Focal formations in the lungs are tissue compaction caused by various diseases. They are usually detected as a result of X-ray examination. Sometimes a specialist examination and diagnostic methods are not enough to make an accurate conclusion. For final confirmation, you need to carry out special examination methods: blood tests, sputum,. This happens with malignant tumors, pneumonia and impaired fluid exchange in the respiratory system.
A lesion is a small, round or irregular-shaped spot that is found on x-ray, located in the tissue of the lungs. They are divided into several varieties: single, single (up to 6 pcs.) And multiple.
There is a certain difference between the internationally established concept of focal formations, and what is accepted in domestic medicine. Abroad, they include seals in the lungs of about 3 cm in size. Domestic medicine puts restrictions up to 1 cm, and refers to other formations as infiltrates.
Computed tomography is more likely to establish the size, shape of the lung tissue compaction. This study also has a margin of error.
Focal formations in the respiratory organs are presented as degenerative changes in the tissues of the lungs or the accumulation of fluid in the form of sputum or blood. Many experts consider their establishment to be one of the important tasks.
Oncological factors
Up to 70% of solitary foci in the lungs are related to malignant neoplasms. With the help of CT (computed tomography), and based on specific symptoms, a specialist can suggest the occurrence of such dangerous pathologies as tuberculosis or lung cancer.
However, to confirm the diagnosis, it is required to pass the necessary tests. In some cases, hardware examination is not enough to obtain a medical report. Modern medicine does not have a single algorithm for conducting research in all possible situations. The specialist considers each case separately.
To carry out a clear diagnosis of the disease by the hardware method does not allow the imperfection of the equipment. When passing X-ray of the lungs, it is difficult to detect focal changes, the size of which does not reach 1 cm. The interposition of anatomical structures makes invisible and larger formations.
The specialist offers patients to be examined using computed tomography. It allows you to view fabrics from any angle.
Computed tomography to diagnose the location of the lesion
The causes of focal lesions in the lungs
The main factors of pathology include the occurrence of seals on the lungs. Such symptoms are inherent in dangerous conditions, which, if not properly treated, can be fatal. The diseases that provoked this condition include:
- oncological diseases, the consequences of their development (metastases, neoplasms directly, etc.);
- focal tuberculosis;
- pneumonia;
- caused by poor circulation or as a result of an allergic reaction;
- myocardial infarction;
- bleeding;
- severe bruises of the chest;
Most often, seals occur due to inflammatory processes (acute pneumonia, pulmonary tuberculosis) or cancer.
A third of patients have minor signs of respiratory tract damage. A feature of pulmonary tuberculosis is the absence of symptoms or their minimal manifestation. Basically, it is detected during routine examinations. The main picture of tuberculosis is given by X-ray of the lungs, but it differs depending on the phase and duration of the process.
Basic diagnostic methods
To determine focal changes, it is necessary to undergo a special examination (X-ray, fluorography or computed tomography). These diagnostic methods have their own characteristics.
When passing an examination in the form of fluorography, it is impossible to reveal a seal smaller than 1 cm in size. It will not be possible to analyze the whole picture completely and without errors.
Many doctors advise their patients to undergo computed tomography. This is a way of examining the human body, which makes it possible to identify various changes and pathologies in the internal organs of the patient. It belongs to the most modern and accurate diagnostic methods. The essence of the method consists in the influence of X-rays on the patient's body, and in the future, after passing through it, computer analysis.
With its help it is possible to install:
- in the shortest possible time and with particular accuracy the pathology that struck the patient's lungs;
- accurately determine the stage of the disease (tuberculosis);
- correctly establish the condition of the lungs (determine the density of tissues, diagnose the condition of the alveoli and measure the tidal volume);
- analyze the condition of the pulmonary vessels of the lungs, heart, pulmonary artery, aorta, trachea, bronchi and lymph nodes located in the chest area.
This method also has weaknesses. Even with a CT scan, focal changes are missed. This is due to the low sensitivity of the device with the size of the lesions up to 0.5 cm and low tissue density.
Experts have found that with the primary CT screening, the probability of not detecting pathological abnormalities in the form of focal formations is possible with its size of 5 mm in 50% of cases. When the diameter corresponds to 1 cm, then the sensitivity of the apparatus in this case is equal to 95%.
In the conclusion, the likelihood of developing a particular pathology is indicated. The location of the lesions on the lungs is not critical. Particular attention is paid to their contours. If they are uneven and indistinct, with a diameter of more than 1 cm, then this indicates the occurrence of a malignant process. In the case of diagnosing clear edges of focal changes, we can talk about the development of benign neoplasms or tuberculosis.
During the examination, attention is paid to the density of the tissues. Thanks to this feature, the specialist is able to distinguish pneumonia from changes caused by tuberculosis.
Another of the nuances of computed tomography should include the definition of a substance that collects in the lungs. Only fatty deposits make it possible to determine pathological processes, and the rest cannot be classified as specific symptoms.
After receiving CT scans of the lungs, on which the seals are visible, they are classified. Modern medicine distinguishes the following types of them, according to size:
- small, ranging in diameter from 1 to 2 mm;
- medium - size 3-5 mm in diameter;
- large, ranging from 1 cm.
Focal lesions in the lungs are usually classified by density:
- dense;
- medium density;
- loose.
Classification by quantity:
Single seals. They can be a factor in a serious pathology (malignant tumor) or refer to common age-related changes that do not pose a threat to the patient's life.
Multiple seals... They are mainly characteristic of pneumonia and tuberculosis, but sometimes numerous and rarely diagnosed cancers are also caused by the development of a large number of seals.
In humans, the lungs are covered with a thin film called the pleura. Seals in relation to it are: 
- pleural foci;
- subpleural foci.
Modern medicine has several methods for diagnosing tuberculosis and other lung diseases. Computed tomography is widely used to establish subpleural foci, while fluorography and radiography are not completely effective methods for determining the patient's condition. They are located under the pleura, their location is typical for tuberculosis and cancer. Only this diagnostic method allows you to correctly determine the disease that has arisen.
Conclusion
Focal changes cause not only diseases that are easily treatable (pneumonia), but sometimes more serious pathologies - tuberculosis, neoplasms of a malignant or benign nature. Modern diagnostic methods will help to detect them in a timely manner and prescribe the correct and safe therapy.
Many smokers, especially long-term smokers, complain of prolonged cough and some chest pain. Often, in this way, the body signals the onset of problems with the lungs. What should be done if suddenly the respiratory system began to malfunction? Of course, first of all, a person undergoes examinations using fluorography and subsequent sampling of mucus for detailed analysis.
And how to check the lungs, in addition to fluorography, what other diagnostic methods are there? Can this be done at home and what symptoms should you pay attention to? Such nuances should be known to everyone, not only heavy smokers. Indeed, it is better to notice many pathologies of the bronchopulmonary system in time and begin treatment than to allow the development of irreversible processes.
It is imperative to monitor the condition of your lungs, and you can check their well-being at home.
The laboratory examination plan is developed taking into account the patient's complaints and the symptoms that appear. A competent medical approach allows you to identify dangerous diseases in time, doing it with minimal discomfort for a person.
According to statistics, pathologies of the bronchopulmonary system occupy about 40-50% of all modern diseases. The most common pathology is COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease).
The structure of the respiratory system
Most often, these disorders affect young people aged 20-40 years. Therefore, it is extremely important to monitor your own health and treat the identified diseases in time, even if it is a mild cold. Doctors, considering the main causes of bronchopulmonary diseases, include the following factors as the most common culprits for their development:
- Passion for smoking.
- Poor living conditions.
- Hereditary pathologies.
- Occupational diseases.
So how to check bronchi and lungs using medical methods? Instrumental diagnostics includes many ways. Which one to apply, the doctor decides based on the general condition of the patient and the characteristics of the symptoms.
X-ray
This method of examining the lungs is shown to almost anyone. Examination with an X-ray machine is carried out in two areas: lateral and straight. This method of research helps the doctor not only to clarify the possible disease, but also to use the results of the examination in the differential diagnosis.
The essence of lung radiography
But radiography has a number of contraindications. This way of studying lung health should not be done if:
- severe liver and kidney diseases;
- complicated condition of the patient;
- allergies to the contrast agent used;
- serious pathologies of the cardiovascular system.
Tomography
With the help of this examination, the physician receives a detailed (layer-by-layer) picture of the structure of tissues and organs of the human body. By examining a picture consisting of many sections, the doctor can more accurately determine the state of health of the examined organ (in this case, the lungs). Tomography is often used in the case of detecting various areas of darkening revealed by X-ray.
Tomography allows you to study layered images of human lungs
CT (computed tomography)
This method of studying the lungs is carried out using X-rays with the connection of the most complex computer processing. The result is a high-quality image with an increased degree of resolution and clarity. Using this technique, you can check the lungs for cancer and identify violations of any other type.... A healthcare professional examining CT scans can determine:
- whether other organs are affected;
- how the pathological process spread;
- available additional pathogenic processes.
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
This method of instrumental diagnostics is based on measuring the activity of atomic nuclei after being irritated by them with electromagnetic waves. MRI is not performed on patients who have various metal implants or who have implanted devices in the body, such as:
- pacemakers;
- Ilizarov apparatus;
- installed middle ear prostheses;
- fragments remaining in the body after wounds;
- implants (electronic or ferromagnetic).
The MRI method allows you to more accurately diagnose pathological changes in the body
Also, MRI is not performed on pregnant women in the first trimester of the term and if a person suffers from claustrophobia. An examination of this kind is contraindicated in case of mental disorders or a serious condition of the patient. With the help of MRI, the type of detected neoplasm, the degree of its development, and various pathologies at the early stages of development are identified.
Angiography
This is an X-ray examination of the vessels of the bronchopulmonary system. The examination is carried out after the preliminary introduction of a special contrast agent into the blood. This method is intended to further clarify possible oncological processes. The method also allows:
- diagnose vascular aneurysms;
- identify thromboembolism of the pulmonary artery.
The essence of the angiography technique
Contraindications for angiography include the same prohibitions as for X-rays. The possible intolerance of the contrast agent used is also taken into account.
Bronchography
This technique is in many ways similar to an X-ray examination. With its help, possible pathologies of the bronchopulmonary tree are identified. Bronchography allows you to determine various diseases of the bronchi, to identify cavities formed after lung abscesses, to determine the degree of expansion of the bronchial walls.
What is brochnography used for?
Bronchography is the least informative method of diagnosis and is rarely used in modern medicine.
Tracheobronchoscopy
The examination is carried out using a special device consisting of a long flexible hose and cable with a backlight function (often this device has the functions of photo and video shooting). The doctor gets the opportunity to directly examine the state of the mucous membrane of the trachea and bronchi and assess the health of the organs.
Using the manipulators built into the end of the tube, during the examination, you can remove a sample for biopsy or remove foreign bodies that have entered the respiratory tract. During the event, the patient may notice some unpleasant sensations:
- nasal congestion;
- numbness of the oral mucosa;
- difficulty swallowing;
- sensation of a lump in the larynx.
Bronchoscopy also allows the sampling of biomaterial
Anesthesia becomes the culprit for such short-term troubles (the examination is carried out with anesthesia). All negative symptoms disappear very quickly, within 50-60 minutes. But this procedure has a number of strict contraindications, in particular:
- hypertension;
- heart problems;
- vascular insufficiency;
- mental illness;
- suffered a stroke or heart attack;
- bronchial asthma in the relapse stage;
- allergy to the anesthetic used.
One of the varieties of this examination is fluorescent laser bronchoscopy. It is carried out when a person is suspected of having oncology. The method is based on the ability of malignant tumors to actively absorb photo material.
Checking your lungs at home
As already mentioned, COPD is one of the most common dangerous diseases of the bronchopulmonary system. This disease is a kind of chronic mix of obstructive bronchitis and pulmonary emphysema.
Long-term smoking is becoming the main cause of COPD. The result of the disease is the inability of the lungs to absorb oxygen, which can lead to the death of the patient.
This disease is extremely dangerous for its latent development, especially in the early stages of the disease. But a fatal pathology that affects the lungs of a smoker can be detected in a timely manner and treatment can be started immediately. And you can do this at home by using several methods.
COPD is the most common lung condition in smokers
Checking lung volume
There are some signs, the presence of which in a person makes you wonder if everything is in order with the lungs. These exercises should be done regularly, especially by smokers. This will allow you to suspect yourself of problems as soon as they appear. So how can you check your lung capacity and your lung health?
- Hold your breath, if you manage to hold the exhale for 1-1.5 minutes, this is the norm for a healthy person.
- Take the candles that stick into the birthday cake by the age. A person with healthy lungs will be able to blow them out at once, blowing at a distance of about 70-80 cm.
- Take in as much air as possible and inflate a regular balloon. In this case, it should be inflated with one exhalation. The resulting size of the ball indicates the volume of the lungs. Normally, healthy lungs have a volume of 3.5 liters.
When to be alert
The very first sign of an impending illness is shortness of breath. Unfortunately, most smokers do not pay attention to the alarm bell, attributing breathing difficulties to age, fatigue, and ecology. But the problem with COPD is the inability to completely cure the disease when it develops.... The disease can only be delayed, slowed down.
What Happens to the Lungs in COPD
When a smoker is oblivious to persistent shortness of breath that develops even when walking calmly, the person's chances of maintaining healthy lung tissue are rapidly diminished.
Therefore, it is extremely important to be able to understand in time that problems begin with your own lungs. And the first sign is shortness of breath. Try experimenting, such as doing some exercise, going up / down stairs, and then trying to take a full breath.
Follow the changes. If there is a feeling of inability to breathe in deeply, a comprehensive examination of the pulmonary structure should be carried out.
Alarming symptoms
As the fatal pathology develops, the patient has a number of other signs. Many of them also appear in healthy people, but in combination with smoking it becomes pathological manifestations.
Cough
Even completely healthy people periodically clear their throats. But too frequent cough syndrome is one of the signs of COPD.... Coughing leads to a constant inflammatory process in the bronchioles and alveoli, as a result of which they lose their elasticity. Over time, their walls noticeably thicken and produce more mucus, blocking the lumen.
COPD is more likely to have a sputum-producing cough without any other symptoms. In case of loss of transparency of the coughing up mucus, the patient's condition begins to deteriorate rapidly.
Morning migraine
A very alarming bell is the appearance in the morning hours of acute throbbing head pain. It occurs literally as soon as a person gets out of bed. This syndrome is explained simply: when the patient is in a horizontal position for a long time and breathes shallowly, the body accumulates carbon dioxide, which leads to the expansion of the cerebral vessels, which causes severe pain.
Migraines are often not associated with ongoing pathological changes in the bronchopulmonary system. They are treated as a separate symptomatic sign. To remove the strongest morning migraines, you should get rid of their main culprit - a lack of oxygen.
Swelling of the ankle area
With the defeat of the bronchopulmonary structure and the lack of adequate treatment, heart failure develops, because the circulatory system also suffers from a lack of oxygen. The sad result is the retention of fluid in the body. This leads to the appearance of edema of the lower extremities (in the area of the ankles and feet).
With the development of lung pathology, the heart lowers the efforts with which it pushes blood. That most negatively affects the state of the kidneys and liver. As a result, toxic toxins and toxins accumulate in the human body, which leads to intoxication of the entire body.
Problems with night rest
When a person is in a horizontal position, it becomes more difficult for the affected lungs to work, which negatively affects the quality of sleep. Patients often wake up due to the onset of coughing fits, getting out of bed, they feel severe dizziness, headaches. In this case, you should immediately pay attention to the health of the pulmonary organs and undergo an examination.
Ideally, for the lungs to return to full normal, you should completely forget about the habit of smoking. But the condition of the lungs should be monitored in any case. And at the slightest suspicion of an emerging pathology, immediately consult a doctor.
Lesson outline
Leading concepts
Urine.
Urea.
An artificial kidney is an apparatus capable of cleansing the body of toxins when its own kidneys fail for some time (during an operation, in case of mercuric chloride poisoning).
Nephritis is an inflammation of the kidneys with damage primarily to the renal glomeruli.
Pyelitis is an inflammation of the renal pelvis.
Issues for discussion
1. Can the lungs and skin be classified as excretory organs? Give a reasoned answer.
2. Why does the presence of protein or sugar in urine indicate possible kidney disease?
3. Why does the amount of urine increase in cold weather?
4. What conditions adversely affect the normal functioning of the kidneys?
5. What, in your opinion, is the fundamental difference between excreta and excrement?
Topic 7. Leather
Theme planning
Lesson 1.
Structure and function of the skin
1. Skin is a mirror of health:
- elastic, smooth skin (healthy body);
- sluggish, edematous, pale (illness, age);
- skin with an icteric color (with liver disease);
- edematous, with a bluish color (in case of violations of the heart);
- skin with a grayish, earthy color (with gastrointestinal diseases);
- allergic reactions.
2. The skin is a border organ that separates the body from the external environment:
- protection against damage and penetration of microbes;
- participation in heat regulation;
- excretory and respiratory functions;
- participation in the implementation of reflexes associated with the presence of receptors in the skin (per 1 cm2 of skin there are 100-200 pain points, 12-15 cold, 1-2 heat and about 25 pressure points).
3. The structure of the skin, the relationship of the structure of the skin with the functions it performs:
- epidermis;
- the skin itself (dermis);
- subcutaneous fatty tissue;
- hair and nails - derivatives of the skin;
- the role of sweat and sebaceous glands; the mammary gland is a modified sweat gland.
4. Skin color:
- the dependence of skin color on the amount of melanin pigment;
- fluctuations in the amount of melanin in different races and nationalities;
- different amounts of melanin in the skin of blondes and brunettes;
- the protective function of melanin.
5. Features of facial skin, connection with facial muscles.
Lesson outline 1
Leading concepts
Epidermis.
Dermis.
Subcutaneous adipose tissue.
Receptors.
External secretion glands.
Melanin.
Function of the skin.
The relationship of the structure with the function performed.
The body is a single whole.
Issues for discussion
1. Why is there a loss of salts from the body with a large consumption of water?
2. What is the protective function of the skin?
3. Is it really "easier to breathe" after the bath?
4. Is it possible with special exercises to "achieve" more expressiveness of the face?
5. Thin people freeze faster than fat people. Why?
Search tasks (additional information)
The color of the skin in different people differs in shade and color. After exposure to the sun, a tan appears. |
The color of the skin is determined by the amount of coloring pigment - melanin. With gradual exposure to ultraviolet rays, the amount of melanin increases. |
Thin people freeze faster than fat people. |
The subcutaneous fat layer protects from cooling. |
With special exercises, you can "achieve" a greater expressiveness of the face. |
The mimic muscles give the face liveliness and expressiveness, by contracting, they form folds of skin that determine the expression of the face. |
The cat's fur ruffles at the sight of a dog. When we are cold or scared, our hair stands on end. |
The hair root has a tiny muscle, the contraction of which lifts the hair. This is a rudiment of those muscles that "bristle" the fur of a frightened or overcooled animal. A person in such cases becomes covered with "goose bumps". |
Nails on the hands grow 1 mm in a week, on the legs 4 times slower. They grow faster in summer than in winter. |
The growth of the nail occurs due to the division of the cells of its root and depends on the state of the organism, its age, profession and other factors. |
After the bath "it is easier to breathe". |
The skin is involved in gas exchange. Skin respiration accounts for approximately 2% of the total gas exchange. Air enters the cavity of the sweat gland tube. |
From the cold air, our skin first turns red, and with prolonged cooling it turns pale. |
The discoloration of the skin is due to the fact that the blood vessels under the influence of cold first dilate somewhat, and then narrow. The flow of blood to the surface of the body is reduced and the loss of body heat is reduced. |
With increased sweating, the load on the kidneys decreases. |
Kidney function is partly performed by the skin. Sweat contains 98% water, 1% dissolved table salt, 1% organic matter. Together with sweat, poisonous and medicinal substances that have entered the body are released. The composition of sweat is similar to urine, but less concentrated. |
Lesson 2.
The role of the skin in thermoregulation. First aid for overheating, burns and frostbite
1. Constant body temperature and relative independence of warm-blooded animals from changes in ambient temperature.
2. Energy exchange and heat generation. Heat transfer methods. The meaning of sweating. Steam generation consumption.
3. Heat regulation - maintaining a balance between the amount of heat generated in the body and its return to the external environment.
4. Neuro-humoral regulation of increasing or decreasing heat production and heat transfer.
5. Conditions conducive to heat regulation and hindering it (air humidity, ambient temperature, hygienic condition of the skin, clothing).
6. Symptoms and first aid for heat and sunstroke. Prevention of heat and sunstroke.
7. First aid for burns and frostbite.
Lesson outline 2
Leading concepts
Heat transfer.
Heat regulation.
Heatstroke is a violation of heat regulation during overheating of the body and difficulty in heat transfer.
Issues for discussion
1. Why does a person who is in cold water for a long time turn blue and tremble?
2. Which climate is more difficult to tolerate and why: hot humid or hot dry?
3. Why can a drunk person freeze and die, falling asleep in the cold?
4. Why is it better to drink slightly salted water in hot shops?
5. Some people catch colds easily. Explain how this can be associated with a violation of the body's heat regulation.
Lesson 3.
Skin hygiene. Body hardening
1. Functions of the skin. The relationship of the structure of the skin with the function performed.
2. Sweating. Sweat composition. Hygienic rules for skin care. Features of skin care in adolescence.
3. Hygiene of hair and nails.
4. Hygiene of clothing and footwear.
5. Hardening - a complex of effects on the body that increase the ability to heat regulation and disease resistance.
6. Colds and their causes. Hardening factors: air, water, sun.
7. Methods of hardening.
Lesson outline 3
Leading concepts
Hygiene.
Hardening.
The body is a single whole.
Hardening factors.
Tempering methods.
Issues for discussion
1. Make up the rules of skin care. Explain how the skin hygiene requirements correspond to its functions?
2. What functions of the skin are associated with the basic hygienic requirements for clothing?
3. Skin is a mirror of health. Is this statement legitimate and why?
4. Hardening is a complex of effects on the body. Why is the concept of "hardening" associated with the concept of "leather"?
5. During hardening, the nervous system and blood vessels are trained. How do you understand this?
Lesson 4.
The relationship of organ systems in the process of human life (generalizing)
1. Features of the structure of the circulatory system, ensuring a constant temperature of the human body (and warm-blooded animals).
2. Food is a source of energy. The role of food proteins, fats and carbohydrates as energy sources.
3. The value of the plastic and energy metabolism in the cell for the maintenance of the vital processes of the whole organism.
4. The relationship of the circulatory, respiratory and digestive systems and their role in providing the body with energy.
5. Participation of the circulatory, respiratory systems and skin in the removal of decay products.
6. Influence of various conditions (load, overheating, cooling) on metabolism. The role of heat regulation.
7. Conclusion about the body, as a single whole, under the influence of environmental conditions.
Lesson outline 4
Verification work
Prove the dependence of the human body on vital resources by filling out the table.
reference
The second law of thermodynamics: with any transformation of energy, part of it is lost in the form of heat.
Topic 8. Endocrine glands
Theme planning
Comparative characteristics of the glands of the human body (Additional Information)
Lesson 1.
Biologically active substances and their role in the body.
Hormones - biological regulators
1. Biologically active substances:
a) enzymes - biological catalysts;
b) vitamins - participate in the formation of enzymes;
c) hormones - biological regulators.
2. Properties of hormones:
a) action in low concentrations;
b) exposure through blood and lymph;
c) strict direction of action.
3. Participation of hormones in the humoral regulation of body functions. Comparative characteristics of humoral and nervous regulation.
Lesson outline 1
Leading concepts
Enzymes.
Vitamins.
Hormones.
Neuro-humoral regulation.
The body is a single whole.
Independent work
Select the appropriate signs, enter them in the table.
Comparative characteristics of nervous and humoral regulation
Signs for comparison.
1. An older form of interaction.
2. Signals are transmitted at high speed - up to 100 m / s.
3. The signal is transmitted through the blood or lymph.
4. The signal passes exactly to the addressee.
5. Communication is carried out according to the principle "everyone, everyone, everyone!"
6. The signal is a nerve impulse.
7. The signal is a chemical.
8. Signal action is longer.
Lesson 2.
Intrasecretory activity of endocrine glands
1. The concept of the glands of external and internal secretion, mixed glands.
2. The relationship between the structure and function of various glands:
a) the presence of excretory ducts;
b) secretion of secretions (into the blood or into the cavity);
c) functions of glands (participation in the process of digestion, excretion - glands of external secretion and mixed glands; participation in humoral regulation - endocrine glands and mixed glands).
3. The function of the endocrine glands is the action of hormones through the blood.
4. Functions of the adrenal glands and adrenaline hormone.
5. Intrasecretory function of the pancreas. The role of the hormone insulin.
6. Thyroid gland. Pituitary. The role of the sex glands in the development of the body. Primary and secondary sexual characteristics.
7. Disorders of the endocrine glands.
reference
Testosterone is a male sex hormone produced by the testes.
The ovaries produce several female sex hormones (estrogen, progesterone).
A group of male sex hormones (androgens) are formed not only in the testes, but also in the ovaries and adrenal cortex of both sexes.
Leading concepts
The gland is an organ that produces and secretes special substances - secrets that participate in the physiological processes of the body. Endocrine gland.
Hormone.
Nervous-humoral regulation
Independent work
Topic 9. Nervous system. Sense organs. Higher nervous activity
Theme planning
Lesson 1.
The structure and function of the nervous system
1. Central and peripheral nervous system. The relationship of the structure with the function performed.
2. Functions of the nervous system:
a) regulates the work of bodies;
b) coordinates the work of cells, tissues, organs and their systems as a whole;
c) ensures the relationship of the organism with the external environment;
d) is the basis of human mental functions: thinking, consciousness, speech.
3. Excitation and inhibition. The role of nerve impulses in the implementation of nervous regulation.
4. Comparative characteristics of the functions of the nervous system of animals and humans.
Lesson outline 1
Leading concepts
Excitability - the ability of cells to be excited.
Excitation is the transition of any living system from a state of relative physiological rest to active activity (conditioned and unconditioned reflex).
Inhibition is a nervous process that is expressed in a delay in excitation in response to irritation or in a decrease in the intensity of excitation that has already arisen in the cerebral cortex.
Conditioned reflex.
Unconditioned reflex.
Nervous system functions.
Issues for discussion
1. What properties does the nervous tissue have? Give specific examples to support these properties.
2. Prove that the nervous system ensures the functioning of organs in accordance with the needs of the body.
3. In what condition will the hand be if the centers regulating the biceps and triceps muscles are excited?
Lesson 2.
Spinal cord. Vegetative division of the nervous system
1. The structure of the spinal cord:
a) the location of the spinal cord in the spinal canal;
b) the spinal canal;
c) the location of the gray and white matter;
d) nerves extending from the spinal cord;
e) the location of the ascending and descending pathways in the white matter and intercalary and executive neurons in the gray matter.
2. Functions of the spinal cord:
a) reflex (unconditioned reflexes);
b) conductive.
3. Regulation of the spinal cord activity by the brain.
4. Division of the nervous system according to functional characteristics:
a) somatic;
b) vegetative.
Lesson outline 2
Leading concepts
Spinal reflexes
Spinal nerves.
Anterior and posterior roots of the spinal cord.
Somatic nervous system.
The autonomic nervous system.
Sympathetic department.
Parasympathetic department.
Issues for discussion
1. What is the danger of spinal cord injuries?
2. The autonomic nervous system has its centers, ganglia and nerves. Give examples of the opposite action of autonomic nerve centers on organs.
3. Give examples of organs that are regulated by the autonomic nervous system and organs that are regulated by the somatic nervous system.
4. The organism is a single whole. Explain whether the activity of the autonomic and somatic parts of the nervous system is related.
Lesson 3.
The structure and function of the brain
1. The structure of the brain:
a) parts of the brain;
b) the distribution of gray and white matter;
c) crust, nuclei, pathways.
2. Unconditional reflex activity of the medulla oblongata, pons and midbrain.
3. Activity of the cerebellum, subordinate to the centers of the cerebral cortex.
4. Forebrain:
a) diencephalon;
b) large hemispheres.
5. The structure and functions of the cerebral hemispheres:
a) gray matter (bark);
b) white matter with accumulations of gray matter (nerve centers).
6. Subcortical centers and emotions:
a) dependence of the manifestation of emotions on the subcortical centers;
b) the influence of positive and negative emotions on the work of organs.
7. The cerebral cortex:
a) lobes of the cerebral hemispheres and their functions;
b) physiological processes of the cerebral cortex associated with mental functions (attention, memory, thinking, etc.).
8. Disorders of the brain:
a) hereditary diseases;
b) violations caused by environmental factors.
Lesson outline 3
Leading concepts
Departments of the brain.
Functions of the parts of the brain.
Conditioned and unconditional reflex activity.
The brain is the material basis of human mental activity.
The hypothalamus is the "endocrine brain", a section of the diencephalon.
Independent work
Fill in the third column of the table, using the text of the textbook.
Brain functions
To be continued
In our body, the lungs perform a vital respiratory function, providing oxygen to the entire body. But modern ecology, bad habits and infections predispose to diseases of this organ, which explains why a doctor for the lungs and bronchi is so in demand today. Lung pathology includes very common diseases: pneumonia, bronchial asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), oncology, so it is important for patients to know which doctor to contact with a particular problem related to the lungs.
Diseases of the lungs are always very closely associated with damage to the bronchi and trachea. All of these organs are collectively called the "lower respiratory tract" and belong to the respiratory system. In addition, in some lung diseases, both other systems (musculoskeletal in rheumatological diseases) and the entire body as a whole, for example, in tuberculosis and oncology, can be affected.
In the International Classification of Diseases, respiratory injuries are coded under the heading J00 - J99, which includes various infections, obstructive diseases and purulent conditions. However, pulmonary tuberculosis and oncological lesions are coded by other headings - A15-A16 and C34, respectively.
Let's figure out what is the name of the doctor who deals with lung diseases? Its name comes from the Latin words pulmon - (lungs) + logos (doctrine) - pulmonologist. You should contact him if you have the following symptoms:
- cough, especially with phlegm;
- dyspnea;
- asthma attacks;
- chest pain associated with breathing.
Where does the pulmonologist see?
In large city polyclinics, as a rule, there are pulmonologists, you can get an appointment either from a therapist, or on your own by signing up at the reception.
In addition, in most megacities there are multidisciplinary diagnostic centers, which also receive pulmonologists. These doctors are involved in consultations on pulmonary and bronchial pathology. Most often, the attending physician from the polyclinic is sent to such centers according to special quotas, but the patient can independently sign up for a consultation through paid services.
Now many private clinics and offices have opened, where doctors of all kinds of specialties work. A private clinic guarantees an appointment at a strictly specified time, no queues and wide diagnostic capabilities, but this option is more suitable for busy and wealthy people.
What to take with you to your appointment
If the patient goes to see a pulmonologist for the first time, then no special training is required. On the day of the visit, the doctor will most likely prescribe the necessary examinations, which means at least one more visit. Of course, if the patient has his outpatient card and some test results in his hands, it is better to take them with him.
You do not need to take any additional accessories (diaper, towel) with you.
How is the appointment going?
Reception by a specialist who treats the lungs follows the standard scheme. First, he asks to name all the complaints, then asks the patient in detail, especially paying attention to bad habits (smoking) and the nature of work (possible inhalation of harmful substances) and the presence of other problems. The doctor should definitely ask if any of the closest relatives suffered from pulmonary diseases, since some lung diseases are associated with heredity. It will also clarify the presence of allergic reactions, which is important for the diagnosis of bronchial asthma.
Next, the doctor proceeds to the examination. The main method is auscultation, or auscultation, with a stethoscope for breathing in the lungs. This simple, but very informative method is able to give an idea of how the lungs and bronchi work and give a clue to the correct diagnosis.
After a direct examination, the pulmonologist must check the functioning of the respiratory system using laboratory and instrumental examination methods. To do this, he appoints: 
- Routine blood and urine tests.
- X-ray examination of the chest organs in two projections;
- If bronchial asthma is suspected - determination of class E immunoglobulin in the blood.
- If there are complaints of chest pain and shortness of breath - ultrasound examination of the pleural cavity to exclude the presence of fluid or air in it.
- If necessary, computed tomography for clearer visualization.
- To determine the patency of the air flow, a study is prescribed, which is called spirography. It is very important for the diagnosis of bronchial obstruction (obstruction).
After passing all the examinations, the patient again comes to an appointment, during which a diagnosis is made and treatment is prescribed. Of course, there are situations when it is not immediately possible to diagnose any disease. It is for these cases that diagnostic centers exist.
The patient needs to keep in mind that if his illness progresses with disability, then he has the right to register a disability, which the doctor must inform him about. In these cases, the state provides people with disabilities with free drugs on a special prescription.
Lung diseases are so widespread that there are differences among different populations. So, men with a long smoking history are more likely to suffer from chronic obstruction of the bronchi than women, and the opposite situation is typical for bronchial asthma.
Most lung diseases are chronic. The exception is acute infectious diseases (pneumonia and bronchitis).
In childhood, the main disease is atopic asthma and bronchitis, while the elderly are more likely to suffer from lung cancer and COPD.
Do I need advice from other specialists
Sometimes a lung doctor cannot cope with a difficult case alone, and then it is necessary to resort to the help of other specialists:
During the reception, the patient may have a number of questions:
- Can I exercise if I have shortness of breath?
- Is secondhand smoke harmful?
- What medicine can you take if you have a choking attack?
- Do I need to follow a specific diet?
Is it possible to call a doctor for lungs at home
If the patient cannot get to the clinic on his own, then if necessary, calling the pulmonologist at home is possible. Most often, such patronage is carried out according to a specific schedule, and is most common among cancer patients. A consultation with a pulmonologist may be required to write an opinion when registering a disability. Of course, it is not possible to perform an instrumental examination, but a full examination and auscultation are quite feasible.
Whom to contact if there is no specialized specialist
What doctor treats lung diseases if there is no pulmonologist at the clinic? In this case, the burden is taken on by local therapists who can treat pneumonia, bronchitis, bronchial asthma, and in unclear cases, they are sent for consultation to regional centers.
Where are the best lung doctors
The main research institute of pulmonology is located in Moscow; it is engaged not only in the treatment of complex cases, but also in active scientific activities that help develop pulmonology in our country.
One of the modern diagnostic methods based on the use of X-rays is CT (computed tomography). This method is difficult to examine such organs that are filled with a large amount of gas. These include not only the lungs, but, for example, the intestines. Therefore, it is important to properly prepare for a CT scan of the lungs so that the study is informative.
A huge number of people fall ill with broncho-pulmonary pathology, despite the modern level of medical care.
Indications for CT of the lungs
Lung cancer is the most common form of cancer. It claims hundreds of thousands of lives annually. It occurs more often in men than in women. The main reason for its occurrence is smoking, but the unfavorable environmental situation in the world contributes to its formation even among nonsmokers.
In addition, every year more and more people appear who have contracted tuberculosis. This disease is extremely life-threatening. It is almost impossible to completely cure it, especially in the later stages.
The lungs also suffer from diseases such as pneumonia and any other inflammatory processes developing in the pleural region.
Often, CT of the lungs and bronchi is prescribed after an injury or to monitor the course of a patient's treatment.
Therefore, it is extremely important to check the condition of the lungs at least once a year. The primary diagnostic procedure is fluorography. Its result is a snapshot, if there is no darkening or lighter areas on it, then the patient is considered healthy. Otherwise, additional studies are prescribed.
And since during CT the dose of ionizing radiation is less than in X-ray and fluorography, tomography can be performed twice a year without much fear of the consequences. And if there are serious reasons, then it is carried out more often, because in such cases, as a rule, the benefit to the patient from the study outweighs the risk of negative consequences from the procedure.
So, here is a short list of diseases that can be detected by CT scan of the lungs:
- tuberculosis, pneumonia, pleurisy;
- lung cancer and metastases with an accurate description of their size, shape, localization;
- aortic aneurysm;
- pleural effusion;
- emphysema;
- abscesses;
- assess the condition of the lymph nodes;
- pathology of the structure of the lungs;
- various pathologies of the vascular system.
Sometimes CT of the lungs is prescribed when there is a suspicion that there is a foreign object in the bronchi or trachea.
Lung diseases are still one of the most common pathologies that all of humanity suffers from.
What contrast agent is used for CT of the lungs?
Non-ionic iodine-containing solutions are used as a contrast agent. They are quickly spread by the circulatory system throughout the body. The main function of iodine is to increase the contrast of the resulting image. This is especially true for hollow organs, such as the lungs.
There is no need to take a contrast agent in advance. It instantly spreads throughout the body through the vascular system, does not accumulate in it and removes it within a few days. Even if the patient takes it in advance, for example, the day before, then its concentration in the body will no longer be enough to conduct a high-quality diagnosis. Therefore, it does not make sense to worry about this in advance with CT with contrast.
It is injected intravenously right at the beginning of the scan. Usually, the nurse first inserts a catheter into the patient's vein, which carries saline. This is necessary so that the thin needle does not clog with blood coagulated in it.
The contrast agent is delivered throughout the study. It is most convenient to inject it through a dropper, but there are other options for the intake of this substance into the patient's body:
- oral - suitable for examining the digestive tract (for example, for CT scan of the liver or kidneys), but not lungs, because in this case it will not get into them;
- rectal - it is used for scanning the large intestine, in the case of CT of the lungs it is also not suitable;
- gas inhalation - this method can be used during a scan of the lungs and brain. It did not become popular due to the technical difficulties in its implementation: the patient needs to inhale deeply the gas supplied through the mask, but during the scan, the patient's body should make as little movements as possible.
Therefore, in most clinics and laboratories, contrast agent is injected only intravenously.
When the patient is ready for the CT scan, the device will be turned on and the examination will begin.
Computed tomography is precisely one of the types of diagnostics that, without exaggeration, can be called a revolutionary breakthrough in the methods of determining diseases.
Can CT of lungs be done without contrast?
If the purpose of the study is to assess the condition of the lungs and to reveal the nature of any irregularities in the image, then one cannot do without a contrast agent. Without it, the results may be unreliable.
Some patients have a contraindication to contrast media. In such cases, it is worth discussing possible alternatives to research. In this case, the doctor may recommend:
- another method of examining the lungs, such as MRI. In MRI, the contrast agent is fundamentally different;
- if the study is carried out by a nursing mother, it is recommended to stop feeding for 2-3 days until the drug is completely removed from the body;
- conduct a CT scan of the lungs without contrast, if possible, taking into account the technical characteristics of a particular tomograph.
Each case is different. The doctor will carefully examine all the circumstances and decide the best option for examining the lungs of patients. But still, CT of the lungs with contrast provides the most detailed results about their condition at the time of the study.
Who is the CT scan contraindicated for?
The CT method is based on X-ray radiation. And, although the intensity is several times less than in radiography, it is still harmful and ionizing. In this regard, CT has a number of contraindications:
- it is not recommended to conduct a study in children under 15 years old, therefore, during a period of intensive growth, the body's susceptibility to radiation is maximum;
- pregnant women and nursing mothers;
- elderly people over the age of 70. In their case, the body's susceptibility to radiation is about the same as that of children;
- diseases of the thyroid gland, bronchial asthma, severe forms of hepatic or renal failure do not allow the study with the use of contrast agents. In such diseases, even a CT scan of the liver or CT of the kidneys is not done;
- heart attack, suffered less than six months before the date of the study;
- claustrophobia, which does not disappear when the patient is sedated. In this case, it is possible to conduct a study under anesthesia only when the patient's life depends on its results.
None of the listed contraindications can be called absolute. In each individual case, doctors will decide what is best for the patient's health and how the effects of radiation can be reduced or avoided.
How to prepare for a CT scan of the lungs?
Correct preparation for the study is the key to its high-quality result. By itself, the CT scan does not require any preliminary measures on the part of the patient. However, the use of a contrast agent can cause complications if the patient is not ready for it. But getting ready for a CT scan of the lungs or a CT scan of the entire chest is not difficult or hassle-free.
To avoid feeling nausea or vomiting during the examination, it is not recommended to eat 6 to 8 hours before the CT scan. It is allowed to drink a little water 4 hours before it.
The final stage of preparation begins already in the X-ray room. The patient takes off all jewelry, removable dentures, watches, pulls out any hairpins from his hair, if any. Then he changes into a hospital gown.
The radiologist conducts a conversation with the patient, during which he examines his anamnesis, prescriptions, indications and contraindications. At the same time, he talks about how the scan will take place, how long it will take, what the patient will hear and feel in the process.
Then the nurse comes and helps the patient to lie down on the couch and take a comfortable position. The procedure can take 15-20 seconds or 25 minutes. It depends on the type of the tomograph, its settings and its technical capabilities.
While the patient is comfortably on the couch, the nurse inserts a catheter into the patient's vein and flushes it with saline. He connects a dropper with a contrast agent to it and leaves the office.
The radiologist is all this time in the next office and remotely sets the settings for the tomograph. In both offices there is a public address system that the doctor can communicate with the patient, and a window through which the doctor monitors the process.
Most of the tomographs used in polyclinics are of a closed type. This means that the couch with the patient moves inside the device. It is cramped and narrow there, panic may begin or an attack of claustrophobia may develop.
If the patient understands during the study realizes that he is no longer able to withstand, he can start on a special button. It is located directly inside the device. After pressing it, the tomograph immediately turns off, and the couch moves out.
What is visible on CT scans?
A CT scan is a series of images. Each image is a slice of the patient's body taken from different angles. With the help of a computer program, a three-dimensional model of the lungs is created after their processing. And the most visual of them are printed by the radiologist and attached to the card. In the transcript of the study, he describes the following indicators:
- segment density;
- uniformity of the intensity of coloration of the lungs in the images;
- blood circulation in tissues;
- conclusion and diagnosis.
The process of decoding the results takes no more than half an hour. Usually the patient is waiting in the corridor at this time. In his hands he is given an outpatient card, conclusion, printed photographs and a multimedia disc with a record of the study.
With all these documents, the patient goes to his attending physician to receive up-to-date prescriptions or to correct the treatment, taking into account the data obtained during the CT scan.
Benefits of CT
CT has a whole list of advantages that make it a widespread diagnostic method:
- the whole procedure without decoding the results takes no more than half an hour;
- the results of the study are objective, therefore there is no risk of a doctor's mistake during the scan. And if the interpretation of the results seems doubtful to the patient or his doctor, then it is possible to get an additional opinion by sending them to an expert doctor;
- the study is absolutely painless;
- CT is a non-invasive method, the patient does not receive any trauma or damage during scanning;
- the dose of ionizing radiation is small;
- the images are of high resolution, this helps to identify diseases at the earliest stages.
Due to the fact that tomographs have appeared in almost every polyclinic, the method has become more accessible for all categories of citizens, including in terms of its cost. And the reliability of the results helps to accurately diagnose and prescribe effective treatment.
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