... What is the difference between the studies of various modern schools of sociology
... What are the characteristic features of sociology of the XX century
... In what directions is modern sociology developing
41 Leading Schools of Contemporary Sociology
Thanks to concepts. M. Weber ,. E. Durkheim ,. V. Pareto finally formed the subject, methodology and tasks of sociology, which in the end took its rightful place among other social sciences. Before her, new perspectives will develop, which the representatives of sociological science of the 20th century sought to realize. There are several features of the development of sociology at the present stage. The main one is that of modern science, but unlike positivism, which was the leading method in the 19th century, it made a significant turn towards the theoretical understanding of social phenomena and processes. Finally, a symbiosis of theory and practice was developed, forgetting the progressive harmonious development of sociology of the 20th century. Science has become not purely practical, as it was before, and has ceased only to establish social facts, but also began to analyze them, defining the mechanics of the mind and the laws governing the functioning of various social systems. Secondly, it was important that the works of scientists of the 20th century were not scattered as before, but were built in close cooperation, which determined their great validity and perfection. Thus, in sociology, real schools of scientists are formed, the leading among which were schools. Germany tNіmechchini ta
USA. Thirdly, modern sociological science is determined by a wide variety of schools and trends, which indicates its popularity and social utility, as well as the scientific search for improvement. Sociological theory and practice.
In a broad sense, a school in sociology is understood as a group of sociologists who work within the framework of the research traditions it produces itself. In a narrower sense, a school in sociology is a group of researchers of a certain general range of problems based on certain traditions and are in a relationship of personal communication.
Schools in sociology in their classic form began to take shape in the interwar period. One of the first were. French, which formerly included followers. E. Durkheim and. Chicago, which arose on the basis of the Faculty of Sociology. University of Chicago. Appeared somewhat later. Frankfurt School, which conducted its activities at the base. Frankfurt Institute for Sociological Studies.
And yet it was the leading one among them. The Chicago School, as the leading position in the sociology of the interwar period belonged to. United. States
M. Chicago has become one of the foremost industrial centers in c. USA, and leading - on. Average. West. The rapid development of industry and credit and financial activities contributed to the development of the city at a rapid pace and. Looking for a job in. Chicago has been receiving floods of immigrants from different parts of the world. This contributed to the formation of a special culture, built on the principles of the American way of life, but interspersed with special features of the national cultures of the peoples whose natives were in. Chicago. The problems of interethnic interaction, coupled with a sharp increase in the population, the struggle of certain social groups for their civil rights have become a visiting card in the new industrial conditions. Chicago. The booming industry has also exacerbated environmental issues. All these circumstances created a fertile ground for practical and theoretical sociological research, the purpose of which was to study the indicated social problems, their comprehensive analysis, as well as on the priming of ways to overcome them. Here are the basic objective prerequisites for what exactly. Chicago became the center for the creation of the leading sociological school of the first half of the 20th century in the world. The subjective factor is that. Chicago was a recognized science center. The United States at that time, after all. The University of Chicago was generally the third largest and most powerful scientific cadre in the country, and the Faculty of Sociology, in particular, had brilliant world-renowned scientists. Sociological fact ultet V. The University of Chicago, which was established in 1892, became one of the first in the world, and was its first leader. A. Small. From this time, the preparatory stage of formation begins. Chicago sociological school, which lasted until 1915 p, which is associated with the activities of scientists such as. A. Small ,. J. Vincent ,. M. Henderson and. W. Thomas. Although they did not have a unified research program, they created an appropriate theoretical basis for their followers. The works of prominent American sociologists of the late XIX - early XX centuries - also became the theoretical sources of the formation of the school. F.L. Ward ,. E. Gidzins ,. M. Shary ,. E. Ross a. V. Sumner. The Chicago philosophical school, which was based on pragmatism and was presented in the century, had a considerable influence on the "Chikazzivs". James ,. J. Dewey, and. M. Baldwinlen. In .. James ,. J. Dew, that. M. Balduin.
The beginning of actual existence. The Chicago School considered writing and publishing a five-volume work. W. Thomas and. F. Znanetsky "The Polish peasant in. Europe and. America" (1918-1920). The founders of the school and its scientific leaders were V. Thomas and. R. Paromas that. R .. Park.
The main characteristic feature. The Chicago School was then not yet a traditional harmonious combination of theory and practice, which only later became the hallmark of 20th century sociology. Empirical research in "Chikazziv" ", as a rule, provided for the following theoretical analysis. The hypotheses that were formed on the basis of such an analysis were later again tested by empirical research. This stage-by-stage not only contributed to the organic combination of theory and practice, the professional growth of scientists who took part in practical and theoretical research, it made it possible to establish the consistency and reliability of scientific concepts "chikaztsiv" chikaztsiv ".
A striking example in this context is the mentioned work. W. Thomas and. F. Znanetsky "The Polish peasant in. Europe and. America", which is built on an organic combination of empirical sociological research with t theoretical generalization of their results. The subjects of research in this work were typical for. Chicago of the interwar period, the phenomena of social reality - immigration, racial conflicts, crime, economic stratification. It is not the first time in sociological science that scientists have concluded that in modern society, in contrast to the traditional regulation of social processes, it is carried out not spontaneously, but deliberately. Social relationships and social interactions are getting more complicated. Under such conditions, the means of social control should not be spontaneous, but conscious. Therefore, the task of sociological science in modern e. TAPI, scientists see the possibility of optimizing social behavior on the basis of understanding the social system and social order.
In general, the social problems of the city are key in the theoretical and practical activities of the representatives. Chicago School. And this is natural, because they had a unique opportunity to be witnesses and researchers of those social phenomena that arose at the turn of the two eras, caused primarily by urbanization. Despite the fact that the object of study of the Chikazis was a purely city, they viewed it through the prism of their social phenomena in society in general, rightly noting that the tendencies of social development of modern society in the political, economic, and cultural spheres are most clearly traced in the city. No wonder. R. Park ,. E. Burgess and. R. Mackenzie in his work "City" (1925) wrote: "From the point of view of our research, a city is something more than a simple collection of people and social amenities, it is also something more than a constellation of institutions and administrative mechanisms. - it is rather a state of mind, a set of customs and traditions. A city is not just a physical mechanism, an artificial formation. It is an integral part of the life of the people inhabiting it, it is a product of nature, first of all human nature. " So, the researchers objectively established that, first of all, the city is the exponent of new social moods, which means that the object of their study was not only and not so much the city as social processes and phenomena in general, like social processes and uzagal events.
The work "City" laid the foundation for the creation of a separate branch of sociological theory - ecological (environmental) sociology - a theory that examines the patterns and forms of interaction between society and the environment.
Among other issues that were the subject of scientific interest of the representatives. The Chicago School can highlight the analysis of the social structure of American society (W. Warner, "American City"), the study of the impact of the "Great Depression" on public life (R and X. Lind, "Middle City"), studies of interracial and interethnic relations (L. Wirth , "The Ghetto", R. Karvan, "The Black Family in Chicago") and I. Karvan "Negro homeland of Chicago") and ін.
The Chicago School was leading in. USA during the 20-30s pp XX century, but after the leading researchers left it in 1934. R. Park and. E. Burgess, she was unable to maintain her leadership position, giving in to power. Colombian and. At Harvard University after the Second World War, the school actually ceased to be active in accordance with its traditional principles, its significance was preserved I only in the field of environmental sociology іology.
Another significant sociological school that emerged in the interwar period became. Frankfurt School, which was founded on the base. Frankfurt Institute for Social Research. Its founders and leaders were mainly people from Jewish families (M. Horkheimer, F. Pollock, A. Leventhal, V. Benjamin). The official activities of the school began at J93J when. M. Horkheimer, heading. Institute. Social studies, established cooperation with well-known German sociologists at that time. MAdorno ,. EFromm ,. G. Marcuse .. Marcuse.
The theoretical source of the Frankfurt school is the scientific concept of Marxism, "Frankfurt" tried to cleanse it of later inclusions, to give it its original appearance, which is why the representatives of this school are often called neo-Marxists. On the basis of this, criticism of bourgeois (industrial) society and non-Marxist scientific science arises.
Considering the peculiarities of the political and scientific views of the representatives of the Frankfurt school, as well as the national origin of most of its representatives, it seems quite natural that with the arrival of c. Silent eccini to Nazi power, the school continued its work outside the country from 1934 to 1939 "Frankfurt" continued its work in. Geneva and then in. Paris at the base. Higher normal school. Since 1939, the French scientists moved to. USA, where they worked in. Columbia University. Here they publish a number of works devoted to anti-fascist themes ("The Authoritarian Personality" by T. Adorno, M. Horkheimer and E. Fromm, "Dialectics of Enlightenment" by M. Horkheimer and. TDzorno, "Eros and Civilization" by G. Marcuse). In these works, fascism is explained as the regularity of the development of capitalist society in its last stage of apitalistic suspension at its last stage.
After the end of the Second World War, some of the researchers. Frankfurt School in particular. M. Horkheimer and. T. Adorno return to. Western. Germany. Activity. The Frankfurt School contributed to the formation in the 60s pp of the so-called critical (left-radical) sociology, built on the principles of neo-Marxism.
The methodological foundations of "Frankfurt" were formed on the basis of Marxism. Yes, they completely reject the principles of positivist and all traditional science, both natural and social science, considering or their embodiment of bourgeois ideology іdeology.
Ambiguity of scientific theory. Frankfurt school, a certain discrepancy in the scientific and political views of its representatives, especially its younger generation, and especially the death of the recognized leaders of the school - -. M. Horkheimer ,. T. Adorno ,. G. Marcuse, led to the actual cessation of its existence in the 70s. XX cX Art.
What is the difference between the studies of various modern schools of sociology
What are the characteristic features of XX century sociology?
In what directions is modern sociology developing
4.1. Leading schools of modern sociology
Thanks to the concepts of M. Weber, E. Durkheim, V. Pareto, the subject, methodology and tasks of sociology were finally formed, which in the end took its rightful place among other social sciences. Before her, new perspectives developed, which the representatives of sociological science of the 20th century sought to realize. There are several features of the development of sociology at the present stage. The main one is that modern science, in contrast to positivism, which was the leading method in the 19th century. made a significant turn towards a theoretical understanding of social phenomena and processes. Finally, a symbiosis of theory and practice was developed, which ensured the progressive harmonious development of sociology of the 20th century. Science has become not purely practical, as it was before, and has ceased only to establish social facts, but also began to analyze them, defining the mechanisms and patterns of functioning of various social systems. Secondly, it was important that the work of scientists of the XX century. could not be scattered as before, but were built in close cooperation, which determined their greater validity and perfection. Thus, in sociology, real schools of scientists are formed, the leading among which were the schools of Germany and
USA. Thirdly, modern sociological science is determined by a wide variety of schools and trends, testifies to its popularity and social utility, as well as to scientific searches to improve sociological theory and practice.
In a broad sense, a school in sociology is understood as a group of sociologists who work within the framework of their own research traditions. In a narrower sense, a school in sociology is a group of researchers of a certain general range of problems who rely on certain traditions and are in a relationship of personal communication.
Schools in sociology in their classic form began to take shape in the interwar period. One of the first was French, which included primarily the followers of E. Durkheim and Chicago, which arose on the basis of the sociological faculty of the University of Chicago. A little later, the Frankfurt School appeared, which conducted its activities on the basis of the Frankfurt Institute for Sociological Research.
And yet the leading among them was precisely the Chicago School, since the leading position in the sociology of the interwar period belonged to the United States.
M. Chicago has become one of the foremost industrial centers in the United States, and a leading one in the Midwest. The rapid development of industry and credit and financial activities contributed to the development of the city at a rapid pace. In search of work in Chicago, streams of immigrants arrived from different parts of the world. This contributed to the formation of a special culture, built on the basis of the American way of life, but interspersed with the peculiarities of the national cultures of the peoples whose natives ended up in Chicago. The problems of interethnic interaction, coupled with a sharp increase in the population, the struggle of certain social groups for their civil rights in the new industrial conditions have become a hallmark of Chicago. The explosive growth of the industry has also sharpened environmental issues. All these circumstances have created a fertile ground for practical and theoretical sociological research, the purpose of which was to study the indicated social problems, their comprehensive analysis, as well as on the priming of ways to overcome them. These are the main objective prerequisites for the fact that it was Chicago that became the center of the creation of the leading sociological school in the first half of the 20th century. in the world. The subjective factor is that Chicago was a recognized scientific center in the United States at that time, because the University of Chicago was generally the third largest and most powerful scientific personnel in the country, and the Faculty of Sociology, in particular, had brilliant world-renowned scientists. The Department of Sociology at the University of Chicago, which was established in 1892, became one of the first in the world, and its first director was A. Small. From this time begins the preparatory stage of the formation of the Chicago sociological school, which lasted until 1915 p., Which is associated with the activities of such scientists as A. Small, J. Vincent, C. Henderson and W. Thomas. Although they did not have a unified research program, they created an appropriate theoretical basis for their followers. The theoretical sources for the formation of the school were also the works of prominent American sociologists of the late XIX - early. XX century - F. L. Ward, E. Gidzins, C. Cooley, E. Ross, W. Sumner. The Chicago philosophical school based on pragmatism and was represented by W. James, J. Dewey, and M. Baldwin had a considerable influence on the "Chicagoans".
The beginning of the actual existence of the Chicago School is considered to be the writing and publication of the five-volume work of W. Thomas and F. Znanetsky "The Polish Peasant in Europe and America" (1918-1920). The founders of the school and its scientific leaders were W. Thomas and R. Park.
The main characteristic feature of the Chicago School was the then non-traditional harmonious combination of theory and practice, which only later became the hallmark of 20th century sociology. Empirical research in the "Chicagoans" usually envisioned the following theoretical analysis. The hypotheses that were formed on the basis of such an analysis were later tested again by empirical studies. Such a phased approach not only promoted the organic combination of theory and practice, the professional growth of scientists who took part in practical and theoretical research, it made it possible to establish the consistency and reliability of scientific concepts by the "Chicagoans".
A striking example in this context is the aforementioned work of W. Thomas and F. Znaniecki "The Polish Peasant in Europe and America", which is built on an organic combination of empirical sociological research on the theoretical generalization of their results. The subject of research in this work was typical for the Chicago of the interwar period, the phenomena of social reality - immigration, racial conflicts, crime, social stratification. Scientists for the first time in sociological science have concluded that in modern society, in contrast to the traditional regulation of social processes, it is carried out not spontaneously, but deliberately. Social relationships and social interactions are getting more complicated. Under such conditions, the means of social control should not be spontaneous, but conscious. Therefore, the task of sociological science at the present stage, scientists see the possibility of optimizing social behavior based on an understanding of social structure and social order.
In general, the social problems of the city are key in the theoretical and practical activities of the representatives of the Chicago School. And this is natural, because they had a unique opportunity to be witnesses and researchers of those social phenomena that arose at the turn of the two eras, caused primarily by urbanization. Despite the fact that the object of study by the "Chicagoans" was a purely city, they viewed it through the prism of social phenomena in society in general, rightly noting that the tendencies of social development of modern society in the political, economic, and cultural spheres are most clearly traced in the city. Park, E. Burgess and R. Mackenzie in their work "City" (1925) wrote: "The city from the point of view of our research is something more than a simple collection of people and social amenities ... it is also something more than a constellation of institutions and administrative mechanisms ... A city is rather a state of mind, a set of customs and traditions ... A city is not just a physical mechanism, an artificial formation. of all human nature. " So the researchers objectively established that, first of all, the city is the exponent of new social moods, and then the object of their research was not only and not so much the city as social processes and phenomena in general.
The work "City" laid the foundation for the creation of a separate branch of sociological theory - environmental (environmental) sociology - a theory that examines the patterns and forms of interaction between society and the environment.
Among other problems that were the subject of scientific interest of representatives of the Chicago School, one can single out the analysis of the social structure of American society (W. Warner, "American City"), the study of the influence of the "Great Depression" on public life (R. and H. Lind, "Middle City" ), studies of interracial and interethnic relations (L. Wirth, "Ghetto", R. Karvan "Caucasian family in Chicago"), etc.
The Chicago school was leading in the USA during the 20-30s pp. XX century., However, after in 1934. Leading researchers R. Park and E. Burgess left her, she could not maintain her leadership positions, yielding power to Columbia and Harvard universities. After the Second World War, the school actually ceased to be active in accordance with its traditional principles. its significance has survived only in the field of environmental sociology.
Another major sociological school that emerged in the interwar period was the Frankfurt School, which was founded on the basis of the Frankfurt Institute for Social Research. Its founders and leading researchers were mainly from Jewish families (M. Horkheimer, F. Pollock, A. Leventhal, V. Benjamin). The school's official activity began in J93J, when M. at that time the German sociologists M. Adorno, E. Fromm, G. Marcuse.
The theoretical source of the Frankfurt school is the scientific concept of Marxism, which the "Frankfurt" tried to cleanse of late inclusions, to give it its original appearance; that is why representatives of this school are often called neo-Marxists. On the basis of this, criticism of bourgeois (industrial) society and non-Marxist science arises.
Taking into account the peculiarities of the political and scientific views of the representatives of the Frankfurt school, as well as the national origin of most of its representatives, it seems quite natural that with the Nazis coming to power in Germany, the school continued its work outside the country. From 1934 to 1939 "Frankfurt" continued their work in Geneva, and then in Paris on the basis of the Higher Normal School. Since 1939 Frankfurt scientists moved to the United States, where they worked at Columbia University. Here they publish a number of works devoted to anti-fascist themes ("Authoritarian Personality" by T. Adorno, M. Horkheimer and E. Fromm, "Dialectics of Enlightenment" by M. Horkheimer and T. Dzorno, "Eros and Civilization" by G. Marcuse). In his works, fascism is explained as a regularity in the development of capitalist society at its last stage.
After the end of the Second World War, some of the researchers of the Frankfurt School, in particular M. Horkheimer and T. Adorno, returned to West Germany. The activities of the Frankfurt School contributed to the formation of pp. so-called critical (left-radical) sociology, built on the principles of neo-Marxism.
The methodological foundations of the Frankfurt people were also formed on the basis of Marxism. So, they completely reject the principles of positivist and all traditional science, both natural and social science, considering them to be the embodiment of bourgeois ideology.
The ambiguity of the scientific theory of the Frankfurt School, a certain discrepancy in the scientific and political views of its representatives, especially its younger generation, and especially the death of the recognized leaders of the school - M. Horkheimer, T. Adorno, G. Marcuse, led to the actual cessation of its existence in the seventies ... XX century
Austro-Germanic School Sociologist was represented by such prominent scientists as L. Gumplovich, G. Ratzenhofer, G. Simmel, F. Tennis, M. Weber, G. Sombart, L. Wiese, 3. Freud.
Ludwig Gumplowicz(1838-1900) relied on the theory of social conflict, believing that the object of sociology is social groups, and the object is the system of movements of these groups, which obeys the eternal and unchanging laws of coercion and violence.
Gumplovich divided social groups into simple human communities with their anthropological and ethnic characteristics (clan, tribe, horde) and complex multidimensional social formations (estates, classes, states). Eternal tribal and interstate conflicts act as a form of social conflict for him. The relationship of all types of social groups is determined by hatred, violence and coercion, causing their constant state of merciless struggle. In short, Gumplowicz regards the law of struggle for existence as the natural law of society. Unwillingly, Gumplowicz actually recognized the right to aggression, tyranny, and exploitation.
Gustav Ratzenhofer(1842-1904) explained social life, also based on the conflict of conflicting interests of social groups and individuals. He regarded sociology as the basis of all social sciences and practical politics. Ratzenhofer, in contrast to Gumplowicz, pondered a lot about the problem of regulating social conflicts, in connection with which he proposed the law of "bringing individual and social interests into mutual correspondence" discovered by him as the basic law of sociology. He understood the resulting cooperation of people as the main way to overcome any conflicts.
Ferdinand Tennis(1855-1936) distinguished two parts in sociology:
§ general sociology, which studies all forms of human existence;
§ special sociology, which studies social life proper and in turn is subdivided into theoretical (pure), applied and empirical.
Georg Simmel(1858-1918) He believed that the subject of sociology is the "psychological individual" and various forms of social interaction of people. Considering the history of society as the history of mental phenomena, Simmel made the subject of his research a number of aspects and aspects of social life, for example, such as domination, subordination, rivalry, division of labor, the formation of parties.
Weber(1864-1920) entered the history of science as the founder of understanding sociology and the theory of social action. Weber believed that one should not study social life guided by intuition, since the result obtained will not be universally valid. Believing that the task of sociology is to establish general rules of events without regard to the spatio-temporal definition of these events, he introduced the concept of the ideal type as a method and tool for sociological cognition of reality.
Werner Sombart(1863-1941), one of the founders of the theory of "organized capitalism". According to Sombart, the scheme for the development of capitalism is as follows:
§ early (until the middle of the 13th century) with a predominance of craft forms of labor and the traditional (patriarchal) system of values;
§ complete (until 1941), where economic rationalism and the competing principle of profit dominate;
§ late - monopoly capitalism with the concentration of industry and the growth of government regulation of economic life.
Leopold von Wiese(1876-1969) had a significant impact on the development of sociology, primarily as an organizer and systematizer of science. He interpreted sociology as an empirical-analytical discipline, which is very far from
economic and historical sciences and interacts mainly with psychobiological sciences. Vize singled out such types of social relations as associations - uniting relations (adaptation, correspondence, confusion) and dissociation - separating, i.e. violating, competitive.
Sigmund Freud(1856-1939), an Austrian psychologist and philosopher, believed that interpersonal interaction was strongly influenced by the experience gained in early childhood, as well as the conflicts experienced during this period. Not without his influence from the second half of the 19th century. in sociology, a new psychological trend is being formed, which is characterized by the desire to seek the key to explaining all social phenomena in the mental processes and phenomena of the individual and society.
In the second half of the 20th century, the dominant position in sociological knowledge was taken by such directions and schools as structural-functional analysis, theories of social conflict, symbolic interactionism, etc.
Structural-functional analysis is one of the most important and complex areas in sociology. He achieved his greatest influence in the 1950s and 1960s. Structural and functional analysis is one of the methods for the systematic study of social phenomena and processes. Here society acts as an integral system, studied from the side of basic structures. Structural and functional analysis is based on the structural division of social integrity, each element of which is assigned a specific functional purpose.
Structure (Latin - structure) is a set of stable connections of an object, ensuring its reproducibility in changing conditions. Structure refers to a relatively unchanging aspect of a system. It is recognized that order is the “normal” means of maintaining social interaction. The functions and dysfunctions of social institutions within the whole are analyzed, but not their evolution. Thus, the social structure of society is seen as something stable, the main and determining factor in social life. Here, not individuals, but social institutions turn out to be the main elements of social reality. Psychology is generally withdrawn from the arsenal of explanation. Social research is reduced to the analysis of social roles, social institutions, positions, statuses, etc. The role theory of personality dominates; large social groups are mainly studied. Personality is viewed from the side of social relations, described in terms of socialization. The personality is, as it were, "adjusted" to the combination of social forms, which ensures the reliable functioning of the social system. Structural-functional analysis, as it were, knows only one type of personality - the "conformist automaton."
In structural and functional analysis, the concept of a function has two meanings:
1) the service role (“appointment”) of one of the elements of the social system in relation to another or to the system as a whole (for example, the functions of the state, law, education, art, family, etc.);
2) dependence within the framework of this system, in which changes in one part turn out to be derivatives (function) of changes in another part of it (for example, changes in the ratio of the urban and rural population is considered as a function (consequence) of industrialization). In this sense, functional dependence can be viewed as a kind of determinism.
Within the framework of the structural-functional approach, two main rules were developed for the study of any societies: 1) in order to explain the essence of a social phenomenon, it is necessary to find its function, which it performs in a broader social context; 2) for this you need to look for direct and side effects, positive and negative manifestations, i.e. function and dysfunction of this phenomenon.
The concept of a system is of great importance in structural and functional analysis. A system is a series of elements or components that, over a certain period of time, are in a more or less stable relationship. At the same time, an analogy is often drawn between society and the human body. However, the main attention in structural-functional analysis is paid to the abstract theory of social systems.
T. Parsons (1902-1979) - American sociologist-theoretician, founded and headed this direction. Major works: "The structure of social action" (1937), "Social system" (1951), "Social system and evolution of the theory of action" (1977), etc. For T. Parsons, one of the central tasks of sociology is the analysis of society as a system of functionally interconnected variables. Not a single social system (society as a whole, production unit or individual) can survive if its main problems are not solved: adaptation - adaptation to the environment; goal orientation - formulating goals and mobilizing resources to achieve them; integration - maintaining internal unity and orderliness, suppressing possible deviations; latency (or maintaining the pattern) - ensuring internal stability, balance, self-identity of the system. For each such function (problem), certain subsystems are responsible, which include social institutions, corresponding norms and performers of normal roles. For example, the economic subsystem, such social institutions as factories and banks, are responsible for the adaptation function. Entrepreneurs and workers are the executors of the norm-roles here. Accordingly, the political subsystem, parties and movements, functionaries and rank-and-file members are responsible for the goal-orientation function. The integrative function is performed by the institutions of social control, mainly by the state apparatus, the roles are by officials and citizens. The socialization subsystem is responsible for maintaining the sample, i.e. family, school, religion, etc., the teacher-student acts here as performers of norm-roles. Any social phenomena leading to an imbalance in the social system were considered by T. Parsons as abnormal, disrupting the health of the social organism. Therefore, a decisive fight against them is a natural reaction to pathological deviations from the norm.
R. Merton (1910-) - American sociologist, made a great contribution to the development of structural functionalism. He developed the concept of middle-level theories, which are the link between macro- and microsociology. He did a lot to develop the theory of anomie, deviant behavior, social structure, science, bureaucracy, mass communications, etc. Major works - "Social theory and social structure" (1957), "Sociology of Science" (1973), "Methods for the study of social structure" (1975), etc.
R. Merton developed E. Durkheim's concept of "anomie". He sees anomia as a state of non-normality (normative uncertainty) arising from mismatches in the social structure: different segments of the social structure present such normative requirements to an individual that cannot be satisfied simultaneously. The mismatch between culturally approved goals and the institutional norms governing the choice of means to achieve them became the subject of a special analysis for him.
The table highlights five ideal-typical reactions of the individual to anomie: 1) conformism, submission (acceptance of ends and means); 2) innovation (acceptance of goals while rejecting institutionally proposed funds); 3) ritualism (acceptance of funds while abandoning goals); 4) retreatism (simultaneous denial of approved goals and means, departure from reality); 5) rebellion (complete rejection of old goals and means with an attempt to replace them with new ones).
It should be noted that this direction (like any other) has its own advantages and disadvantages. Structural-functional analysis is a useful tool for describing society and provides a detailed picture of social life. The disadvantages of functionalism include the fact that it focuses on the stability of the system, and leaves conflict or variability in the system in the shadows. This approach does not provide a complete picture of social life.
Conflictology. Structural-functional analysis in every possible way emphasizes the moment of stability in social development. However, in modern sociology there is also an opposite approach, which, on the contrary, emphasizes the struggle of various social groups among themselves. From the point of view of conflict resolution, such a struggle is the reason for the existing social structure and relations. The most famous representatives of the theory of social conflict are K. Boulding, R. Darendorf, L. Coser, C. Mills and others. They relied on the works of K. Marx, L. Gumplovich, G. Simmel, who showed that stability, stability, harmony accompanied by conflict, the struggle of opposing social groups, organizations, individuals.
The main arguments of the representatives of the theory of conflict are as follows. Any society is based on the coercion of some people by others. The distribution of funds is in the hands of a small group of people who oppose the whole of society. Political power protects the existing economic order and therefore also opposes society. It follows from this that social conflicts are inevitable, since they are generated by the very system of social relations.
K. Boulding (1910-) in his work "Conflict and Defense: General Theory" (1963) developed a behavioral model of conflict, which is also called the general theory of conflict. According to K. Boulding, all conflicts have a common structure and the same development mechanisms. In the very nature of man lies the desire to fight other people, to violence. A conflict is a situation in which the warring parties realize the incompatibility of their positions, and each side strives to take a position that is opposite to the interests of the other side. The root cause of social conflict lies in duality
human consciousness. Any social struggle is only a manifestation of contradictions in the sphere of the conscious and unconscious. In general, from the point of view of microsociology, the most important source of social conflicts in the sphere of everyday life (micro level) is the crisis of the value system at the level of the entire social system (macro level). For example, the reason for the industrial conflict (between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat) is the opposition of their ideological and psychological attitudes, and in order to resolve such a conflict, it is necessary to establish their mutual understanding.
L. Coser (1913-) - American sociologist, developed a model of positive-functional conflict, in which he overcomes the negative attitude of structural-functional analysis to conflict. L. Coser defines social conflict as "a struggle for values or status privileges, for power and scarce resources, in which the goals of the opposing sides are not only to master them, but also to neutralize or eliminate their rival." At the same time L. Coser emphasizes the positive functions of the conflict, its stabilizing role in maintaining the dynamic balance of the social system. He identifies the following as the main functions of social conflict: 1) integration of the social structure; 2) maintaining solidarity within groups; 3) strengthening of interpersonal relations; 4) management of social changes, 5) rule-making (conflict contributes to the creation of new forms and social institutions).
R. Dahrendorf (1929-) - German sociologist, the largest representative of the conflictological direction. Major works - "Social classes and class conflict in industrial society" (1957), "Society and freedom" (1961), "Way out of Utopia" (1967), etc. From his point of view, classes are social groups that differ participation or non-participation in the exercise of power. Role inequality generated by social inequality leads to conflict. Grades of social inequality are carried out on a variety of grounds: prestige, income, educational level, etc. Conflict arises from the fact that one group or one class resists the dominance of an opposing social force. Conflict resolution is aimed at redistributing authority and power in a given community.
Thus, conflictological sociology has given its own version of social interaction. She showed an important perspective on the consideration of social structures and processes. In this sense, the theory of social conflict is an antipode and at the same time an addition to the structural-functional approach to the analysis of society.
Symbolic interactionism emerged in the 1920s. XX century as an attempt to combine psychologism with organicism. This theoretical and methodological direction pays primary attention to the analysis of social interactions in their symbolic content. Representatives of symbolic interactionism believed that the social world is the product of role-based interaction between people based on generalized symbols. Through symbols there is a "crystallization" of the processes of everyday interpersonal communication, the result of which are social structures. The main idea of symbolic interactionism (according to N. Smelzer): the behavior of people in relation to each other and the objects of the surrounding world is determined by the meaning that they attach to them; people's behavior is not a passive reaction to rewards and punishments (as in the theory of exchange); people react not only to actions, but also to people's intentions.
Symbolic interactionism is based on the following postulates:
1) Any action occurs only on the basis of the meaning that the acting subject puts into his action. Moreover, all personal meanings stem from common social symbols. For example, refusal to participate in hostilities may mean (symbolize) personal cowardice, while in another case, the same act may symbolize conscious pacifism, i.e. personal heroism. In both cases, public symbols are behind the acts of behavior.
2) The indicated symbols, on which society is built, are born in the interactions of people. A person, as it were, constantly looks into a kind of "mirror", in the capacity of which other people act, and takes into account their opinion of himself.
3) People in the process of interaction constantly interpret, explain to themselves the meaning of certain symbols. This process creates the individuality of a person. If two people understand something differently, then normal interaction between them can be established only when they understand the meanings of what is happening in the same way.
J. Mead (1863-1931) - American sociologist, founder and main representative of symbolic interactionism. According to J. Mead (Consciousness, Self and Society, 1938), the specificity of a person is determined by his lack of a developed system of instincts as the main regulators of behavior. Therefore, a person is forced to use symbols, which is the basis of a conscious adaptation to the environment. Interaction between people takes place on the basis of special means - symbols (gesture - meaning of gesture - reaction). Animals also have gestures, but in humans they turn into symbols, become "significant gestures." The meaning of a meaningful gesture is to provoke the desired reaction in another individual.
J. Mead identified two types of actions: 1) an insignificant gesture (an automatic reflex like blinking) and 2) a meaningful gesture (in this case, people do not automatically respond to external influences, but guess the meaning of the action before responding to it). Significant action is associated with the comprehension of not only actions, but also intentions. For this it is necessary to "put yourself in the place of another person", "to accept the role of another." Only by attaching importance to a gesture can we react to it - for example, walk up to another person or leave him. A person becomes a member of society (community) as he assimilates the patterns and norms of group action. Each group has its own specific norms and values. For example, "radish" in the generally accepted sense is "vegetable", while among thieves the same word means "a bad person", etc.
J. Mead introduced the concept of role-playing behavior: behavior is built not from reactions and stimuli, but from “roles” assumed by an individual and “played” by him in the process of communicating with other people. J. Mead's “I” is entirely social. The richness and originality of the "I" depends on the diversity and breadth of its interactions with the surrounding world. According to J. Mead, the structure of personality is expressed by the formula: Self = I + Me (I-synthesis = I-myself + I-me). The integral I is made up of individual, hidden motives ("I-myself") and a set of attitudes that come to the individual from the outside ("I-me").
C. Cooley (1864-1929) is a representative of symbolic interactionism. He believed that society and personality are initially one, one can be explained through the other. He put forward the theory of "mirror I" - one of the first socio-psychological concepts of personality, which proceeded not from the "nature" of a person, but from the interaction of people. The “Mirror I” consists of three elements: 1) how others perceive us (how I appear to others); 2) how others react to what they see in me (how the other evaluates my image); 3) how we respond to the reactions of others (specific feeling of "I"). The sense of "I" does not exist without the corresponding feelings of "we", "they", etc. On the one hand, a sign of a truly social being is the ability to distinguish oneself from the group and be aware of one's “I”. On the other hand, a prerequisite for this separation is communication with other people and assimilation of their opinions about themselves. Conscious actions of people are always social: other people are those mirrors, with the help of which the image of "I" is formed in a person. Personality is a reaction to the opinions of others, the sum of those impressions that, as it seems to a person, he makes on those around him.
The advantages and disadvantages of symbolic interactionism are as follows:
1) makes it possible to understand social interaction deeper than another theory (the theory of social exchange): people not only react, but also interpret each other's behavior;
2) however, he is overly focused on the subjective aspects of interaction, pays too much attention to the role of symbols, and thereby belittles the role of the social structure of society, pays exaggerated attention to the episodic and transitory; society is reduced to a set of roles played, but there is no analysis of where the social roles themselves come from.
The theory of social exchange considers the exchange of various types of activity as the basis of social relations, from which various social formations (power, status, etc.) grow. It owes its origin to the American researcher J. Homans.
J. Homans (1910-). Major works - "The Human Group" (1950), "Social Behavior: Its Elementary Forms" (1961), "The Nature of Social Science" (1967), etc. J. Homans tried to apply the methodology of behaviorism in sociology. The central category of his sociology is the category of social action, interpreted as direct contacts of individuals. Social action is a constant exchange of values (both literally and figuratively). This exchange is built on the principle of rationality: people act and interact only based on a certain interest, they strive to get the greatest benefit and minimize their costs. The subject of behavior is a rational seeker of benefits. Everything that has any social value becomes the subject of exchange. The value of each person is made up of those qualities that are subject to exchange. However, in reality there are never equal exchanges. This is where social inequality is derived. According to exchange theory, a person's behavior is determined by whether or not his actions have been rewarded (how exactly) in the past. There are four principles of remuneration:
1) the more a certain type of behavior is rewarded, the more often it will be repeated;
2) if the reward for certain types of behavior depends on some conditions, the person seeks to recreate these conditions;
3) the higher the reward, the more efforts a person is willing to spend in order to receive it;
4) if a person's needs are close to saturation, then he makes less efforts to satisfy them.
With the help of these rules J. Homans explains all social processes: social stratification, social struggle, etc. However, this explanation turns out to be insufficient when considering social objects at the macro level.
P. Blau (1918-) is an American researcher who tried to combine functionalism, interactionism and conflictology in his works "The dynamics of bureaucracy" (1955), "Exchange and the power of social life" (1964) and others. P. Blau, in contrast to J. Homans, focuses on the sociological aspects of interaction, and not on the study of the psychological motives of interpersonal behavior. Exchange is a specific type of association that includes actions that depend on the rewards received. Social life is interpreted exclusively in economic terms, which is presented as a kind of "bazaar" where various actors interact with each other in order to obtain the greatest benefit. P. Blau identifies the following "laws of exchange":
1) the more benefit a person expects from another, the more likely it is to carry out a certain activity;
2) the more rewards individuals have exchanged with each other, the more likely the next acts of exchange are (mutual obligations appear);
3) the more often mutual obligations are violated during the exchange, the less negative sanctions (punishments) mean;
4) as the moment of reward approaches, the value of the activity decreases and the probability of its implementation decreases;
5) the more relations of exchange are carried out, the more likely it is that the exchange will be governed by the norms of "fair exchange", etc.
The main disadvantages of the exchange theory: 1) reductionism (reduction of social relations to interpersonal); 2) the theory of exchange is based on the methodology of behaviorism (stimulus-response), however, it is known that human behavior is much more complex (for example, many scientists after receiving the Nobel Prize work less productively, although, according to the theory of exchange, it should be the other way around); 3) the a priori nature of the initial assumptions.
Sociometry (Latin societas - society and Greek metreo - I measure) - a method of "measuring" social attractiveness within small groups; a branch of sociology that studies interpersonal relationships in small social groups using quantitative methods with an emphasis on the study of likes and dislikes between group members.
J. Moreno (1892-1974) - American psychiatrist, social psychologist, founder of sociometry. J. Moreno proceeded from the need to create a "cross-cutting" science, which could cover all levels of society and which would include not only the study of social problems, but would also help to resolve them. From the point of view of J. Moreno, a person's mental health depends largely on his position in a small group. Lack of sympathy and informal connections gives rise to life difficulties. J. Moreno developed sociometry as an empirical version of microsociology. Sociometric procedures allow you to determine the position of a person in a small group, understand his problems and get a psychotherapeutic procedure.
The following terms are distinguished:
- "socionomy" - the science of basic social laws,
- "sociodynamics" - a lower-level science about the processes taking place in small groups,
- "sociometry" - a system of methods for identifying and quantifying interpersonal relationships in small groups,
- "Sociatry" - a system of methods for curing people whose problems and difficulties are associated with a lack of behavior skills in small groups.
Contemporary sociology continues to generate new theories and concepts. According to the French sociologist A. Touraine, a feature of modern sociology is to change the subject of research and research orientations. By the middle of the twentieth century. two tendencies in the development of world sociology were quite definitely revealed: European and American. European sociology developed in close connection with social philosophy, and American sociology was initially formed as a science primarily of human behavior.
Schools and directions of modern sociology :
- Phenomenological Sociology- in the narrow (strict) sense - the sociological concept of Schutz and his followers, based on the rethinking and development of the ideas of M. Weber's understanding sociology from the standpoint of the sociologized version of the phenomenology of the late E. Husserl; in a broad sense, a theoretical and methodological orientation in the "non-classical" sociology of the 20th century. In this respect, F.S. follows the general guidelines of understanding sociology and fits as a special edition into the "humanistic alternative" in sociological knowledge as a whole.
As independent versions of F.S. can be considered, on the one hand, ethnomethodology Garfinkel and a project close to her cognitive sociology A. Sikurela, and on the other - the phenomenological version of the sociology of knowledge of Berger and Luckmann. In these versions, the influence of the ideas of philosophical anthropology, in particular - Scheler, as well as symbolic interactionism (primarily J.G. Mead), is noticeable. M. Merleau-Ponty continued the line of existential phenomenology in American sociology by E.A. Thiriakian.
Postmodernism - Leading Authors - J.F. Lyotard, J. Baudrillard, Z. Bauman. Social life is increasingly becoming the subject of monitoring and control with the help of computerized technology, and control over knowledge is the main source of power. Lyotard suggests that future wars will not be caused by disputes over territory, but by control over knowledge. Another theorist of postmodernism - Jean Baudrillard - in his work "Simulation" proves that society is moving away from a state based on production and determined by economic forces involved in the exchange of material goods. According to Baudrillard, modern society is based on the production and exchange of freely floating signifiers (words and images) that have nothing to do with what they mean. fragility and instability of social reality, its "purely" verbal and conventional foundations, contractual nature, constant use and irresistible undetermination.
One of the newest varieties of postmodernism is poststructuralism. Its two most important goals are: the achievement of autonomy by the social subject, as well as the directly related belief in the autonomy of knowledge, which is a rationalist and positivist discourse.
- Harvard School Social Justice Theory... One of the representatives of J. Rawls and his "Theory of justice". In a just society, the freedoms of citizens should be established, and the rights guaranteed by justice should not be the subject of political bargaining or the calculation of political interests.
The principles of justice for the basic structure of society are the objects of the original agreement. These are the principles that free and rational individuals pursuing their own interests, in the initial position of equality, will accept as defining fundamental agreements about their association. These principles should govern all other agreements; they specify the types of social cooperation that can arise and the forms of government that can be established.
- Rational choice theory... Leading authors of works are A. Downs, M. Olson, G. Becker, D. Coleman. Rational choice theories explain rationality as a subset of intentional explanations; they attribute, as the name suggests, rationality in social action. Rationality means, roughly speaking, that by acting and interacting, the individual has a plan and seeks to maximize the set of satisfaction of his preferences, while minimizing possible costs. Thus, rationality presupposes a "connectedness assumption," which states that the individual involved has a complete "order of preference" over the various options.
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