardinian kingdom and announced to him the decision of the people. In November 1860 new ruler Victor Immanuel II of the Two Sicilies and the national hero of Italy entered Naples.
In 1962, Garibaldi took part in another military operation. According to the king's plan, he was supposed to fight the Austrians in the Balkans. But at the last moment the revolutionary changed his mind and sent his troops to Rome. The ruler of Italy fielded a powerful army against Garibaldi. In the battle, Garibaldi was wounded and captured, and after some time was released. The revolutionary eventually returned to the island of Caprera. Then Giuseppe traveled for some time, studied literary creativity, taking a break from military banalities.
Last battles
But already in the second half of the 60s, the revolutionary took up arms again. Garibaldi took part in the Austro-Prussian-Italian War, winning a number of brilliant victories. Then he makes a final attempt to capture Rome, but not by military means, but through agitation and propaganda against the policies of the Pope. For attempting to overthrow the government, the revolutionary was exiled to the island of Caprera. The revolutionary escaped from exile, then was again arrested and “transported” to his island. Only in the early 70s was papal power overthrown, but he could not take part in this action. Great commander died on his native estate June 2, 1882. The personality of Giuseppe Garibaldi can hardly be overestimated in the history of his native country. It was he who did everything possible to ensure that Italy eventually gained its long-awaited independence. And the people of the Apennine Peninsula still honor and remember the exploits of their hero. This is evidenced, for example, by the monument to Giuseppe Garibaldi, erected in Rome. As has already been emphasized, streets and avenues are named in honor of the revolutionary. He's up to last days throughout his life he cared about prosperity and happiness for his people.
The rise of the national liberation movement
In April 1860, a widespread peasant uprising broke out in Sicily. Garibaldi, at the head of the detachment of volunteers he created - the famous “thousand” - hastened to help the rebels. Among the fighters of the “thousand” workers, artisans, and fishermen predominated, but there were also students, lawyers and journalists. Revolutionaries from other countries took part in the Garibaldian detachment (including Russians - F. Komissarzhevsky, L. Mechnikov and others). Garibaldi's detachment began to grow rapidly after landing in Sicily; the people greeted him as a liberator. On May 15, in the battle with the troops of the Neapolitan king at Calatafimi (near Palermo), Garibaldi's volunteers won a complete victory. The uprising spread throughout southern Italy. Garibaldi won a number of new brilliant victories here too. The Neapolitan Bourbon dynasty was overthrown, the king hastily fled, Garibaldi triumphantly entered the capital of the kingdom, Naples, on September 7.
Marx and Engels followed the heroic struggle of Garibaldi and his comrades with deep attention and warm sympathy. Analyzing the reasons for the victories of his army, Engels emphasized its popular character and noted that “Garibaldi showed himself not only to be a brave leader and a clever strategist, but also a scientifically trained general.”( F. Engels, Garibaldi in Calabria, K. Marx and F. Engels, Works, vol. XII, part 2, p. 149.)
During this turning point, critical period of the struggle for the unification of Italy, Cavour, faithful to his policy of secret diplomacy, political combinations and hostility to the people's revolution, led challenging game. Officially, he dissociated himself from Garibaldi’s campaign against Naples, but in secret correspondence he encouraged him to attack, hoping to overthrow the Neapolitan Bourbons with the help of the Garibaldians, and then subjugate the entire south of Italy to the power of the Savoy dynasty. After the expulsion of the Bourbons, the government of the Sardinian monarchy moved its troops into the territory of the Kingdom of Naples. Garibaldi had the opportunity, relying on the broad masses, to establish a revolutionary democratic dictatorship in Naples, create a republic and unite all of Italy under this banner. But at this crucial hour, Garibaldi’s weakness as a bourgeois revolutionary showed itself. He did not dare to raise the people to fight against the Sardinian monarchy and the bourgeois-noble bloc that supported it. After some hesitation, Garibaldi recognized the power of the Sardinian monarchy over the Neapolitan possessions, allowed Sardinian troops to enter Naples and withdrew from the role of political leader. Conducted under intense pressure from the Sardinian government, the vote in the south gave the majority of votes to supporters of the annexation of the territory of the former Kingdom of Naples to Sardinia. Garibaldi resigned.
(certain emigrant groups - also on other continents); their number is about 200 million people (early 1990s). The science that studies Semitic languages (as well as the literature, culture and history of their speakers) is called Semitic.
In accordance with the latest classification(developed by R. Hetzron in 1973–74), the family of Semitic languages is divided into the following branches and groups:
I. The eastern branch is represented by the extinct Akkadian (or Assyro-Babylonian) language of 3-1 thousand BC. e. (see Akkad, Mesopotamia) and, possibly, the Eblaite language of 3 thousand BC. e. (in northwestern Syria, see Ebla).
II. Western branch:
A. Central Semitic languages: 1. Canaanite in the broad sense: a) Canaanite proper (see Canaan); Hebrew (see Hebrew language; ancient Hebrew is also called Hebrew), Phoenician 2–1 thousand BC. e. (see Phenicia) and the Punic languages derived from it (in Carthage) and the minor languages of Canaan: Moabite, Edomite (Edomite), Ammonite (see Moab, Edom, Ammon) and others; b) Ugaritic 2 thousand BC. e. (see Ugarit); c) probably Amorite (2 thousand BC) in the north-west of Mesopotamia and in the east of Syria (see Amorites); 2. Aramaic language; 3. Arabic, which includes many very different dialects, as well as the Maltese language derived from it. The traditional classification of Semitic languages differs from the newest one in that it classifies Arabic as a South Semitic language. According to many linguists, within the Central Semitic group the Canaanite and Aramaic languages can be combined into the northwestern subgroup of Semitic languages.
B. South Semitic languages: 1. ancient South Arabian language 1 thousand BC. e. (Sabean, Minaean, Qatabanian, Hadhramaut and other dialects in the south of the Arabian Peninsula, mainly in Yemen, and apparently the Ethiopian Semitic languages deriving from it (in Ethiopia and Eritrea): Old Ethiopian (whose literary form, Ge'ez, serves as a cult language Christians and Jews of Ethiopia) and modern Ethiopian languages: Amharic (central Ethiopia), Tigrinya (northern Ethiopia), Tigre (Eritrea), Harari (eastern Ethiopia), Argobba and Gimirra languages (southern Ethiopia); 2. modern New South Arabian languages in southern Arabia peninsulas: Meh Ri, X Arsusi and Jibbali (in the southwest of Oman), Soqotri (Socotra island in the Indian Ocean) and others.
The reconstructed Proto-Semitic language had a rich consonant system. Along with voiced and voiceless consonants, there were glottalized consonants (pronounced with closed consonants). vocal cords, as in many languages of the Caucasus). Glottalized consonants in Arabic were transformed into velarized ones, but were preserved in the New South Arabian and Ethiopian languages. They apparently were preserved in ancient Semitic languages, including Hebrew. In modern Hebrew, the contrast between glottalized (“emphatic”) and voiceless consonants is lost: the former glottalized ט [ṭ] and ק [ḳ] do not differ today from the voiceless ת [t] and כ [k]. In the Proto-Semitic language, 29 consonants are reconstructed: 1) stops: labials b And R, front lingual d, t And ṭ , posterior palatal (velar) g, k And ḳ , and 2) lingual fricatives: whistling z, s And ṣ (which may have been an affricate c̣̣), hissing š (w), anterior-dental δ (th in English this), θ (th in English thin), θ̣ (glottalized θ ), lateral: deaf ś and glottalized ṣ́, 3) throat: pharyngeal ‘ And h(like ע and ח in the pronunciation of Jews from Arab countries and Arabs), uvular fricatives ġ And ḫ, ’ (glottal stop) and h, 4) sonants m, n, l, r, w And y. Reflection of these consonants in Hebrew: b > ב , R > פ , d > ד , t > ת , ṭ > ט , g > ג , k > כ , ḳ > ק , z And δ > ז , s > ס , ś And θ > שׁ , ṣ, θ̣ And ṣ́ > צ , š > שׂ , ‘ And ġ > ע , ḥ And ḫ > ח , ’ > א , h > ה , m > מ , n > נ , l > ל , r > ר , y > י , w> י (at the beginning of a word). In the ancient South Arabian, Arabic and Ugaritic languages, the ancient consonants were better preserved, but there were changes there too (for example, in Arabic R > f, transformation of glottalized to velarized, ś > š, voicing θ̣ > δ̣ , change ṣ́ > ḍ). Proto-Semitic vowel system: short a, i, u and long ā , ī , ū .
During word formation (especially in the sphere of the verb) and morphology (for example, tenses, types, participles and genders of the verb) in Semitic languages, vowel alternation occurs, that is, the original vowel of the base is replaced by the vowel of the word-formation or morphology model. As a result, devocalization of the primary stem occurs: the primary verbal stem lmad - `to study` (in Hebrew, preserved in the forms יִלְמַד - `will learn` and לְמַד - `learn`, loses the original vowel in the participle לוֹמֵד - `student` (`learning`), replacing it with the vowel of the participle model -о-е-. The same thing happens in the derived verb לִמֵּד - `taught' and in the derived names לִימּוּד - `study`, לַמְדָּן - `scientist`, etc. As a result, the common element of related words (that is, the root ) there are only consonants (most often three consonants).
Let's give an example from classical Arabic and modern Hebrew:
| Arab | Hebrew | Transcription | Meaning |
| kataba | כָּתַב | katav | wrote |
| kātib | כּוֹתֵב | kotev | writing |
| maktub | כָּתוּב | katuv | written |
| kitāb | כְּתָב | ktav | letter (and other meanings) |
| 'aktaba | הִכְתִּיב | hixtiv | forced me to write, dictated |
| takātaba | הִתְכַּתֵּב | hitkattev | corresponded |
It can also form plural names (and in Arabic - even without ending the number): in Arabic ra's- in Hebrew רֹאשׁ - `head`; in Arabic ru'ūs- in Hebrew רָאשִׁים - `heads`. In Arabic, the ending of the dual number has been preserved, in Hebrew - only in some groups of names: in Arabic yawmani, oblique case yawmayni- in Hebrew yomayim`two days`. There are two grammatical genders: masculine and feminine, the typical ending of the latter is t, and in the form -at it may fall off and be restored in certain cases: in Arabic malika (t + case ending) - in Hebrew malka, in paired state (see below) malkat- `queen`, `queen`. Some Semitic languages have a definite article (member) written together: in Arabic al-, in Hebrew -הָ or -הַ, -הֶ.
“Conjugate state” (status constructus in Latin terminology) gives the combination of two nouns a meaning, which is usually translated into Russian genitive case the second of them. This case is retained in Arabic. The first name is deprived of the article; in a number of Semitic languages, for example, in Hebrew, it can significantly change the form: בַּיִת - `house` (with the article - הַבַּיִת), בֵּית סֵפֶר - `school`, literally `house of the book` (with the article - בֵּית הַסֵ פֶר ). This combination often plays the role of a complex name; merged Difficult words are not typical for Semitic languages, although they are created, especially in modern times (under the influence of Western languages). In addition, the second word of the combination often replaces the relative adjective (this last category is poorly developed in Semitic languages), for example, in Hebrew אוֹר כּוֹכָבִים - `starlight`, that is `starlight`, בּגְדֵי יְלָדִים - `children's clothing`. There is a special possessive noun with the suffix - ī , which can play the role of a noun or adjective: in Arabic yahūdī- in Hebrew יְהוּדִי - `Jew` (literally `Jew`) or `Jewish`.
In the field of personal pronouns, as well as verbs, a feature of Semitic languages is the presence of two grammatical genders, not only in the 3rd, but also in the 2nd person of both numbers: in Arabic anta- in Hebrew אַתָּה - `you` (masculine); in Arabic anti- in Hebrew אתְּ - `you` ( feminine); etc. There are also suffixal forms of personal pronouns (with a name - possessive, with a verb - objective indicators): in Arabic 'abūua- in Hebrew אָבִי - `my father`; in Arabic ra'ānī, in Hebrew - רָאָנִי - `(he) saw me` (rarely used in modern Hebrew).
It is generally accepted in science that instead of tenses, the Proto-Semitic language had two verbal forms: perfect (punctuative) and imperfect (italic). Further perfect view developed into the past tense, and the imperfect - into the future, partly into the present (in modern Hebrew the latter is conveyed by the participle).
Particularly characteristic of the Semitic verb is the presence of so-called “breeds” (intensifying, coercive, reciprocal, reflexive and others; in Hebrew they are called “constructions” - binyanim. See above for Arabic and Hebrew examples meaning `wrote', `caused to write' and `corresponded').
Among the speakers of Semitic languages, the world's first alphabet arose (see also Paleography; Writing), from which (partly under the influence of which) apparently all other alphabetic systems of the world originate. The oldest written monuments of these languages are known in the Akkadian and Eblaite languages (mid-3rd millennium BC); they are written in cuneiform, borrowed from the Sumerians and not representing an alphabet. But already from the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. monuments of Semitic languages written in the consonantal alphabet have been preserved. Almost all Semitic languages use alphabets of West Semitic origin. Only a very small number of speakers of Semitic languages (Maltese, from the 19th century) switched to the Latin alphabet.
In addition to the Semitic languages, the Afroasiatic (Semitic-Hamitic) family includes Ancient Egyptian (its descendant - Coptic is the language of worship of Egyptian Christians); Berber-Libyan languages (see also Hebrew-Berber language; cf. Libya); Chadian languages (of which the Hausa language, the number of speakers of which reaches 30–40 million people, is a means of interethnic communication in West Africa and even in parts of Sudan); Cushitic languages (in northeast and east Africa; among them is Agau, which was spoken language parts of Ethiopian Jews); some scientists distinguish part of the Cushitic languages into a special branch - the Omotian languages (for the etymology of the words “Hamites”, “Cushites”, see Ham).
Proponents of the theory of the existence of an even broader, so-called Nostratic language macrofamily also include Afroasiatic languages (see Hebrew language. Introduction).
KEE, volume: 7.
Col.: 744–747.
Published: 1994.
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