They are distributed over a vast territory of our planet, from the cold Kolyma basin to the southwestern coast of the Mediterranean Sea. The Turks do not belong to any specific racial type; even among one people there are both Caucasians and Mongoloids. They are mostly Muslim, but there are peoples who profess Christianity, traditional beliefs, shamanism. The only thing that connects almost 170 million people is the common origin of the group of languages now spoken by the Turks. Yakut and Turk all speak related dialects.
Strong branch of the Altai tree
Among some scientists there are still ongoing disputes over which language family belongs to the Turkic language group. Some linguists identified it as a separate large group. However, the most generally accepted hypothesis today is that these related languages belong to the large Altai family.
The development of genetics has made a major contribution to these studies, thanks to which it has become possible to trace the history of entire nations in the traces of individual fragments of the human genome.
Once upon a time, a group of tribes in Central Asia spoke the same language - the ancestor of modern Turkic dialects, but in the 3rd century. BC e. a separate Bulgarian branch separated from the large trunk. The only people who speak languages of the Bulgar group today are the Chuvash. Their dialect is noticeably different from other related ones and stands out as a special subgroup.
Some researchers even propose placing the Chuvash language into a separate genus of the large Altai macrofamily.
Classification of the southeast direction
Other representatives of the Turkic group of languages are usually divided into 4 large subgroups. There are differences in details, but for simplicity we can take the most common method.
Oguz, or southwestern, languages, which include Azerbaijani, Turkish, Turkmen, Crimean Tatar, Gagauz. Representatives of these peoples speak very similarly and can easily understand each other without a translator. Hence the enormous influence of strong Turkey in Turkmenistan and Azerbaijan, whose residents perceive Turkish as their native language.
The Turkic group of the Altai family of languages also includes the Kipchak, or northwestern, languages, which are spoken mainly on the territory of the Russian Federation, as well as representatives of the peoples of Central Asia with nomadic ancestors. Tatars, Bashkirs, Karachais, Balkars, such peoples of Dagestan as the Nogais and Kumyks, as well as Kazakhs and Kyrgyz - they all speak related dialects of the Kipchak subgroup.
The southeastern, or Karluk, languages are solidly represented by the languages of two large peoples - the Uzbeks and the Uyghurs. However, for almost a thousand years they developed separately from each other. If the Uzbek language has experienced enormous influence from Farsi, Arabic, then the Uighurs, residents of East Turkestan, brought over many years great amount Chinese borrowings into their dialect.
Northern Turkic languages
The geography of the Turkic group of languages is wide and varied. The Yakuts, Altaians, in general, some indigenous peoples of northeastern Eurasia, also unite into a separate branch of the large Turkic tree. Northeastern languages are quite heterogeneous and are divided into several separate genera.
The Yakut and Dolgan languages separated from the single Turkic dialect, and this happened in the 3rd century. n. e.
The Sayan group of languages of the Turkic family includes Tuvan and Tofalar languages. Khakassians and residents of Mountain Shoria speak languages of the Khakass group.
Altai is the cradle of Turkic civilization; to this day, the indigenous inhabitants of these places speak Oirot, Teleut, Lebedin, Kumandin languages of the Altai subgroup.
Incidents in a harmonious classification
However, not everything is so simple in this conditional division. The process of national-territorial demarcation that took place on the territory of the Central Asian republics of the USSR in the twenties of the last century also affected such a subtle matter as language.
All residents of the Uzbek SSR were called Uzbeks, and a single version of the literary Uzbek language was adopted, based on the dialects of the Kokand Khanate. However, even today the Uzbek language is characterized by pronounced dialectism. Some dialects of Khorezm, the westernmost part of Uzbekistan, are closer to the languages of the Oghuz group and closer to Turkmen than to the literary Uzbek language.
Some areas speak dialects that belong to the Nogai subgroup of the Kipchak languages, hence there are often situations when a Ferghana resident has difficulty understanding a native of Kashkadarya, who, in his opinion, shamelessly distorts his native language.
The situation is approximately the same among other representatives of the peoples of the Turkic group of languages - Crimean Tatars. The language of the inhabitants of the coastal strip is almost identical to Turkish, but the natural steppe inhabitants speak a dialect closer to Kipchak.
Ancient history
The Turks first entered the world historical arena during the era of the Great Migration of Peoples. IN genetic memory Europeans still shudder before the invasion of the Huns by Attila in the 4th century. n. e. The steppe empire was a motley formation of numerous tribes and peoples, but the Turkic element was still predominant.
There are many versions of the origin of these peoples, but most researchers place the ancestral home of today's Uzbeks and Turks in the northwestern part of the Central Asian plateau, in the area between Altai and the Khingar ridge. This version is also adhered to by the Kyrgyz, who consider themselves the direct heirs of the great empire and are still nostalgic about this.
The neighbors of the Turks were the Mongols, the ancestors of today's Indo-European peoples, the Ural and Yenisei tribes, and the Manchus. The Turkic group of the Altai family of languages began to take shape in close interaction with similar peoples.
Confusion with Tatars and Bulgarians
In the first century AD e. individual tribes begin to migrate towards Southern Kazakhstan. The famous Huns invaded Europe in the 4th century. It was then that the Bulgar branch separated from the Turkic tree and a vast confederation was formed, which was divided into the Danube and Volga. Today's Bulgarians in the Balkans now speak a Slavic language and have lost their Turkic roots.
The opposite situation occurred with the Volga Bulgars. They still speak Turkic languages, but after the Mongol invasion they call themselves Tatars. The conquered Turkic tribes living in the steppes of the Volga took the name of the Tatars - a legendary tribe with which Genghis Khan began his campaigns that had long disappeared in the wars. They also called their language, which they had previously called Bulgarian, Tatar.
The only living dialect of the Bulgarian branch of the Turkic group of languages is Chuvash. The Tatars, another descendant of the Bulgars, actually speak a variant of the later Kipchak dialects.
From Kolyma to the Mediterranean
To the Turkic peoples language group These include residents of the harsh regions of the famous Kolyma basin, the resort beaches of the Mediterranean, the Altai mountains and the table-flat steppes of Kazakhstan. The ancestors of today's Turks were nomads who traveled the length and breadth of the Eurasian continent. For two thousand years they interacted with their neighbors, who were Iranians, Arabs, Russians, and Chinese. During this time, an unimaginable mixture of cultures and blood occurred.
Today it is even impossible to determine the race to which the Turks belong. Residents of Turkey, Azerbaijanis, and Gagauz belong to the Mediterranean group of the Caucasian race; there are practically no guys with slanted eyes and yellowish skin. However, the Yakuts, Altaians, Kazakhs, Kyrgyz - they all bear a pronounced Mongoloid element in their appearance.
Racial diversity is observed even among peoples who speak the same language. Among the Tatars of Kazan you can find blue-eyed blonds and black-haired people with slanted eyes. The same thing is observed in Uzbekistan, where it is impossible to deduce the appearance of a typical Uzbek.
Faith
Most Turks are Muslims, professing the Sunni branch of this religion. Only in Azerbaijan do they adhere to Shiism. However, some peoples either retained ancient beliefs or became adherents of other great religions. Most Chuvash and Gagauz people profess Christianity in its Orthodox form.
In the northeast of Eurasia, individual peoples continue to adhere to the faith of their ancestors; among the Yakuts, Altaians, and Tuvans, traditional beliefs and shamanism continue to be popular.
During the time of the Khazar Kaganate, the inhabitants of this empire professed Judaism, which today's Karaites, fragments of that mighty Turkic power, continue to perceive as the only true religion.
Vocabulary
Together with world civilization, Turkic languages also developed, absorbing the vocabulary of neighboring peoples and generously endowing them with their own words. It is difficult to count the number of borrowed Turkic words in East Slavic languages. It all started with the Bulgars, from whom the words “drip” were borrowed, from which “kapishche”, “suvart” arose, transformed into “serum”. Later, instead of “whey” they began to use the common Turkic “yogurt”.
The exchange of vocabulary became especially lively during the Golden Horde and the late Middle Ages, during active trade with Turkic countries. A huge number of new words came into use: donkey, cap, sash, raisin, shoe, chest and others. Later, only the names of specific terms began to be borrowed, for example, snow leopard, elm, dung, kishlak.
Turkic languages– languages of the Altai macrofamily; several dozen living and dead languages of Central and South-West Asia, Eastern Europe.There are 4 groups Turkic languages: northern, western, eastern, southern.
According to the classification of Alexander Samoilovich, Turkic languages are divided into 6 groups:
p-group or Bulgarian (with Chuvash language);
d-group or Uyghur (north-eastern) inclusive of Uzbek;
Tau group or Kipchak, or Polovtsian (northwestern): Tatar, Bashkir, Kazakh, Karachay-Balkar, Kumyk, Crimean Tatar;
Tag-lik group or Chagatai (southeastern);
Tag-li group or Kipchak-Turkmen;
ol-group or Oguz languages (southwestern) Turkish (Osmanli), Azerbaijani, Turkmen, as well as the southern coastal dialects of the Crimean Tatar language.
About 157 million speakers (2005). Main languages: Turkish, Tatar, Turkmen, Uzbek, Uyghur, Chuvash language.
Writing
The most ancient monuments writing in Turkic languages - from the VI-VII centuries. Ancient Turkic runic writing - Tur. Orhun Yaz?tlar?, whale. ? ? ? ?? - a writing system used in Central Asia for recordings in Turkic languages in the 8th-12th centuries. From the 13th century. – On an Arabic graphic basis: in the 20th century. The graphics of most Turkic languages underwent Latinization, and subsequently Russification. The writing of the Turkish language from 1928 on a Latin basis: from the 1990s, the Latinized writing of other Turkic languages: Azerbaijani, Turkmen, Uzbek, Crimean Tatar.
Agglutinative system
Turkic languages belong to the so-called agglutinative languages. Inflection in such languages occurs by adding affixes to the original form of the word, clarifying or changing the meaning of the word. Turkic languages do not have prefixes or endings. Let's compare Turkish: dost"Friend", dostum"my friend" (where um– indicator of ownership of the first person singular: “my”), dotumda"at my friend's place" (where da– case indicator), dostlar"friends" (where lar– plural indicator), dostlar?mdan “from my friends” (where lar– plural indicator, ?m– indicator of belonging to the first person singular: “my”, dan– indicator of separable case). The same system of affixes is applied to verbs, which can ultimately lead to the creation of such compound words as gorusturulmek"to be forced to communicate with each other." The inflection of nouns in almost all Turkic languages has 6 cases (except Yakut), the plurality is conveyed by the suffix lar / ler. Affiliation is expressed through a system of personal affixes attached to the stem.
Synharmonism
Another feature of the Turkic languages is synharmonism, which manifests itself in the fact that the affixes attached to the root have several variants of the loudness - depending on the vowel of the root. In the root itself, if it consists of more than one vowel, there may also be vowels of only one back or front rise). Thus we have (examples from Turkish): friend dost, speech dil, day gun; My friend dost um my speech dil im, my day gun um; Friends dost lar, language dil ler, days gun ler.
In the Uzbek language synharmonism is lost: friend do"st, speech til, day kun; My friend do"st im my speech til im, my day kun im; Friends do"st lar, language til lar, days kun lar.
Other Characteristics
A feature of the Turkic languages is the absence of stress in words, that is, words are pronounced syllable by syllable.
The system of demonstrative pronouns is three-membered: closer, further, distant (Turkish bu - su - o). There are two types of personal endings in the conjugation system: the first - phonetically modified personal pronouns - appears in most tense forms: the second type - associated with possessive affixes - is used only in the past tense on di and in the subjunctive mood. Negation has different indicators for verb (ma/ba) and nouns (degil).
The formation of syntactic combinations - both attributive and predicative - is the same in type: the dependent word precedes the main word. A characteristic syntactic phenomenon is the Turkic izafet: kibrit kutu-su – letters“Match box it”, i.e. "matchbox" or "box of matches".
Turkic languages in Ukraine
Several Turkic languages are represented in Ukraine: Crimean Tatar (with the trans-Crimean diaspora - about 700 thousand), Gagauz (together with the Moldovan Gagauz - about 170 thousand people), as well as the Urum language - a variant of the Crimean Tatar language of the Azov Greeks.
According to the historical conditions of the formation of the Turkic population, the Crimean Tatar language developed as a typologically heterogeneous language: its three main dialects (steppe, middle, southern) belong, respectively, to the Kipchak-Nogai, Kipchak-Polovtsian and Oghuz types of Turkic languages.
The ancestors of modern Gagauz people moved at the beginning of the 19th century. from Mon.-Shu. Bulgaria in what was then Bessarabia; Over time, their language experienced a strong influence from neighboring Romanian and Slavic languages (the appearance of softened consonants, a specific back vowel of the middle rise, b, which correlates in the system of vowel harmony with the front vowels E).
The dictionary contains numerous borrowings from Greek, Italian (in Crimean Tatar), Persian, Arabic, and Slavic languages.
Borrowings to the Ukrainian language
Many borrowings from Turkic languages came many centuries before the Ukrainian language: Cossack, tobacco, bag, banner, horde, herd, shepherd, sausage, gang, yasyr, whip, ataman, esaul, horse (komoni), boyar, horse, bargaining, trade, chumak (already in the dictionary of Mahmud Kashgar, 1074), pumpkin, square, kosh, koshevoy, kobza, ravine, Bakai, cone, bunchuk, ochkur, beshmet, bashlyk, watermelon, bugay, cauldron, dun, pale, damask steel, whip, cap, trump card, plague, ravine, turban, goods, comrade, balyk, lasso, yogurt: later whole designs came: I have one - probably also from the Turk. bende var (cf., however, Finnish), let's go instead of “let's go” (via Russian), etc.
Many Turkic geographical names preserved in the steppe Ukraine and in the Crimea: Crimea, Bakhchisarai, Sasyk, Kagarlyk, Tokmak, the historical names of Odessa - Hadzhibey, Simferopol - Akmescit, Berislav - Kizikermen, Belgorod-Dnestrovsky - Akkerman. Kyiv also had a Turkic name – Mankermen “Tinomisto”. Typical surnames of Turkic origin are Kochubey, Sheremeta, Bagalei, Krymsky.
From the language of the Cumans alone (whose state existed for more than 200 years in the Middle Dnieper region), the following words were borrowed: mace, mound, koschey (member of the koshu, servant). The names of settlements like (G) Uman, Kumancha remind us of the Cumans-Polovtsians: the numerous Pechenizhins remind us of the Pechenegs.
a language family distributed from Turkey in the west to Xinjiang in the east and from the coast of the East Siberian Sea in the north to Khorasan in the south. Speakers of these languages live compactly in the CIS countries (Azerbaijanis in Azerbaijan, Turkmen in Turkmenistan, Kazakhs in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz in Kyrgyzstan, Uzbeks in Uzbekistan; Kumyks, Karachais, Balkars, Chuvash, Tatars, Bashkirs, Nogais, Yakuts, Tuvinians, Khakassians, Altai Mountains in Russia; Gagauz in the Transnistrian Republic) and beyond its borders in Turkey (Turks) and China (Uyghurs). Currently total number There are about 120 million native speakers of Turkic languages. The Turkic family of languages is part of the Altai macrofamily.
The very first (3rd century BC, according to glottochronology) the Bulgarian group separated from the Proto-Turkic community (according to other terminology R-languages). The only living representative of this group is the Chuvash language. Individual glosses are known in written monuments and borrowings in neighboring languages from the medieval languages of the Volga and Danube Bulgars. The remaining Turkic languages (“common Turkic” or “Z-languages”) are usually classified into 4 groups: “southwestern” or “Oghuz” languages (main representatives: Turkish, Gagauz, Azerbaijani, Turkmen, Afshar, coastal Crimean Tatar) , “northwestern” or “Kypchak” languages (Karaite, Crimean Tatar, Karachay-Balkar, Kumyk, Tatar, Bashkir, Nogai, Karakalpak, Kazakh, Kyrgyz), “southeastern” or “Karluk” languages (Uzbek, Uyghur), “north-eastern” languages a genetically heterogeneous group, including: a) the Yakut subgroup (Yakut and Dolgan languages), which separated from the common Turkic, according to glottochronological data, before its final collapse, in the 3rd century. AD; b) Sayan group (Tuvan and Tofalar languages); c) Khakass group (Khakass, Shor, Chulym, Saryg-Yugur); d) Gorno-Altai group (Oirot, Teleut, Tuba, Lebedin, Kumandin). The southern dialects of the Gorno-Altai group are close in a number of parameters to the Kyrgyz language, together with it constituting the “Central-Eastern group” of Turkic languages; some dialects of the Uzbek language clearly belong to the Nogai subgroup of the Kipchak group; Khorezm dialects of the Uzbek language belong to the Oghuz group; Some of the Siberian dialects of the Tatar language are moving closer to the Chulym-Turkic.
The earliest deciphered written monuments of the Turks date back to the 7th century. AD (steles written in runic script, found on the Orkhon River in northern Mongolia). Throughout their history, the Turks used the Turkic runic (apparently dating back to the Sogdian script), Uyghur script (later passed from them to the Mongols), Brahmi, Manichaean script, and Arabic script. Currently, writing systems based on the Arabic, Latin and Cyrillic alphabet are common.
According to historical sources, information about the Turkic peoples first surfaces in connection with the appearance of the Huns in the historical arena. The steppe empire of the Huns, like all known formations of this kind, was not monoethnic; judging by the linguistic material that has reached us, there was a Turkic element in it. Moreover, the dating of the initial information about the Huns (in Chinese historical sources) is 43 centuries. BC. coincides with the glottochronological determination of the time of separation of the Bulgar group. Therefore, a number of scientists directly connect the beginning of the movement of the Huns with the separation and departure of the Bulgars to the west. The ancestral home of the Turks is placed in the northwestern part of the Central Asian plateau, between the Altai and northern part Khingan Range. From the south-east they were in contact with the Mongol tribes, from the west their neighbors were the Indo-European peoples of the Tarim basin, from the north-west the Ural and Yenisei peoples, from the north the Tungus-Manchus.
By the 1st century. BC. separate tribal groups of the Huns moved to the territory of modern Southern Kazakhstan in the 4th century. AD The Huns' invasion of Europe begins towards the end of the 5th century. in Byzantine sources the ethnonym “Bulgars” appears, denoting a confederation of tribes of Hunnic origin that occupied the steppe between the Volga and Danube basins. Subsequently, the Bulgar confederation is divided into the Volga-Bulgar and Danube-Bulgar parts.
After the breakaway of the “Bulgars,” the remaining Turks continued to remain in the territory close to their ancestral home until the 6th century. AD, when, after the victory over the Ruan-Rhuan confederation (part of the Xianbi, presumably the proto-Mongols, who defeated and ousted the Huns at one time), they formed the Turkic confederation, which dominated from the mid-6th to the mid-7th century. over a vast territory from the Amur to the Irtysh. Historical sources do not provide information about the moment of the split from the Turkic community of the ancestors of the Yakuts. The only way to connect the ancestors of the Yakuts with some historical reports is to identify them with the Kurykans of the Orkhon inscriptions, who belonged to the Teles confederation, absorbed by the Turkuts. They were localized at this time, apparently, to the east of Lake Baikal. Judging by the mentions in the Yakut epic, the main advance of the Yakuts to the north is associated with a much later time - the expansion of the empire of Genghis Khan.
In 583, the Turkic confederation was divided into western (with a center in Talas) and eastern Turkuts (otherwise the “blue Turks”), the center of which remained the former center of the Turkic empire Kara-Balgasun on the Orkhon. Apparently, the collapse of the Turkic languages into the western (Oghuz, Kipchaks) and eastern (Siberia; Kyrgyz; Karluks) macrogroups is associated with this event. In 745, the eastern Turkuts were defeated by the Uyghurs (localized southwest of Lake Baikal and presumably at first non-Turkic, but by that time already Turkified). Both the Eastern Turkic and Uyghur states experienced strong cultural influence from China, but they were no less influenced by the Eastern Iranians, primarily Sogdian merchants and missionaries; in 762 Manichaeism became state religion Uyghur Empire.
In 840, the Uyghur state centered on the Orkhon was destroyed by the Kyrgyz (from the upper reaches of the Yenisei; presumably also initially non-Turkic, but by this time a Turkic people), the Uyghurs fled to East Turkestan, where in 847 they founded a state with the capital Kocho (in the Turfan oasis). From here the main monuments of the ancient Uighur language and culture have reached us. Another group of fugitives settled in what is now the Chinese province of Gansu; their descendants may be the Saryg-Yugurs. The entire northeastern group of Turks, except the Yakuts, can also go back to the Uyghur conglomerate, as part of the Turkic population of the former Uyghur Khaganate, which moved north, deeper into the taiga, already during the Mongol expansion.
In 924, the Kyrgyz were forced out of the Orkhon state by the Khitans (presumably Mongols by language) and partially returned to the upper reaches of the Yenisei, partially moved west, to the southern spurs of Altai. Apparently, the formation of the Central-Eastern group of Turkic languages can be traced back to this South Altai migration.
The Turfan state of the Uyghurs existed for a long time next to another Turkic state, which was dominated by the Karluks - a Turkic tribe that originally lived to the east of the Uyghurs, but by 766 moved west and subjugated the state of the Western Turkuts, whose tribal groups spread to the steppes of Turan (Ili-Talas region , Sogdiana, Khorasan and Khorezm; while Iranians lived in the cities). At the end of the 8th century. Karluk Khan Yabgu converted to Islam. The Karluks gradually assimilated the Uyghurs living to the east, and the Uyghur literary language served as the basis for the literary language of the Karluk (Karakhanid) state.
Part of the tribes of the Western Turkic Kaganate were Oghuz. Of these, the Seljuk confederation stood out, which at the turn of the 1st millennium AD. migrated west through Khorasan to Asia Minor. Apparently, the linguistic consequence of this movement was the formation of the southwestern group of Turkic languages. Around the same time (and, apparently, in connection with these events) there was a mass migration to the Volga-Ural steppes and Eastern Europe of tribes that represented the ethnic basis of the current Kipchak languages.
The phonological systems of the Turkic languages are characterized by a number of general properties. In the field of consonantism, restrictions on the occurrence of phonemes in the position of the beginning of a word, a tendency to weaken in the initial position, and restrictions on the compatibility of phonemes are common. At the beginning of the original Turkic words do not occur l,r,n, ,z. Noisy plosives are usually contrasted by strength/weakness (Eastern Siberia) or by dullness/voice. At the beginning of a word, the opposition of consonants in terms of deafness/voicedness (strength/weakness) is found only in the Oguz and Sayan groups; in most other languages, at the beginning of words, labial voiced, dental and back lingual deaf. Uvulars in most Turkic languages are allophones of velars with back vowels. The following types of historical changes in the consonant system are classified as significant. a) In the Bulgarian group, in most positions there is a voiceless fricative lateral l coincided with l in sound in l; r And r V r. In other Turkic languages l gave , r gave z, l And r preserved. In relation to this process, all Turkologists are divided into two camps: some call it rotacism-lambdaism, others call it zetacism-sigmatism, and their non-recognition or recognition of the Altai kinship of languages is statistically connected with this, respectively. b) Intervocalic d(pronounced as an interdental fricative ð) gives r in Chuvash t in Yakut, d in the Sayan languages and Khalaj (an isolated Turkic language in Iran), z in the Khakass group and j in other languages; accordingly, they talk about r-,t-,d-,z- And j- languages.
The vocalism of most Turkic languages is characterized by synharmonism (similarity of vowels within one word) in row and roundness; The synharmonic system is also being reconstructed for Proto-Turkic. Synharmonism disappeared in the Karluk group (as a result of which the opposition of velars and uvulars was phonologized there). In the New Uyghur language, a certain semblance of synharmonism is again being built - the so-called “Uyghur umlaut”, the preemption of wide unrounded vowels before the next i(which goes back to both the front *i, and to the rear * ï ). In Chuvash, the entire vowel system has changed greatly, and the old synharmonicism has disappeared (its trace is the opposition k from velar in anterior word and x from the uvular in a back-row word), but then a new synharmonism was built along the row, taking into account the current phonetic characteristics of vowels. The long/short opposition of vowels that existed in Proto-Turkic was preserved in the Yakut and Turkmen languages (and in residual form in other Oguz languages, where voiceless consonants were voiced after the old long vowels, as well as in Sayan, where short vowels before voiceless consonants receive the sign of “pharyngealization”) ; in other Turkic languages it disappeared, but in many languages long vowels reappeared after the loss of intervocalic voiced ones (Tuvinsk. sō"tub" *sagu etc.). In Yakut, the primary wide long vowels turned into rising diphthongs.
In all modern Turkic languages there is a force stress, which is morphonologically fixed. In addition, for Siberian languages, tonal and phonation contrasts were noted, although not fully described.
From the point of view of morphological typology, Turkic languages belong to the agglutinative, suffixal type. Moreover, if the Western Turkic languages are a classic example of agglutinative ones and have almost no fusion, then the eastern ones, like the Mongolian languages, develop a powerful fusion.
Grammatical categories of names in Turkic languages: number, belonging, case. The order of affixes is: stem + aff. numbers + aff. accessories + case aff. Plural form h. is usually formed by adding an affix to the stem -lar(in Chuvash -sem). In all Turkic languages the plural form is h. is marked, unit form. Part unmarked. In particular, in the generic meaning and with numerals the singular form is used. numbers (Kumyk. men at gördüm " I (actually) saw horses."
Case systems include: a) nominative (or main) case with a zero indicator; the form with a zero case indicator is used not only as a subject and a nominal predicate, but also as an indefinite direct object, an applicative definition and with many postpositions; b) accusative case (aff. *- (ï )g) case of a definite direct object; c) genitive case (aff.) case of specific referential adjective definition; d) dative-directive (aff. *-a/*-ka); e) local (aff. *-ta); e) ablative (aff. *-tïn). The Yakut language rebuilt its case system according to the model of the Tungus-Manchu languages. Usually there are two types of declension: nominal and possessive-nominal (declension of words with aff. affiliation of the 3rd person; case affixes take a slightly different form in this case).
An adjective in Turkic languages differs from a noun in the absence of inflectional categories. Having received the syntactic function of a subject or object, the adjective also acquires all the inflectional categories of the noun.
Pronouns change by case. Personal pronouns are available for 1st and 2nd persons (* bi/ben"I", * si/sen"You", * Bir"We", *sir“you”), demonstrative pronouns are used in the third person. Demonstrative pronouns in most languages have three degrees of range, e.g. bu"this", u"this remote" (or "this" when indicated by hand), ol"That". Interrogative pronouns distinguish between animate and inanimate ( kim"who" and ne"What").
In a verb, the order of affixes is as follows: verb stem (+ aff. voice) (+ aff. negation (- ma-)) + aff. mood/aspect-temporal + aff. conjugations for persons and numbers (in brackets affixes that are not necessarily present in the word form).
Voices of the Turkic verb: active (without indicators), passive (*- ïl), return ( *-ïn-), mutual ( * -ï- ) and causative ( *-t-,*-ïr-,*-tïr- and some etc.). These indicators can be combined with each other (cum. gur-yush-"see", ger-yush-dir-"to make you see each other" yaz-holes-"make you write" tongue-hole-yl-"to be forced to write").
The conjugated forms of the verb are divided into proper verbal and non-verbal. The first ones have personal indicators that go back to the affixes of belonging (except for 1 l. plural and 3 l. plural). These include the past categorical tense (aorist) in the indicative mood: verb stem + indicator - d- + personal indicators: bar-d-ïm"I went" oqu-d-u-lar"they read"; means a completed action, the fact of which is beyond doubt. This also includes the conditional mood (verb stem + -sa-+ personal indicators); desired mood (verb stem + -aj- + personal indicators: Proto-Turkic. * bar-aj-ïm"let me go" * bar-aj-ïk"let's go"); imperative mood(pure verb stem in 2 liters units and stem + in 2 l. pl. h.).
Non-proper verb forms historically gerunds and participles in the function of a predicate, formalized by the same indicators of predicability as nominal predicates, namely postpositive personal pronouns. For example: ancient Turkic. ( ben)beg ben"I bek", ben anca tir ben"I say so", lit. “I say so-I.” There are different gerunds of the present tense (or simultaneity) (stem + -a), uncertain-future (base + -Vr, Where V vowel of varying quality), precedence (stem + -ip), desired mood (stem + -g aj); perfect participle (stem + -g an), postocular, or descriptive (stem + -mï), definite-future tense (base +) and many more. etc. The affixes of gerunds and participles do not carry voice oppositions. Participles with predicate affixes, as well as participles with auxiliary verbs in proper and improper verbal forms (numerous existential, phase, modal verbs, verbs of motion, verbs “take” and “give”) express a variety of accomplished, modal, directional and accommodative meanings, cf. Kumyk bara bolgayman"looks like I'm going" ( go- deepr. simultaneity become- deepr. desirable -I), Ishley Goremen"I am going to work" ( work- deepr. simultaneity look- deepr. simultaneity -I), language"write it down (for yourself)" ( write- deepr. precedence take it). Various verbal names of action are used as infinitives in various Turkic languages.
From the point of view of syntactic typology, Turkic languages belong to the languages of the nominative structure with the predominant word order “subject object predicate”, preposition of definition, preference for postpositions over prepositions. There is an isafet design with the membership indicator for the word being defined ( at ba-ï"horse head", lit. "horse head-her") In a coordinating phrase, usually all grammatical indicators are attached to the last word.
The general rules for the formation of subordinating phrases (including sentences) are cyclical: any subordinating combination can be inserted as one of the members into any other, and the connection indicators are attached to the main member of the built-in combination (the verb form in this case turns into the corresponding participle or gerund). Wed: Kumyk. ak saqal"white beard" ak sakal-ly gishi"white bearded man" booth-la-ny ara-son-yes"between the booths" booth-la-ny ara-son-da-gyy el-well orta-son-da"in the middle of the path passing between the booths" sen ok atgyang"you shot an arrow" Sep ok atgyanyng-ny gördyum“I saw you shoot the arrow” (“you shot the arrow 2 liters units vin. case I saw”). When a predicative combination is inserted in this way, they often speak of the “Altai type of complex sentence”; indeed, Turkic and other Altaic languages show a clear preference for such absolute constructions with the verb in the non-finite form over subordinate clauses. The latter, however, are also used; used for communication in complex sentences allied words interrogative pronouns (in subordinate clauses) and correlative words demonstrative pronouns (in main sentences).
The main part of the vocabulary of the Turkic languages is original, often having parallels in other Altai languages. A comparison of the general vocabulary of the Turkic languages allows us to get an idea of the world in which the Turks lived during the collapse of the Proto-Turkic community: the landscape, fauna and flora of the southern taiga in Eastern Siberia, on the border with the steppe; metallurgy of the early Iron Age; economic structure of the same period; transhumance cattle breeding based on horse breeding (using horse meat for food) and sheep breeding; agriculture in an auxiliary function; the great role of developed hunting; two types of housing: winter stationary and summer portable; fairly developed social division on a tribal basis; appears to be a somewhat codified system legal relations during active trading; a set of religious and mythological concepts characteristic of shamanism. In addition, of course, such “basic” vocabulary as names of body parts, verbs of movement, sensory perception, etc. is restored.
In addition to the original Turkic vocabulary, modern Turkic languages use a large number of borrowings from languages with whose speakers the Turks have ever been in contact. These are primarily Mongolian borrowings (in the Mongolian languages there are many borrowings from the Turkic languages; there are also cases when a word was borrowed first from the Turkic languages into the Mongolian ones, and then back, from the Mongolian languages into the Turkic languages, cf. ancient Uyghur. irbii, Tuvinsk irbi"leopard" > Mong. irbis > Kyrgyzstan irbis). In the Yakut language there are many Tungus-Manchu borrowings, in Chuvash and Tatar they are borrowed from the Finno-Ugric languages of the Volga region (as well as vice versa). A significant part of the “cultural” vocabulary has been borrowed: in ancient Uyghur there are many borrowings from Sanskrit and Tibetan, primarily from Buddhist terminology; in the languages of Muslim Turkic peoples there are many Arabisms and Persianisms; in the languages of the Turkic peoples that were part of Russian Empire and the USSR, many Russian borrowings, including internationalisms like communism,tractor,political economy. On the other hand, there are many Turkic borrowings in the Russian language. The earliest borrowings from the Danubian-Bulgarian language into Old Church Slavonic ( book, drip"idol" in the word temple“pagan temple” and so on), from there they came to Russian; there are also borrowings from Bulgarian into Old Russian (as well as into other Slavic languages): serum(common Turkic) *jogurt, bulg. *suvart), bursa“Persian silk fabric” (Chuvash. porcin * bariun Middle-Persian *apareum; trade between pre-Mongol Rus' and Persia went along the Volga through the Great Bulgar). A large number of cultural vocabulary was borrowed into the Russian language from the late medieval Turkic languages in the 14th-17th centuries. (during the time of the Golden Horde and even more later, during times of brisk trade with the surrounding Turkic states: ass, pencil, raisin,shoe, iron,Altyn,arshin,coachman,Armenian,ditch,dried apricots and many more etc.). In more late times The Russian language borrowed from Turkic only words denoting local Turkic realities ( snow leopard,ayran,kobyz,sultanas,village,elm). Contrary to popular belief, there are no Turkic borrowings among Russian obscene (obscene) vocabulary; almost all of these words are Slavic in origin.
Turkic languages. In the book: Languages of the Peoples of the USSR, vol. II. L., 1965
Baskakov N.A. Introduction to the Study of Turkic Languages. M., 1968
Comparative-historical grammar of the Turkic languages. Phonetics. M., 1984
Comparative-historical grammar of the Turkic languages. Syntax. M., 1986
Comparative-historical grammar of the Turkic languages. Morphology. M., 1988
Gadzhieva N.Z. Turkic languages. Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary. M., 1990
Turkic languages. In the book: Languages of the world. M., 1997
Comparative-historical grammar of the Turkic languages. Vocabulary. M., 1997
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