1941 Scientists William Shockley, Walter Brattein and John Bardin announced the creation transistor, and 1947 the invention was the official submitted to the public. It is this date that it is customary to consider the day of the invention. transistor. But a great trip to the "country of semiconductors" began in 1833, when Michael Faraday found that silver sulfide electrical conductivity increases when heated. And only after 125 years in America on the basis of another semiconductor, Germany, a microcircuit was created.
New invention
On the first demonstration transistor The newspaper "New York Times" reported 1948 on the penultimate page: "Yesterday, Bell Telephone Laboratories demonstrated invented the device invented by it "transistor"His in some cases can be used in the field of radio engineering instead of electronic lamps. It also shows its use in the telephone system and television device. In each of these cases transistor He worked as an amplifier, although the firm declares that it can be applied both as a generator capable of creating and transmitting radio waves. "
News, according to the editor, did not resemble a sensation. The public did not initially show interest in the new instrument, and Bell tried to promote a novelty, distributing licenses for use transistor Everyone. And investors meanwhile made millions of investments in radiolm views, which after thirty years of development experienced a boom, - the end to him precisely the new invention.
Ssed lamp
Until the middle of the twentieth century, it seemed that the electronic lamp was forever took a place in electronics. She worked everywhere: in radio receivers and televisions, tape recorders and radar. The radio electronic lamp strongly sweating the Brown Crystal Detector, leaving him only in detector receivers. It was also possible to make competition and crystadine Losev - it was a preamune of future semiconductor transistors.
But the lamp was a big drawback - a limited service life. The need to create a new element with an unlimited time action was becoming more acute in electronics. But, as not paradoxically, the development of semiconductor devices slowed down, except for objective reasons, also subjective - inertia of the thinking of scientists themselves. It is enough to say that the laboratory of the American company "Bell Telefon", where studies with ultrapure Germany were conducted, colleagues were negliguratedly called the "hut of unnecessary materials".
Long competitors
Experts, for the first time, seeing the laminar Germany with the conductor attached to it, said: "Such a primitive will never be able to replace the lamp." And yet, not paying attention to all obstacles, 1948, the company "Bell Telefon" for the first time publicly demonstrated a solid-state amplifier - point transistor. His year earlier developed employees John Bardin and Walter Brattein under the leadership of William Shockley.
To the question of a journalist: "How did you achieve this?", William Shokley replied: " Transistor Created as a result of the combination of human effort, needs and circumstances. "
Name "transistor" Comes from the English word TransferResistance, and the end of the word - "or" corresponds to the early appeared radio elements - the "thermistor and the varistor" and gave it to John Pierce. The name is based on the fact that the device can be controlled by changing its resistance.
Bardin Shocley and Broth in Laboratory Bell, 1948
In 1956, the Tormary American scientist for this discovery was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics. Interestingly, when John Bardine was late for a press conference on the award to him by this award, then entering the hall, he said in his justification: "I apologize to me, but I am not guilty, because I could not get into the garage: refused transistor In the electronic lock. "
Transistors in music
William Shockley did not stop at the achieved and developed several more new types transistors. These works of their employee, the company's experts showed skepticism. Experts of the Japanese company "Sony" were more far from, she acquired a license for these transistors.
Fully oust radiolamp transistor It has not yet been possible. It is probably necessary to argue that semiconductor devices and electronic lamps will coexist for a long time, without replacing each other, and supplementing, and take the place in the radio electronics where they give the greatest effect.
It does not make an exception and music industry, since the sound transistors And the lamps are seriously different from each other. Obviously, the use of technology built on such unrestricted components should be different. Apparently, in some cases the lamp is preferable, and in some - transistor.
With the modern development of electronics, there is an opportunity to make the sound of a transistor device with warm, and a lamp is reliable. This technique exists, but it is very expensive.
Nevertheless, there is hope that in the future lamp and transistor They will live together, complementing each other and glad to consumers. Reviews about the combined equipment today are very encouraging.
Transistor Updated: November 20, 2017 by the author: Elena
Ministry of Common and Vocational Education
Rostov region
State educational institution of secondary vocational education "Novocherkiy mechanics_Technological college im.A.D. Zureups »
"The history of the invention of the transistor"
Introduction
1. The history of the transistor
2. First transistor
3. Creating a bipolar transistor
4. "Cold War" and its effect on electronics
5. The first Soviet transistors
6. Field transistors
7. Scope of the transistor
Introduction
It is difficult to find such a branch of science and technology, which just as rapidly developed and had the same impact on all parties to human life, each individual and society as a whole as electronics. As an independent direction of science and technology, the electronics was formed due to the electron lamp. First, radio communication, broadcasting, radar, television, then electronic control systems, computing equipment, etc. appeared. But the electronic lamp has unreasonable disadvantages: large dimensions, high power consumption, a long time to enter the working mode, low reliability. As a result, after 2-3 dozen years of existence, the lamp electronics in many applications approached the limit of their capabilities. The electronic lamp required a more compact, economical and reliable replacement. And it was found in the form of a semiconductor transistor. Its creation rightly consider one of the greatest achievements of the scientific and technical thought of the twentieth century, which has radically changed the world. It was noted by the Nobel Prize in Physics, awarded in 1956 by Americans John Bardin, Walter Brattein and William Shockley. But the Nobel Troika had predecessors in different countries. And this is understandable. The appearance of transistors is the result of many years of work of many outstanding scientists and specialists who developed the semiconductor science during previous decades. Soviet scientists have made a huge contribution to this common cause. A lot was done by the school of physics of semiconductors academician A.F. Ioffe - pioneer of world research on physics of semiconductors. Back in 1931, he published an article with a prophetic title: "Semiconductors are new electronics materials." Considerable merit in the study of semiconductors contributed by B.V. Kurchatov and V.P. Juse. In his work, "to the issue of electrical conductivity of copper zakis" in 1932, they showed that the value and type of electrical conductivity is determined by the concentration and nature of the impurity. Soviet physicist Ya.N. Frankel created the theory of excitement in semiconductors of paired charge carriers: electrons and holes. In 1931, the Englishman Wilson managed to create a neutral model of a semiconductor, formulating the foundations of the "zone theory of semiconductors". In 1938, Mott in England, B. Davydov in the USSR, Walter Schottki in Germany independently of each other offered the theory of rectifying the contact of the metal semiconductor. In 1939, B.Davydov published the work "Diffusion theory of straightening in semiconductors". In 1941, V. E. Lashkarev published the article "Investigation of the locking layers by the method of terrambose" and in collaboration with K. M. Kososogova - an article "The influence of impurities on the valve photoeff in copper." He described the physics of the "shut-off layer" on the border of the "Copper - Copper" section, subsequently called the "P-N" by the transition. In 1946, V. Hoshkarev opened a bipolar diffusion of non-equilibrium current carriers in semiconductors. It was also disclosed by the injection mechanism - the most important phenomenon, on the basis of which semiconductor diodes and transistors operate. A great contribution to the study of the properties of semiconductors was made by I.V. Kurchatov, Yu.M. Kushnir, L.D. Landau, V.M.Tuchkevich, J.I. Alferov, etc. Thus, by the end of the forties of the twentieth century, the basis of the theoretical The databases for creating transistors were worked out deep enough to start practical work.
1. The history of the transistor
The first attempt to create a crystalline amplifier in the United States took German physicist Julius Lilienfeld, patented in 1930, 1932 and 1933. Three versions of the amplifier based on copper sulfide. In 1935, the German Oscar Heil received a British patent for an amplifier based on Penoxide Vanadium. In 1938, the German physicist Paul has created a valid sample of a crystalline amplifier on a heated crystal of potassium bromide. In the pre-war years in Germany and England, several more similar patents were issued. These amplifiers can be considered a prototype of modern field transistors. However, it was not possible to build steadily working devices, because At that time, there were no fairly clean materials and technologies for their processing. In the first half of the thirties, point triodes produced two radio amateurs - Canadian Larry Kaiser and the thirteen-year-old New Zealand schoolboy Robert Adams. In June 1948 (before the promulgation of the transistor), they made their own version of the point Germany trigger, called them by the transitron, who lived in France in France, Robert Paul and Rudolf Hilsh. In early 1949, transitron production was organized, they were applied in telephone equipment, and worked better and longer than American transistors. In Russia in the 20s, in Nizhny Novgorod, O.V. Solev observed the transistor effect in the system of three to four contacts on the surface of silicon and corrund. In mid-1939, he wrote: "... with semiconductors, a three-electrode system, similar to the trio, can be built, but carried away by the LED effect on them and did not implement this idea. Many roads led to the transistor.
The above described examples of projects and samples of transistors were the results of local bursts of the thought of talented or successful people, not supported by sufficient economic and organizational support and not played a serious role in the development of electronics. J. Bardin, U. Brattein and W. Shockley were in the best conditions. They worked on the world's only targeted long-term (more than 5 years) program with sufficient financial and material support at Bell Telephone Laboratories, then one of the most powerful and high-tech in the United States. Their work was launched in the second half of the thirties, the work was headed by Joseph Becker, who was attracted to her a high-class theorist W. Shokley and a brilliant experimentator of U. Broth. In 1939, Shocley put forward the idea to change the conductivity of the fine plates of the semiconductor (copper oxide), affecting it an external electric field. It was something resembling and patent Y. Lilienfeld, and later made and became a massive field transistor. In 1940, Shockley and Brattein adopted a successful decision to limit research only by simple elements - Germany and silicon. However, all attempts to build a solid-state amplifier have not led to anything, and after Parl Harbor (the practical principle of World War II for the United States) were laid in a long box. Shokkley and Brattein were sent to a research center that was working to create radar. In 1945, both returned to Bell Labs. There, under the leadership of Shokli, a strong team was created from physicists, chemists and engineers to work on solid-state devices. It included U. Broth and theoretics of J. Bardin. Shokley oriented a group to implement his pre-war idea. But the device stubbornly refused to work, and Shocley, having commissioned Bardin and broth to bring him to mind, almost eliminated this topic himself. Two years of stubborn labor brought only negative results. Bardin suggested that excess electrons are firmly settled in near-surface areas and shielded an external field. This hypothesis suggested further actions. The flat control electrode was replaced by the edge, trying to act locally on a thin near-surface layer of the semiconductor.
One day, broths inadvertently nearly closely brought together two needle electrodes on the surface of Germany, and even confused the polarity of supply voltages, and suddenly noticed the effect of the current of one electrode on the other. Bardin instantly appreciated the error. And on December 16, 1947, they earned a solid-state amplifier, which is considered the world's first transistor. It is very simple - on a metal substrate-electrode lay a plate Germany, where two closely located (10-15 microns) of contact was resting. These contacts were originally made. The triangular plastic knife wrapped in a golden foil, cut on the top of the triangle. The triangle pressed against the germanium plate with a special spring made of curved stationery clips. A week later, on December 23, 1947, the device was demonstrated by the company's management, this day and is considered the date of birth of the transistor. Everyone was happy with the result, except Shockli: it turned out that he, before all, who he had a semiconductor amplifier, who led the team of specialists, who led them lectures on the quantum theory of semiconductors - did not participate in its creation. Yes, and the transistor turned out not as shockley thought: bipolar, and not field. Consequently, he could not claim co-authorship in the "Star" patent. The device has worked, but the general public is impossible to show this externally impressive design. Massed several transistors in the form of metal cylinders with a diameter of about 13 mm. And they gathered the "nele-free" radio receiver on them. On June 30, 1948, the official presentation of the new instrument was held in New York (from the English TransVer Resistor - the resistance transformer). But experts did not immediately appreciate his capabilities. Experts from Pentagon "sentenced" transistor to use only in hearing aids for old people. So the myopia of the military saved the transistor from classifying. The presentation remained almost unnoticed, only a pair of paragraphs about the transistor appeared in the New York Time on 46 pages in the "Radio News" section. So there was a phenomenon of the world of one of the greatest discoveries of the XX century. Even manufacturers of electronic lamps that have invested many millions in their plants, in the appearance of the transistor the threat did not see. Later, in July 1948, information about this invention appeared in the magazine "The Physical Review". But only after some at the time, experts understood that a grand event was happening, which determined the further development of progress in the world. Bell Labs immediately designed a patent for this revolutionary invention, but there were mass problems with technology. The first transistors that went on sale in 1948 did not inspire optimism - it cost them shake, and the gain was changed several times, and when he was heated, they stopped working at all. But they were not equal in miniature. The devices for people with reduced hearing could be placed in the rim of the glasses! Realizing that she could hardly cope with all technological problems, Bell Labs decided on an unusual step. In early 1952, she announced that it would be fully transferred to the manufacture of a transistor to all companies, ready to lay out a rather modest amount of $ 25,000 instead of regular payments for the use of the patent, and suggested training courses on transistor technology, helping the spread of technology around the world. Gradually grew the evidence of the importance of this miniature device. The transistor was attractive for the following reasons: was sufficient, miniature, durable, consumed little power and instantly turned on (the lamps were heated for a long time). In 1953, the first commercial transistor product appeared on the market - the auditory apparatus (the pioneer in this business was made by John Kilbi from f. Centralab, who in a few years will make the world's first semiconductor chip in the world), and in October 1954 - the first transistor radio receiver REGENCY TR1, it used only four Germany transistors. Immediately began to master new devices and the computer industry, the first was IBM. The availability of technology gave its fruits - the world began to change rapidly.
3. Creating a bipolar transistor
At the ambitious W. Shokley, the incident caused a volcanic surge of his creative energy. Although J. Bardin and U. Brattein were inadvertently received not a field transistor, as shocley planned, and Bipolar, he quickly figured out in the made. Later Shockley recalled his "passion week", during which he created the theory of injection, and in the New Year's Eve invented a plane bipolar transistor without exotic needles. To create something new, Shockley glanced in a new way for a long time known - on point and planar semiconductor diodes, on the physics of operation of a plane "P - N" of the transition, easy to be theoretical analysis. Since the point transistor is two very pinned diodes, the shockles conducted theoretical studies of the pair of similarly close-in plane diodes and created the foundations of the theory of a plane bipolar transistor in a semiconductor crystal, from the two "P - N" of the transition. Plane transistors have a number of benefits before point: they are more accessible to theoretical analysis, have a lower level of noise, provide greater power and, most importantly, higher repeatability of parameters and reliability. But, perhaps, their main advantage was easily automated technology, excluding complex manufacturing operations, installation and positioning of spring-loaded needles, as well as ensuring further miniaturization of instruments. June 30, 1948 In the New York office of Bell Labs, the invention was first demonstrated by the Company's management. But it turned out that creating a serial plane transistor is much more difficult than the point. The broth and bardine transistor is an extremely simple device. His only semiconductor component was a piece of relatively clean and quite then affordable Germany. But the method of doping the semiconductors at the end of the forties necessary for the manufacture of a plane transistor was still in infancy, so the manufacture of a series-containing transistor "by shockley" was managed only in 1951. In 1954, Bell Labs developed the processes of oxidation, photolithography, diffusion, which on For many years, the basis of the production of semiconductor devices has become the basis.
The dot transistor Bardina and Broth is certainly huge progress compared to electronic lamps. But he did not become the basis of microelectronics, his eyelids turned out to be short, about 10 years. Shockley quickly understood the made by his colleagues and created a plane version of a bipolar transistor, which is alive today and will live while there is a microelectronics. He received a patent for him in 1951. And in 1952, W. Shockley created both the field of the TRANSISTOR, and they are patented. So he earned his participation in the Nobel Prize.
The number of manufacturers of transistors grew like a snowball. Bell Labs, Shockley Semiconductor, Fairchild Semiconductor, Western Electric, GSI (from December 1951 Texas Instruments), Motorola, Tokyo Cousin (since 1958 Sony), NEC and many others.
In 1950, GSI developed the first silicon transistor, and since 1954, by transforming into Texas Instruments, its serial production began.
4. "Cold War" and its effect on electronics
After the end of World War II, the world split into two hostile camps. In 1950-1953 This confrontation broke into a direct military clash - the Korean War. In fact, it was an indirect war between the United States and the USSR. At the same time, the United States was preparing for a direct war from the USSR. In 1949, the "Last Shot" plan was developed in the United States (Operation Dropshot), actually a third World War II, thermonuclear war. The plan provided for a direct attack on the USSR on January 1, 1957. During the month, it was assumed to reset 300 50-kiloton atomic and 200,000 conventional bombs on our heads. For this, the plan envisaged the development of special ballistic missiles, underwater atomic boats, aircraft carriers and many other things. So began untied the US unprecedented arms race, which lasted the whole second half of the last century, continued, not so demonstratively, and now. Under these conditions, in front of our country, withstanding the unprecedented in moral and economic terms, a four-year-old war and achieving victory at the cost of enormous efforts and victims, new giant problems arose to ensure their own and allies of security. It was urgently, taking off the resources from the exhausted war and the hungry people, to create the latest types of weapons, maintain a huge army in constant combat readiness. Thus were created atomic and hydrogen bombs, intercontinental missiles, a missile defense system and much more. Our success in ensuring the country's defense capability and the real opportunity to obtain a crushing response hit forced the United States to abandon the implementation of the "Dropshot" plan and others to him. One of the consequences of the Cold War was almost complete economic and informational isolation of opposing parties. Economic and scientific relations were very weak, and in the field of strategically important industries and new technologies were practically absent. Important discoveries, inventions, new developments in any field of knowledge that could be used in military equipment or contribute to economic development were classified. Deliveries of progressive technologies, equipment, products were prohibited. As a result, the Soviet semiconductor science and industry developed in conditions of almost complete isolation, the actual blockade from all of what was done in this area in the USA, Western Europe, and then Japan. It should also be noted that the Soviet Science and Industry in many directions then occupied the world leading position. Our fighters in the Korean War were better than American, our missiles were more powerful all, in the space in those years we were ahead of the planet of the whole, the world's first computer with a performance above 1 million. OP / s was our, a hydrogen bomb We did before the United States, ballistic The rocket was first shot down our system of pro, etc. Lay in electronics meant pulling back all other industries of science and technology. The value of semiconductor equipment in the USSR understood perfectly, but the paths and methods of its development were other than in the United States. The leadership of the country was aware that the confrontation in the Cold War can be provided by the development of defense systems managed by reliable, small-sized electronics. In 1959, such plants of semiconductor devices were founded as Aleksandrovsky, Bryansk, Voronezh, Riga, etc. In January 1961, a resolution of the CPSU Central Committee and the CFS of the USSR "On the Development of Semiconductor Industry" was adopted, which provided for the construction of factories and research institutes in Kiev , Minsk, Yerevan, Nalchik and other cities. Moreover, the base for the creation of first enterprises of the semiconductor industry has become completely not adapted for these purposes of the room (commercial technical school building in Riga, Sovipstshkol in Novgorod, a pasta factory in Bryansk, a sewing factory in Voronezh, Atelier in Zaporizhia, etc.). But back to the origins.
5. The first Soviet transistors
In the years preceding the invention of the transistor, significant successes were achieved in the USSR in the creation of Germany and silicon detectors. In these works, the original method of studying the involuntary region was used by introducing an additional needle into it, as a result of which a configuration was created, a repeating point transistor was determined. Sometimes the transistor characteristics (the effect of one "P - N" of the transition to another closely located) was detected at measurements (the influence of one "P - N"), but they were discarded as random and uninteresting abnormalities. Little in what our researchers have been inferior to American specialists, there were not only one - aimed at the transistor, and the great discovery slipped out of the hands. Since 1947, intensive work in the field of semiconductor amplifiers was conducted in TsNiy-108 (Lab. S. G. Kalashnikov) and in NII-160 (Research Institute ", Fryazino, Lab. A. V. Krasylov). In 1948, Group A. V. Krasilov, who developed Germany diodes for radar stations, also received the transistor effect and tried to explain it. About this in the magazine "Bulletin of Information" in December 1948, the article "Crystalline Triode" was published - the first publication in the USSR about the transistors. Recall that the first publication about the transistor in the United States in the magazine "The Physical Review" took place in July 1948, i.e. The results of the works of the Krasilov group were independent and almost simultaneously. Thus, the scientific and experimental base in the USSR was prepared for the creation of a semiconductor trigation (the term "transistor" was introduced into Russian in the mid-60s) and already in 1949 the laboratory A. V. Krasylov was developed and transferred to mass production The first Soviet spot Germany triododes C1 - C4. In 1950, the samples of germanium triode were developed in Fiana (B.M. Vul, A. V. Rzhanov, V. S. Vavilov, etc.), in the LFTI (V.M. Tuchkevich, D. N. Hirsya) and In Ire Academy of Sciences of the USSR (S.G. Kalashnikov, N. A. Penin et al.).
In May 1953, specialized research institutes (NII-35, later, "Pulsar") was established, the Interdepartmental Council on semiconductors was established. In 1955, the industrial production of transistors at the Svetlana plant in Leningrad began, and the factory created the OKB to develop semiconductor devices. In 1956, Moscow NII-311 with an experienced factory was renamed the Sapphire Research Institute with the Optrovil Plant and reoriented to the development of semiconductor diodes and thyristors. Over the 50s, a number of new technologies for the manufacture of plane transistors were developed in the country: an alloy, split-diffusion, mesa-diffusion. The semiconductor industry of the USSR developed quite quickly: in 1955, 96 thousand was issued, in 1957 - 2.7 million, and in 1966 more than 11 million transistors. And it was only the beginning.
6. Field transistors
The first field transistor was patented in the United States in 1926/30., 1928 / 32GG. and 1928 / 33gg. Lilienfeld is the author of these feet. He was born in 1882 in Poland. From 1910 to 1926 was a professor of the University of Leipzig. In 1926 immigrated to the United States and filed a patent application. Proposed by Lilienfeld transistors were not introduced into production. The most important feature of the invention of Lilienfeld is that he understood the operation of the transistor on the principle of modulation of conductivity based on electrostatics. In the description, the patent is formulated that the conductivity of the fine region of the semiconductor channel is modulated by the input signal coming to the shutter through the input transformer. In 1935, in England, a German inventor O.Hail received a patent for the field transistor
The scheme from the patent is presented in Fig. Where:
The control electrode (1) performs the role of the shutter, the electrode (3) performs the role of the flow, the electrode (4) the role of the source. Feeding a variable signal to the shutter, located very close to the conductor, we obtain a change in the resistance of the semiconductor (2) between the drain and the source. With a low frequency, you can observe the oscillation of the arrow of the ammeter (7). This invention is a prototype of a field transistor with an isolated shutter. The next period of the wave of inventions in transistors came in 1939, when after three-year-old surveys on a solid-state amplifier in the company "BTL" (Bell Telephone Laboratories) Shockli was invited to engage in the study of broth on a copper-oxygen rectifier. The work was interrupted by the Second World War, but before leaving to the front Shockli offered two transistors. Research on transistors
Bipolar transistors Semiconductor devices with a large number of layers of different types of electrical conductivity located in different combination. Consider a bipolar transistor.
The principle of the bipolar transistor is that 2 r-n of the transitions are located as close to each other, which is mutual influence, as a result of which they enhance electrical signals.
So, in fig. Three layers are depicted: with electronic electrical conductivity, and strong, which is a plus - emitter, hole - base, and again electron, but more weakly alloyed (the concentration of electrons is the lowest) - collector. Base thickness, i.e. The distance between the two r-p transitions equal to LB is very small. It should be less than the diffusion length of electrons in the database. It is from units up to a tent of the IMM. The thickness of the base must be no more than the MKM units. (The thickness of the human hair is 20-50 μm. We also note that it is close to the limit of the permission of the human eye, since we cannot see anything less than the wavelength of the light, i.e. approximately 0.5 microns). All other transistor dimensions are no more than about 1 mm.
The layers are applied to the external voltage so that the emitter r-n transition is shifted in the forward direction, and a high current flows through it, and the collector r-n transition is shifted in the opposite direction, so it should not flow through it. However, due to the fact that the transitions are located close, they influence each other, and the picture changes: the electron current, which has passed from the emitter r-n of the transition, flows further, reaching the collector r-n of the transition and the electric field of the last electrons are drawn into collector. As a result, good transistors almost all the collector current is equal to an emitter current. Current loss is very insignificant: interest and even interest percent.
As can be seen, a schematic representation is not at all similar to their actual design. But so accepted. The circle symbolizes the case of the transistor. The index "b" marked contact to the database, "K" means contact to the collector region, and "E" to the emitter region. The direction of the arrow in the emitter contact determines the type of transistor (P-P-P or R-P-P).
Scheme with a common base: amplification coefficient A<1
We see that a direct displacement is applied to the emitter r-n: plus to the basic contact, and minus to the emitter contact. A reverse displacement is applied to the collector r-n. In this case, a good transistor has a collector current only slightly less than the emitter.
Scheme with shared emitter
In this case, a voltage of one sign is submitted to the database and in the issuer, but no more than 0.7 V is supplied to the base, and in the collector - 5 ... 15 V. Increased coefficient B\u003e 1
7. Scope of the transistor
The first transistors released by the domestic industry were point transistors that were intended to enhance and generate oscillations with a frequency of up to 5 MHz. In the process of production of the world's first transistors, individual technological processes were developed and methods for controlling parameters were developed. The accumulated experience made it possible to proceed to the release of more advanced devices, which could already work at frequencies up to 10 MHz. In the future, plane, possessing higher electrical and operational qualities, came to replace the point transistors. The first transistors of the type P1 and P2 were intended to enhance and generate electrical oscillations with a frequency of up to 100 kHz.
Then, more powerful low-frequency transistors P3 and P4 appeared. The use of which in 2 clock amplifiers made it possible to get output power up to several dozen watts. As the semiconductor industry develops, there was a development of new types of transistors, including P5 and P6, which compared with their predecessors have improved characteristics.
Time passed, new methods of manufacturing transistors were mastered, and the P1 transistors - P6 were no longer satisfied with the current requirements and were removed from production. Instead, transistors of type P13 - P16 appeared, P201 - P203, which also belonged to low-frequency not exceeding 100 kHz. Such a low frequency limit is explained by the method of manufacturing these transistors carried out by the method of fusion.
Therefore, transistors P1 - P6, P13 - P16, P201 - P203 is called alloy. Transistors capable of generating and strengthening electrical fluctuations with a frequency in tens and hundreds of MHz appeared much later - these were transistors type401 - P403, which marked the beginning of the application of the new diffusion method of manufacturing semiconductor devices. Such transistors are called diffusion. Further development went on the way to improve both alloys and diffusion transistors, as well as the creation and development of new methods of their manufacture.
With the advent of bipolar field transistors, the ideas of developing small-sized computer began to embody. Based on them began to create onboard electronic systems for aviation and space technology.
In the OE scheme, the input signal is supplied to the database, and the output signal is removed from the collector. The scheme and output characteristics are shown in Fig. 1, that the scheme has become very complex. However, the main thing is that there is a RK resistor, which determines the voltage gain coefficient, and which is from units whom to the MΩ (the more this resistor, the greater the amplification). All other elements are more or less conditional. The installation of everything is necessary for the thermal stabilization of the transistor. This is carried out at the expense of the permanent current feedback, which we will discuss later.
SE - a condenser that shifters this resistor on working frequencies, so that there is no resistor with a variable signal. This capacitor is a few ICF. This is usually an electrolytic capacitor.
CP - separation capacitors that separate the constant component of the signal at the input and output of the circuit from external signals. It is usually several ICFs.
RB2 is a practically unnecessary resistor, it is simply placed to protect the transistor from combustion. Its value must be large, as it is in parallel in the input and can move it. It is usually 1 or a few kiloma, since the input resistance of the transistor is not enough.
RN - load resistance, better if it is large, as it is connected parallel to the output of the transistor, and if it is small, the output will fall.
URH - signal at the input of the transistor. As can be seen, there are many different parts - resistors and capacitors at the entrance. But on the working frequencies of the resistance of the capacitors are small, and they skip the signals well. And two parallel resistors RB1 and RB2 are sufficiently large compared to the transistor input resistance. Therefore, we take into account only this input resistance. The transistor resistance actually actually is indicated by small letters.
Transistor - background of all modern microelectronics. If in the usual mobile phone instead of transistors, coded-ray tubes were used, the device would acquire the size of the Cologne Cathedral.
TRANSFER RESISTOR.
On the eve of the Christmas Eve of 1947, Bell Phone Labatoriz employees William Shockley, Walter Brattein and John Bardin demonstrated the first transistor on the basis of the semiconductor material Germany. At about the same time, German scientists Herbert Franz Matare and Heinrich Velker developed the so-called "French transistor" and in 1848 received a patent. In the same year, Robert Denk constructed the first transistor radio receiver based on an oxide coating electrode. Denk did not patent his invention and even destroyed the only receiver instance to avoid abuse.
Victory provided silicon
However, scientists had to work hard over the selection of material until semiconductor parts were able to meet specifications. Since 1955, serial production of silicon transistors began, quickly crowded vacuum tubes from a variety of devices. The advantage of transistors is that they are much smaller and are not so hot. Now the construction of computing machines that do not occupy the whole room has become possible. Appears in the 1960s. Integrated microcircuits required the development of increasingly miniature transistors, so over time they decreased a thousand times and became thinner of the hair.
- 1925: Julius Edgar Lilienfeld created the theoretical substantiation of transistors, but failed to realize them into reality.
- 1934: Oscar Hale invented a field transistor.
- 1953: The first transistors in the hearing aids.
- 1971: First Microprocessor - Intel 4004.
Who created the first transistor? This question is worried very many. The first patent for the field transistor principle was decorated in Canada Austro-Hungarian physician Julia Edgar Lilienfeld on October 22, 1925, but Lilienfeld did not publish any scientific articles about his devices, and his work was ignored by the industry. Thus, the world's first transistor went into history. In 1934, the German physicist Dr. Oscar Khail patented another field transistor. There are no direct evidence that these devices were built, but later work in the 1990s showed that one of the projects of Lilienfeld worked as described, and gave a significant result. Now the famous and generally accepted fact is that William Shocley and his assistant Gerald Pearson created the working versions of the devices from Lilienfeld patents, which, of course, was never mentioned in any of their later scientific works or historical articles. The first computers on the transistors, of course, were built much later.
Laboratory Bella
Bella's laboratory worked on the transistor built for the production of extremely clean Germany "crystal" diode mixers used in radar installations as an element of a frequency mixer. In parallel, this project existed many others, among them - the transistor on Germany diodes. Early tube-based circuits did not have a quick switch function, and the Bell team used solid-state diodes instead. The first computers on the transistors worked for a similar principle.
Further exquisites Shockley
After the war, Shockli decided to try to build a three-way semiconductor device. He provided funding and laboratory space, and then began to deal with the problem arising in conjunction with Bardin and Bratten. John Bardine ultimately developed a new branch of quantum mechanics, known as surface physics to explain its first failures, and this scientist eventually managed to create a working device.
The key to the development of the transistor was the further understanding of the process of electron mobility in the semiconductor. It was proved that if there was some way to control the flow of electrons from the emitter to the collector of this newly detected diode (discovered in 1874, patented 1906), an amplifier could be built. For example, if you place contacts on both sides of one type of crystal, the current will not pass through it.
In fact, it turned out it was very difficult. The size of the crystal would have to be more averaged, and the number of alleged electrons (or holes), which it was necessary to "injected", was very large, which would make it less useful than the amplifier, because there would be a high injection current. Nevertheless, the entire idea of \u200b\u200bthe crystal diode was that the crystal itself could hold electrons at a very short distance, while being practically on the verge of exhaustion. Apparently, the key was to ensure that the input and output contacts were very close to each other on the surface of the crystal.
Proceedings Bratten
Bratut began to work on creating such a device, and hints for success were also continued to appear when the team worked on the problem. Invention is a difficult job. Sometimes the system works, but then the next failure occurs. Sometimes the results of the work of Bratten began to unexpectedly work in water, apparently due to its high conductivity. Electrons in any part of the crystal migrate due to close charges. Electrons in emitters or "holes" in the collectors were accumulated directly from the top of the crystal, where they receive the opposite charge, "floating" in the air (or water). However, they could be pushed from the surface using a small amount of charge from any other place on the crystal. Instead of demanding a large stock of injected electrons, a very small number in the desired place on the crystal will perform the same thing.
The new experience of researchers to some extent helped to solve the previously arising problem of a small control area. Instead of the need to use two separate semiconductors connected by a common, but tiny area, one large surface will be used. The exits of the emitter and the collector would be located on top, and the control wire is placed on the base of the crystal. When the current was applied to the "basic" output, the electrons would be pushed through the semiconductor unit and were assembled on a far surface. While the emitter and the collector were very closely arranged, it would have to provide a sufficient amount of electrons or holes between them to start conducting.
Accession Breya
An early witness of this phenomenon was Ralph Bray, a young graduate student. He joined the development of Germany transistor at the University of Perdy in November 1943 and received a complex task of measuring scattering resistance on the contact metal semiconductor. Bray found many anomalies, such as internal high-resistance barriers in some samples of Germany. The most curious phenomenon was extremely low resistance observed when using voltage pulses. The first Soviet transistors were developed on the basis of these American workers.
Breakthrough
On December 16, 1947, using two-point contact, a contact with the surface of Germany, anodized to ninety-volt, washed, the electrolyte washed in H 2 O, and then several gold spots fell on it. Gold contacts were pressed to naked surfaces. The separation between the dots was about 4 × 10 -3 cm. One point was used as a grid, and the other point is like a plate. Evasion (DC) on the grid should have been positive to obtain the strengthening of the voltage power on the displacement of the plate about fifteen volts.
The invention of the first transistor
With the history of this miracle, many questions are connected. Some of them are familiar to the reader. For example: why the first transistors of the USSR were PNP-type? The answer to this question lies in the continuation of all this story. Bratten and H. R. Moore demonstrated several colleagues and managers in Bell Labs in the afternoon of December 23, 1947, the result they achieved, because this day is often mentioned as the date of birth of the transistor. PNP-pin Germany transistor worked as a speech amplifier with a power gain factor 18. This is the answer to the question why the first transistors of the USSR were PNP-type, because they were purchased from Americans. In 1956, John Bardin, Walter Hauser Bratten and William Bradford Shokley were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for the research of semiconductors and the opening of the transistor effect.
Twelve people are referred to as direct participation in the invention of the transistor in the Bell laboratory.
The very first transistors in Europe
At the same time, some European scientists caught fire by the idea of \u200b\u200bsolid-state amplifiers. In August 1948, German physicists Herbert F. Matare and Heinrich Velker, who worked at the Compagnie Des Freins Et Signaux Westinghouse Institute in Olne-Su-Bois, France, filed a patent for an amplifier based on the minority they called the Transistor. Since Bell Labs did not publish the transistor until June 1948, the transistor was considered independently developed. For the first time, Mataré observed the effects of steepness in the production of silicon diodes for the German radar equipment during World War II. Transistors were commercially manufactured for the French telephone company and the military, and in 1953, a solid-state radio with four transistors was demonstrated on radio stations in Düsseldorf.
Bell Telephone Laboratories needed a name for the new invention: Semiconductor TRIODE, TRIED STATES TRIODE, CRYSTAL TRIODE, SOLID TRIODE and IOTATRON were considered, but the Transistor, invented by John R. Pierce, was an explicit winner of internal voting (partially due to the proximity of the engineers Bella was developed for suffix "-istor").
The first commercial production line of transistors in the world was at Western Electric Plant on Union Boulevard in Allentown, Pennsylvania. Production began on October 1, 1951 from the point contact gerony transistor.
Further application
Up to the early 1950s, this transistor was used in all kinds of production, but there were still significant problems that impede its wider use such as sensitivity to moisture and fragility of wires attached to Germany crystals.
Shokley were often accused of plagiarism due to the fact that his work was very close to the works of the Great, but unrecognized Hungarian engineer. But the Bell Labs lawyers quickly settled this problem.
Nevertheless, Shocley was outraged by attacks by critics and decided to demonstrate who was the real brain of the whole Great epic according to the invention of the transistor. Just a few months later, he invented a completely new type of transistor, possessing a very peculiar "sandwiculic structure." This new form was significantly more reliable than a fragile point of point contact, and in the end it started to be used in all transistors of the 60s of the twentieth century. Soon she developed into a bipolar transition apparatus, which became the basis for the first bipolar transistor.
Static induction device, the first concept of the high-frequency transistor, was invented by JUNA engineers Jun-Ichi Nishizawa and Y. Watanabe in 1950 and, finally, was able to create experimental prototypes in 1975. It was the fastest transistor in the 80s of the twentieth century.
Further developments included appliances with an extended compound, a surface barrier transistor, diffusion, thyroid and pentoral. The diffusion silicon "mesa-transistor" was developed in 1955 in Bell and the Fairchild Semiconductor commercially available in 1958. The space was the type of transistor developed in the 1950s as an improvement in comparison with the point contact transistor and later transistor from the alloy.
In 1953, Philko developed the world's first high-frequency surface barrier device, which was also the first transistor suitable for high-speed computers. The world's first transistor car radio, manufactured by Philco in 1955, used superficial barrier transistors in their schema.
Solving problems and refinement
With solving the problems of fragility, the problem of purity remained. The creation of Germany required purity turned out to be a serious problem and limited the number of transistors that actually worked from this batch of material. The sensitivity of Germany to the temperature also limited its utility.
Scientists suggested that silicon would be easier to make, but few have learned this opportunity. Morris Tanenbaum in Bell Laboratories were the first to have developed a working silicon transistor on January 26, 1954 a few months later, Gordon Til, working independently in Texas Instruments, has developed a similar device. Both of these devices were made by controlling the doping of crystals of one silicon when they were grown from molten silicon. A higher method was developed by Morris Tannenbaum and Calvin S. Fuller in Bell Laboratories in early 1955 by gas diffusion of donor and acceptor impurities in monocrystalline silicon crystals.
Field transistors
The field transistor was first patented by Julis Edgar Lilienfeld in 1926 and Oscar Hale in 1934, but practical semiconductor devices (transistors with a field transition effect) were developed later, after the effect of the transistor was observed and explained by the William Shockley team in Bell Labs in 1947 , immediately after the expiration of the twenty-year patent period.
The first type of JFET was a static induction transistor (SIT), invented by JUN-ICHI Nishizawa and Y. Watanabe Jun-Ichi engineers in 1950. SIT is a JFET type with a short channel length. The semiconductor field transistor (MOP transistor) from a metal-semiconductor metal, which largely supplanted JFET and had a deep impact on the development of electronic technology, was invented by a dowean kahng and Martin Atalla in 1959.
Field transistors can be devices with a major charge, in which the current is transferred primarily by majority carriers or devices with carriers of smaller charges, in which the current is mainly due to the stream of non-core media. The device consists of an active channel, through which charge carriers, electrons or holes come from the source into the sewer. The end conclusions of the source and flow are connected to the semiconductor through ohmic contacts. The conductivity of the channel is the function of the potential used through the shutter and source terminals. This principle of operation gave the beginning of the first overgrowth transistors.
All field transistors have source terminals, drain and shutter, which approximately correspond to the issutor, the collector and the BJT base. Most field transistors have a fourth terminal, called the case, base, mass or substrate. This fourth terminal serves to displace the transistor into operation. It rarely have to do nontrivial use of body terminals in circuits, but its presence is important when setting up the physical layout of the integrated circuit. The size of the gate, the length L in the diagram is the distance between the source and flow. The width is the expansion of the transistor in the direction perpendicular to the cross section on the diagram (i.e., in / out of the screen). Typically, the width is much larger than the length of the gate. The shutter length of 1 μM limits the upper frequency to about 5 GHz, from 0.2 to 30 GHz.
The invention of the transistor, which has become the most important achievement of the twentieth century, is associated with the names of many wonderful scientists. About those who created and developed semiconductor electronics and will be discussed in this article.
Exactly 50 years ago by Americans John Bardina, Walter Brattene and William Shockley (Fig. 1) was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics "For research in the field of semiconductors and the opening of the transistor". Nevertheless, the analysis of the history of science unequivocally testifies that the opening of the transistor is not only the well-deserved success of the Bardin, Brothyne and Shockley.
Fig. 1. Laureates of the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1956
First experiments
The birth of solid electronics can be attributed to 1833. It was then that Michael Faraday (Fig. 2), experimented with silver sulfide, found that the conductivity of this substance (and it was, as we now call, a semiconductor) grows with an increase in temperature, as opposed to the conductivity of metals, which in this case decreases. Why is this happening? What is it connected with? I could not answer these issues of Faraday.
The next milestone in the development of solid-state electronics was 1874. German physicist Ferdinand Brown (Fig. 3), the future Nobel laureate (in 1909 he will receive a prize "for an outstanding contribution to the creation of wireless telegraph") publishes an article in the journal Analen Der Physik und Chemie, in which on the example of "natural and artificial sulfuric metals »Describes the most important property of semiconductors - to carry out an electric current only in one direction. The straightening property of the contact of the semiconductor with the metal contradicted the Ohm's law. Brown (Fig. 4) is trying to explain the observed phenomenon and conducts further research, but to no avail. There is a phenomenon, there is no explanation. For this reason, Brown's contemporaries were not interested in opening it, and only five decades later, the straightening properties of semiconductors were used in detector receivers.
Fig. 3. Ferdinand Brown
Fig. 4. Ferdinand Brown in his laboratory
Year 1906. American Engineer Greenlet Witter Picard (Fig. 5) receives a patent for a crystal detector (Fig. 6). In his application for a patent, he writes: "Contact between a thin metal conductor and the surface of some crystalline materials (silicon, galenite, pyrite, etc.) straightens and demodulates high-frequency alternating current arising in an antenna when receiving radio waves."
Fig. 5. Greenlife Picard
Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of the crystal detector of Picard
A thin metal conductor, with the help of which contact with the surface of the crystal was carried out, externally reminded the feline mustache.
The crystal detector of Picard and began to call - "Casual Us" (cat "s whisker).
In order to "breathe life" in the Picard detector and make it steadily work, it was necessary to find the most sensitive point on the surface of the crystal. It was not easy to do it. A lot of cunning structures of Cat Usa appear on the light (Fig. 7), facilitating the search for the cherished point, but the rapid way to the external radio engineering of electronic lamps is sent to the Picard detector for the scenes.
Fig. 7. Option of the "Feline Us" design
And yet, the "cat mustache" is much easier and less vacuum diodes, moreover, much more efficiently at high frequencies. And what if we replace the vacuum triode, on which the entire radio electronics of that time was founded (Fig. 8) on the semiconductor? Is it possible? At the beginning of the twentieth century, such a question did not give rest to many scientists.
Fig. 8. Vacuum triode
Losev
Soviet Russia. 1918. At personal disposal of Lenin in Nizhny Novgorod, a radio laboratory is created (Fig. 9). The new power is in dire need of the "wireless telegraph" of communication. The best radio engineers of the time are involved in the laboratory - M. A. Bonch-Broevich, V. P. Vologdin, V. K. Lebedinsky, V. V. Tatarinov and many others.
Fig. 9. Nizhny Novgorod Radioboratory
It comes to Nizhny Novgorod and Oleg Losev (Fig. 10).
Fig. 10. Oleg Vladimirovich Losev
After the end of the Tver Real School in 1920 and unsuccessful admission to the Moscow Institute of Communications, Losev agrees to any work, just to be taken to the laboratory. It takes a messenger. Messenger hostel does not rely.
17-year-old loses is ready to live in the laboratory room, on the landing in front of the attic, just to do a favorite thing.
From an early age, he passionately fond of radio communications. During the First World War, a radio station was built in Tver. Its task was to receive messages from the Allies of Russia on Antante and then in the telegraph transfer them to Petrograd. Losev often visited the radio stations, knew many employees, helped them and did not think of her further life without radio engineering. In Nizhny Novgorod, he had no family nor normal life, but it was the main thing - the ability to communicate with the field of radio communications, to adopt their experience and knowledge. After performing the necessary work in the laboratory, he was allowed to engage in independent experimentation.
At the time, interest in crystal detectors was practically absent. In the laboratory, no one was particularly engaged in this topic. The priority in studies was given to radiolambams. Losev very much wanted to work independently. The prospect of obtaining a limited area of \u200b\u200bwork "on the lamps" does not inspire him. Maybe it is for this reason that he chooses a crystalline detector for his research. His goal is to improve the detector, make it more sensitive and stable in work. Starting experiments, loses mistakenly assumed that "due to the fact that some contacts between the metal and the crystal are not subject to the law of Ohm, it is likely that there may be unlucky oscillations connected to such a contact." At that time, it was already known that for self-excitation of alone nonlinearity, the voltampear characteristic is not enough, the falling section must be present. Any competent specialist would not expect strengthening from the detector. But yesterday's schoolboy does not know anything. It changes the crystals, the needle material, gently fixes the results obtained and one day detects the desired active points in crystals that provide the generation of high-frequency signals.
"Everyone since childhood knows that something is impossible, but there is always an ignorant that does not know that, he does the discovery," Einstein joked.
The first studies of the generator crystals of losev produced on the simplest scheme shown in Fig. eleven.
Fig. 11. Scheme of the first experiments of Losev
After having experienced a large number of crystalline detectors, Losev found out that the oscillations of zincite crystals subjected to special processing are best. To obtain quality materials, it develops a zincite preparation technology by fusing in the electrical arc of natural crystals. When paired zincite - coal sharp, when the voltage is supplied B10 V, a radio signal with a wavelength of 68 m was obtained. When the generation decreases, the amplifying detector mode is implemented.
Note that the "generating" detector was first demonstrated in 1910 by the English physicist William Iklz (Fig. 12).
Figure 12. William Henry Iklz
A new physical phenomenon does not attract the attention of specialists, and for some time they forget. Iklz also mistakenly explained the mechanism of the "negative" resistance based on the fact that the resistance of the semiconductor decreases with increasing temperature due to thermal effects arising at the metal semiconductor border.
In 1922, on the pages of the scientific journal "Telegraph and telephony without wires", the first article of Losev dedicated to the reinforcing and generating detector appears. In it, he describes the results of his experiments in very detailed, and special attention is paid to the compulsory presence of the incident site of the Voltampear characteristics of the contact.
In those years, elk is actively engaged in self-education. His immediate supervisor Professor V. K. Lebedinsky helps him in the study of radiophysics. Lebedinsky understands that his young employee made a real discovery and is also trying to explain the observed effect, but in vain. The fundamental science of that time still does not know quantum mechanics. Losev, in turn, puts forward a hypothesis that with a large current in the contact zone there is a certain electrical discharge like a volt arc, but only without heating. This discharge shorts the high contact resistance, providing generation.
Only in thirty years later they managed to understand what was actually open. Today we would say that the Losevian device is a two-streamer with a N-shaped voltampear characteristic, or a tunnel diode, for which in 1973 the Japanese physicist Leo Isaki (Fig. 13) received the Nobel Prize.
Fig. 13. Leo Isaki
The leadership of the Nizhny Novgorod laboratory understood that the effect of reproducing the effect would not be possible. A little hardwood, the detectors almost lost the properties of gain and generation. The abandonment of lamps could not be speech. Nevertheless, the practical significance of the opening of Losev was huge.
In the 1920s, all over the world, including in the Soviet Union, the Radio Administration accepts the nature of the epidemic. Soviet radio amateurs use the simplest detector receivers collected according to the Shaposhnikov scheme (Fig. 14).
Fig. 14. Detection receiver Shaposhnikova
High antennas are used to increase the volume and reception range. In cities, apply such antennas was difficult due to industrial interference. In the open area, where there is practically no interference, a good reception of radio signals has not always been able due to the poor quality of the detectors. Introduction to the antenna circuit of the receiver of the negative resistance of the detector with a zincite, set to mode close to self-excitation, significantly increased the received signals. Radiciters managed to hear the most remote stations. The selectivity of admission was noticeably increased. And this is without using electronic lamps!
The lamps were not cheap, and they needed a special power supply, and Losev detector could work from conventional batteries for a pocket lantern.
As a result, it turned out that simple sheposhnikov design receivers with generating crystals provide the ability to carry out a heterodyne intake, which was at that time the last word of radio reception. In subsequent articles, loses describes the method of quick search for active points on the surface of the zincite and replaces the coal tip metal. It gives recommendations, how to process crystals and leads several practical schemes for self-assembling of radio receivers (Fig. 15).
Fig. 15. Schematic diagram of Kristadina O. V. Losev
The losev device allows not only to receive signals at long distances, but also to transmit them. Radio amateurs in mass order, based on generators detectors, produce radio transmitters that support communication within a radius of several kilometers. Soon the Losev brochure is published (Fig. 16). It is diverged by millionic circulations. Enthusiast radio amateurs wrote into various scientific and popular magazines that "with the help of a zincite detector in Tomsk, for example, you can hear Moscow, lower and even foreign stations."
Fig. 16. Brochure Losev, Edition 1924
The patents starting with the "detector receiver-heterodine", which declared in December 1923, receives all its technical solutions to Losev.
Articles of Losev are printed in such magazines as "JETF", "reports of the USSR Academy of Sciences", Radio Revue, Philosophical Magazine, Physikalische Zeitschrift.
Losev becomes a celebrity, and he has not yet been fulfilled and twenty years old!
For example, in the editorial preface to the Loseese article "Oscillating Crystals" in the American magazine The Wireless World and Radio Review says: "The author of this article, Mr. Oleg Losev from Russia, for a relatively short period of time acquired world fame in connection with his The discovery of oscillating properties in some crystals. "
Another American magazine - Radio News - about the same time publishes an article under the title "Sensational invention", in which it is noted: "There is no need to prove that this is a revolutionary radio. In a short time, we will talk about a diagram with three or six crystals, as we say now about the scheme with three or six amplifier lamps. It will take several years that the generating crystal is improved so much to become a better vacuum lamp, but we predict what time will come. "
The author of this article Hugo Gersebek calls a solid-state receiver of Losev - crystadine (crystal + heterodyne). Moreover, not only calls, but also prudently registers the name as the trademark (Fig. 17). The demand for crystadines is huge.
Fig. 17. Crystal Losev Detector. Made in Radio News Laboratories. USA, 1924
Interestingly, when German radio engineers come to the Nizhny Novgorod laboratory to personally meet the elk, they do not believe their eyes. They are affected by the talent and young age of the inventor. In letters, from abroad, Losev was not different as a professor. No one could have imagined that the professor also comprehends the Aza science. However, very soon loses will become a brilliant physicist experimentator and once again will force the world to talk about herself.
In the laboratory, from the position of calling it, it is transferred to the laboratory technicians, provide accommodation. In Nizhny Novgorod, Losev marries (though, unsuccessful, as it turned out later), it places his life and continues to do crystals.
In 1928, by decision of the government, the subject of the Nizhny Novgorod Radio Babe, together with the staff, is transferred to the Central Radioboratory in Leningrad, which, in turn, is also constantly reorganized. In a new place, Losev continues to engage in semiconductors, but soon the central radio beabitory is converted to the Institute of Broadcasting and Acoustic. In the New Institute, its research program, the subject of work is narrowed. Laboratory assistant Losevo manages to make part-time in the Leningrad Physics and Technology Institute (LFTI), where he has the opportunity to continue the study of new physical effects in semiconductors. In the late 1920s, Losev had an idea to create a solid-state analogue of a three-electrode vacuum radiologist.
In 1929-1933, at the proposal of A. F. Ioffe, losov conducts studies of a semiconductor device that completely repeats the design of the point transistor. As is known, the principle of operation of this device is to control the current flowing between two electrodes using an additional electrode. Losev actually observed this effect, but, unfortunately, the overall coefficient of such a control did not allow to gain signal strengthening. For this purpose, loses used only Carborund Crystal (SiC), and not Crystal Zincite (ZnO), which had significantly better characteristics in the crystalline amplifier (which is strange! He is not to know about the properties of this crystal.) Until recently it was believed that after forced care From the LFTI Losev was not returned to the idea of \u200b\u200bsemiconductor amplifiers. However, there is a rather curious document written by the elk themselves. He dated July 12, 1939 and is currently kept in the Polytechnic Museum. In this document, entitled "Loseopling Oleg Vladimirovich Losev", in addition to interesting facts of his life, a list of scientific results is also contained. The following lines are particularly interested: "It is established that a three-electrode system can be built with semiconductors, similar to the triode, as well as triode, giving characteristics showing negative resistance. These works are currently prepared by me to print ... ".
Unfortunately, the fate of these works has not yet been established, which could completely change the idea of \u200b\u200bthe history of the discovery of the transistor - the most revolutionary invention of the XX century.
Talking about the outstanding contribution of Oleg Vladimirovich Losev to the development of modern electronics, it is simply impossible not to mention its opening of the light-emitting diode.
The scale of this discovery us is still to be understood. It takes not so much time, and in every house, instead of the usual incandescent lamp, "Electronic Light Generators" will burn, as LEDs called LEDs.
Back in 1923, experimenting with crystadines, Losev drew attention to the glow of crystals when the electric current is passed through them. Dargered detectors glowed especially brightly. In the 1920s, in the West, the phenomenon of electroluminescence at one time even called Losev Light, Lossew Licht. Losev took up the study and explanation of the electroluminescence obtained. He first appreciated the huge prospects of such light sources, emphasizing their high brightness and speed. Losev became the owner of the first patent for the invention of light relapse with an electroluminescent light source.
In the 70s of the twentieth century, when the LEDs began to be wide, in the ELECTRONIC WORLD journal for 1907 an article by the Englishman Henry Round was discovered, in which the author, being an employee of the Marcon Laboratory, reported that I saw a glow in the contact of the carborundone detector External electric field. No considerations explaining the physics of this phenomenon have not been given. This note did not have any influence on the subsequent studies in the field of electroluminescence, however, the author of the article today is officially considered the discoverer of the LED.
Losev independently discovered the phenomenon of electroluminescence and conducted a number of studies on the example of the carbarund crystal. He allocated two physically different phenomena, which are observed with different polarity of voltage on contacts. His undoubted merit is the detection of the effect of the pre-contracting electroluminescence, called the "glow number one", and the injection electroluminescence - "glow number two". Nowadays, the effect of pre-trial luminescence is widely used in creating electroluminescent displays, and the injection electroluminescence is the basis of LEDs and semiconductor lasers. The elinee managed to significantly advance in the understanding of the physics of these phenomena long before the creation of the zone theory of semiconductors. Subsequently, in 1936, the glow number one was reopened by the French physicist George destroy. In the scientific literature, it is known as the "Refrio Effect", although the destroy itself priority in the opening of this phenomenon gave Oleg Losev. Probably, it would be unfair to challenge the priority of the round in the opening of the LED. And yet we must not forget that Marconi and Popov are considered inventors of radio, although everyone knows that hertz was observed by radio waves. And such examples in the history of science are many.
In his article Subhistory of Light Emitting Diode, a famous American scientist in the field of electroluminescence IHON Lobner writes about Losev: "With its pioneer studies in the field of LEDs and photodetectors, he contributed to the future progress of optical communication. His studies were so accurate and its publications are so clear that it is easily possible now that then happened in his laboratory. His intuitive choice and the art of the experiment is simply amazing. "
Today we understand that without the quantum theory of the structure of semiconductors, it is impossible to submit the development of solid-state electronics. Therefore, the talent of Losev is striking imagination. From the very beginning, he seen the uniform physical nature of the crystaline and the phenomenon of the injection luminescence and was significantly ahead of his time.
After it, the research of detectors and electroluminescence was carried out separately from each other as independent directions. Analysis of the results shows that for almost twenty years after the appearance of works, Losev did not have anything new in terms of understanding the physics of this phenomenon. Only in 1951, American physicist Kurt Lehovets (Fig. 18) found that detection and electroluminescence have a single nature associated with the behavior of current carriers in P-N-transitions.
Fig. 18. Kurt Lehovets
It should be noted that in his work, Lehovets leads primarily references to the works of Losev dedicated to the electroluminescence.
In 1930-31 Losev performed at a high experimental level a series of experiments with oblique sanding, tensile the test area, and the system of electrodes included in the compensation measuring scheme, to measure the potentials at different points in the cross section of the layered structure. By moving the metal "Casual Us" across the thin, it showed with an accuracy of the micron that the near-surface part of the crystal has a complex structure. It revealed an active layer with a thickness of approximately ten microns, in which the phenomenon of injection luminescence was observed. According to the results of the experiments, the experiments made the assumption that the cause of unipolar conductivity is the difference in the conditions of the electron motion on both sides of the active layer (or, no matter how we say today are different types of conductivity). Subsequently, experimenting with three and more prostamations-electrodes located in these areas, he really confirmed his assumption. These studies are another significant achievement of Losev as a physics scientist.
In 1935, as a result of the next reorganization of the radio broadcasting institution and difficult relationships with the leadership, elk remains without work. Laboratory assistant loss allowed to make discoveries, but not bask in the rays of glory. And this is despite the fact that his name was well known to the strong world of this. In a letter dated May 16, 1930, Academician A. F. Ioffe writes to his colleague Paul Ehrenfest: "In scientific relations, I have a number of success. So, loses received in carborord and other crystals a glow under the action of electrons in 2-6 volts. The border of the glow in the spectrum is limited ... ".
In LFTI, Losev has long been its workplace for a long time, but he does not take it to the institute, he is too independent. All work performed independently - in any of them there are no co-authors.
With the help of Losev's friends is arranged by the assistant at the Department of Physics of the First Medical Institute. In a new place, he is much more difficult to engage in scientific work, since there are no necessary equipment. Nevertheless, setting the goal to choose the material for the manufacture of photocells and photoresistance, loses continues to study the photoelectric properties of crystals. It studies more than 90 substances and highlights silicon with its noticeable photosensitivity.
At that time, there were no enough clean materials to achieve accurate reproduction of the results obtained, but elk (at once!) Purely intuitively understands that this material is the future. In early 1941, he proceeds to work on a new topic - "The method of electrolyte photoresistance, photosensitivity of some silicon alloys." When the Great Patriotic War began, Losev does not leave for evacuation, wanting to complete the article in which he expressed the results of his silicon research. Apparently, he managed to finish the work, since the article was sent to the editorial board "Zhetf". By that time, the editorial was evacuated from Leningrad. Unfortunately, after the war, it was not possible to find traces of this article, and now you can only guess its content.
On January 22, 1942, Oleg Vladimirovich Losev died of hunger in Blocade Leningrad. He was 38 years old.
In the same 1942, the US company Sylvania and Western Electric began industrial production of silicon (and a little later and Germany) dotted diodes, which were used as detecting mixers in radar. The death of Losev coincided with the birth of silicon technology.
Military springboard
In 1925, American Telephone and Telegraph (AT & T) opens the BELL Telephone Laboratories Scientific and Executive Design Center. In 1936, the Director of Bell Telephone Laboratories Mervin Kelly decides to form a group of scientists who would have a series of studies aimed at replacing the lamp amplifiers with semiconductor. The group was headed by Joseph Becker, attracted to the work of the physicist of William Shockley and a brilliant experimentator Walter Brattene.
After graduating from the doctoral studies at the Mathsachusetts Institute of Technology, the famous MTI, and enrolling in the Bell Telephone Laboratories, Shockley, being exclusively an ambitious and ambitious person, is vigorously taken for business. In 1938, the first semiconductor trigode sketch appears in the working notebook of the 26-year-old shockley. The idea is simple and does not differ originality: make a device as much as possible on the electronic lamp, with the only difference that the electrons in it will flow over a thin filamentous semiconductor, and not fly in vacuo between the cathode and anode. To control the semiconductor current, it was assumed to introduce an additional electrode (analogue of the mesh) - applying a voltage of different polarity to it. Thus, it will be possible to either reduce, or increase the number of electrons in the thread and, accordingly, change its resistance and flowing current. All as in the radiologist, only without a vacuum, without a bulky glass cylinder and without heating the cathode. The displacement of electrons from the threads or their influx was to occur under the influence of the electric field created between the control electrode and the thread, that is, thanks to the field effect. For this thread should be precisely semiconductor. In the metal, too many electrons and any fields will not be supplied, and in the dielectric free electrons there is practically no. Shockli starts to theoretical calculations, but all attempts to build a solid-state amplifier do not lead to anything.
At the same time, in Europe, German Physicists Robert Paul and Rudolf Hils have created a potassium bromide working contact three-electron crystalline amplifier. However, the German device did not imagine any practical value. He had a very low operating frequency. There is information that in the first half of the 1930s, three-electrode semiconductor amplifiers "collected" and two radio amples of Larry Kaiser and New Zealand schoolboy Robert Adams. Adams, who later became a radio engineer, noticed that he never occurred to arrange a patent for the invention, since he learned all the information for his amplifier from amplifier magazines and other open sources.
By 1926-1930 The work of Julius Lilienfeld (Fig. 19), Professor of the University of Leipzig, who patented the design of the semiconductor amplifier, in our time known as the field transistor (Fig. 20).
Fig. 19. Julius Lilienfeld
Fig. 20. Patent Yu. Lilienfeld on the field transistor
Lilienfeld assumed that when the voltage was submitted to a weakly conductive material, its conductivity will change and therefore an increase in electrical oscillations will arise. Despite the preparation of a patent, create a working device Lilienfeld failed. The reason was the most prosaic - in the 30s of the twentieth century there was no necessary material yet, on the basis of which it would be possible to make a working transistor. That is why the efforts of most scientists of that time were aimed at the invention of a more complex bipolar transistor. Thus, they tried to bypass the difficulties arising from the implementation of the field transistor.
Work on a solid-state amplifier in Bell Telephone Laboratories is interrupted with the beginning of World War II. William Shockley and many of his colleagues were submitted to the Ministry of Defense, where they work until the end of 1945.
The solid-state electronics did not imagine interest for the military - the achievements were presented to the dubious. One exception. Detectors. They were just in the center of historical events.
In the sky over La Mansha, the grandiose battle for Britain has unfolded, reached apogee in September 1940. After the occupation of Western Europe, England remained one on one with the Armada of German bombers who destroy the coastal defense and preparing the landing of the marine landing for the capture of the country - the operation "Sea Lion". It is difficult to say that England saved - a miracle, the determination of the premiere of Winston Churchill or radar stations. The radar appeared in the late 1930s made it quickly and accurately detect enemy aircraft and organize opposition in a timely manner. Losing more than a thousand aircraft in the sky over the sky, Hitler Germany strongly cooled to the idea of \u200b\u200bcapturing England in 1940 and began to prepare Blitzkrieg in the East.
England needed radars, radars - crystalline detectors, detectors - clean Germany and silicon. The first, and in significant quantities, in the factories and in the laboratories, Germanium appeared. With silicon, due to the high temperature of its processing, at first there were some difficulties, but soon the problem was decided. After that, preference was given to silicon. Silicon was cheap compared to Germany. So, the springboard for jumping to the transistor was almost ready.
The Second World War was the first war in which Science, in its importance for victory over the enemy, was equal with concrete weapons technologies, and in something overwhelmed. Recall the atomic and rocket projects. This list you can include a transistor project, the prerequisites for which were largely laid down by the development of military radar.
Opening
In the post-war years, Bell Telephone Laboratories begin to boost work in the field of global communications. The equipment of the 1940s was used to enhance, convert and switching signals in subscriber circuits two main elements: electronic lamp and an electromechanical relay. These elements were cumbersome, they worked slowly, consumed a lot of energy and did not differ in high reliability. Improve them meant to return to the idea of \u200b\u200busing semiconductors. The research team (Fig. 21) is reappearing in Bell Telephone Laboratories, whose supervisor William Shocley becomes the supervisor. The team includes Walter Brattein, John Bardin, John Pearson, Bert Moore and Robert Miscellaneous.
Fig. 21. Murray Hill, New Jersey, USA, Bell Laboratories. Birthplace of the transistor.
At the very beginning, the team takes the most important decision: to direct efforts to study the properties of only two materials - silicon and Germany, as the most promising to implement the task. Naturally, the group began to develop the leafy idea of \u200b\u200bshockley - amplifier with the effect of the field. But electrons inside the semiconductor stubbornly ignored any potential changes on the control electrode. From high voltages and currents of crystals exploded, but did not want to change their resistance.
The theorist John Bardin thought about it. Shokley, without having received a quick result, cooled to the topic and did not actively participate in the work. Bardin suggested that a significant part of the electrons actually does not "walk" freely by crystal, but stuck in some traps at the very surface of the semiconductor. The charge of these "stuck" electrons shields the box applied from the outside, which does not penetrate the crystal volume. So in 1947, the theory of surface states was included in the physics of the solid body. Now, when it seemed, the reason for failures was found, the group began to realize the idea of \u200b\u200bthe field effect. There were simply no other ideas. Steel in various ways to handle the surface of Germany, hoping to eliminate electron traps. I tried everything - chemical etching, mechanical polishing, applying to the surface of various passivators. The crystals were immersed in various liquids, but there was no result. Then we decided to maximize the control zone, for which one of the current pipelines and the control electrode made in the form of closely arranged spring-loaded needles. Experimentator Brattein, by whose shoulders were 15 years of experience with various semiconductors, could turn the oscilloscope handles for 25 hours a day.
Bardin Theorist has always been nearby, ready for a day to check your theoretical calculations. Both researchers, as they say, found each other. They practically did not come out of the laboratory, but time went, and any significant results were still not.
One day, broth, anterorated from failures, shifted the needles almost close, moreover - accidentally mixed the polarity of the potentials applied to them. The scientist did not believe his eyes. It was amazed, but a signal gain was clearly visible on the oscilloscope screen. Bardin Theorist reacted lightning and unmistakably: there is no field effect, and it's not about it. The signal strengthen occurs for another reason. In all previous estimates, only electrons were considered as the main carriers of the current in Germany crystal, and the "holes", which were in millions of times less, were naturally ignored. Bardin realized that it was in the "holes". The introduction of "holes" through one electrode (this process was called injection) causes an immeasurably larger current in another electrode. And all this against the background of the status of a huge amount of electrons.
So, in an unpredictable way, on December 19, 1947 a point transistor appeared on the light (Fig. 22).
First, the new device was called Germany trigger. Bardina and broth did not like the name. Did not sound. They wanted the name to end on the "torus", by analogy with a resistor or thermistor. Here, an electronic engineer John Pier comes to the rescue, who perfectly owned the Word (in the future, he will become a famous popularizer of science and a science writer under the pseudonym J. J. J. Coupling). Pierry remembered that one of the parameters of the vacuum trigation is the steepness of the characteristics, in English - transConductance. He proposed to call a similar parameter of the TRANSRESISTANCE solid-state amplifier, and the amplifier itself, and this word simply split in the language - the transistor. I liked the name.
A few days after the wonderful discovery, on Christmas Eve, on December 23, 1947, a presentation of the transistor was a TELEPHONE LABORATORIES manual (Fig. 23).
Fig. 23. Point Transistor Bardina Brattene
William Shockley, who spent vacation in Europe, urgently returned to America. The unexpected success of Bardine and Brattene deeply hurts his pride. He previously thought about the semiconductor amplifier, headed the group, chose the direction of research, but could not claim the co-authorship in the "Star" patent. Against the background of universal babies, gloss and stall glasses with champagne shockley looked disappointed and gloomy. And then there is something that will always be hidden from us by a veil. In one week, which subsequently, Shocley will call his "passionate week", it creates the theory of the transistor with P-N transitions, replacing exotic needles, and in New Year's Eve invents a plane bipolar transistor. (Note that a really working bipolar transistor was manufactured only in 1950.)
The proposal of the schematic diagram of a more efficient solid-state amplifier with a pylled structure equalized Shocley in the rights to open the transistor effect with bardin and broth.
Six months, June 30, 1948, in New York, at Bell Telephone Laboratories headquarters, after the establishment of all necessary patent formalities, passed an open presentation of the transistor. At that time, the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union had already begun, so technical innovations were primarily evaluated by the military. To the surprise of all those present, the experts from the Pentagon were not interested in the transistor and recommended to use it in hearing aids.
In a few years, the new device has become an indispensable component in the control system of combat missiles, but that day the myopia of the military saved the transistor from the grid "completely secret".
Journalists responded to the invention, too, without any emotions. At the forty-sixth page in the "Radio News" section in the New York Times newspaper, a brief note of the invention of a new radio engineering device was printed. Only.
Bell Telephone Laboratories did not expect such a development of events. Military orders with their generous financing did not foresee even in the long term. Urgently makes a decision to sell all the licenses for the transistor. The amount of the transaction is $ 25 thousand. The training center is organized, seminars are held for specialists. The results do not make themselves waiting (Fig. 24).
The transistor quickly finds use in a wide variety of devices - from military and computer equipment to consumer electronics. Interestingly, the first portable radio has long been called the transistor for a long time.
European analogue
Work on the creation of a three-electrode semiconductor amplifier was carried out on the other side of the ocean, but they are much less known about them.
Most recently, the Belgian historian Armand Van Dormel and Professor of Stanford University, Michael Riordan, found that in the late 1940s in Europe was invented and even launched into a series of "native brother of the transistor" Bardina Broth.
European inventors of the point transistor called Herbert Franz Matare and Heinrich Johann Volker (Fig. 25). Matare was a physiological experimenter, worked in the German company Telefunken and was engaged in microwave electronics and radar. Welker was more theoretical, he taught a long time at the University of Munich, and in the War years she worked on Luftwaffe.
Fig. 25. Inventors of Transitron Herbert Matare and Heinrich Velker
They met in Paris. After the defeat of fascist Germany, both physics were invited to the European branch of the American Westinghouse Corporation.
Back in 1944, Matare, engaged in semiconductor rectifiers for radar, designed the device called the Dododode. It was a pair of working parallel to point straighteners using the same lamella in Germany. With the correct selection of parameters, the device suppressed noise in the radar receiver. Then Matare discovered that voltage fluctuations on one electrode can turn into a change in the strength of the current passing through the second electrode. Note that the description of this effect was still in Lilienfeld Patent, and it was possible that Matare knew about it. But be that as it may, he became interested in the observed phenomenon and continued research.
Volker came to the idea of \u200b\u200bthe transistor on the other hand, engaged in quantum physics and zone theory of solid body. At the very beginning of 1945, it creates a scheme of a solid-state amplifier, very similar to the device shockley. In March, Velker has time to collect him and experience, but he was lucky no more than the Americans. Device is not working.
In Paris, Matare and Velkeer are charged to organize industrial production of semiconductor rectifiers for the French telephone network. At the end of 1947, rectifiers are launched into a series, and Matar with Velker appears time to resume research. They proceed to further experiments with a doodimate. Together, they make plates from much cleaner Germany and get a stable gain effect. Already at the beginning of June 1948, Matare and Velker create a steadily working point transistor. The European transistor appears half a year later than the Bardine and Brutine device, but absolutely independent of it. About the work of Americans Matare and Velker could not know anything. The first mention in the press on the "new radio device", released from Bell Laboratories, appeared only on July 1.
Further fate of the European invention has developed sadly. Matare and Volker in August prepared a patent application for the invention, but the French patent office studied the documents for a very long time. Only in March 1952, they receive a patent for the invention of transitron - such a name chose German physics to their semiconductor amplifier. By that time, the Paris branch Westinghouse has already begun serial production of transitrons. The main customer was the postal ministry. In France, there were many new telephone lines. Nevertheless, the age of transitron was a non-national. Despite the fact that they worked better and longer than their American "fellow" (due to a more thorough assembly), transitron could conquer the global market. Subsequently, the French authorities have generally refused to subsidize research in the field of semiconductor electronics, switching to larger nuclear projects. The laboratory Matare and Velker comes in decline. Scientists decide to return to their homeland. By the time Germany begins the revival of science and high-tech industry. Welker is arranged to work in the Laboratory of the Siemens Concern, which will be headed later, and Matare moves to Düsseldorf and becomes president of the small company Intermetall, which produces semiconductor devices.
Afterword
If you trace the fate of Americans, John Bardine left Bell Telephone Labora-Tories in 1951, he took up the theory of superconductivity and in 1972 together with the two students was awarded the Nobel Prize "For the Development of theory of Superconductivity", thus becoming the only one in history Scientists, twice the Nobel laureate.
Walter Brattein worked at Bell Telephone Laboratories before retirement in 1967, and then returned to his hometown and engaged in teaching physics at the local university.
William Shockley's fate has developed as follows. He leaves Bell Telephone Laboratories in 1955 and, with the financial assistance of Arnold Bekman, is based on a transistor manufacturing company - Shockly Transistor Corporation. A lot of talented scientists and engineers are moving to work in a new company, but in two years most of them go from Shockley. Estracy, arrogance, unwillingness to listen to the opinion of colleagues and obsessive the idea not to repeat the error he made in working with Bardin and Broth, do its job. The company falls apart.
His former employees Gordon Moore and Robert Neuss, with the support of the same Beckman, are based on Fairchild Semiconductor, and then, in 1968, create its own company - Intel.
Schocley's dream to build a semiconductor business empire has been implemented by others (Fig. 26), and he again got the role of an outside observer. The irony of fate lies in the fact that in 1952 it was shockles that suggested the design of the field transistor based on silicon. Nevertheless, the company Shockly Transistor Corporation has not released a single field transistor. Today, this device is the basis of the entire computer industry.
Fig. 26. Evolution of transistor
After failure in Business Shokli becomes a teacher at Standford University. He reads brilliant lectures in physics, personally engaged in graduate students, but he lacks the former Glory - all the fact that the Americans call the Clean Word of Publicity. Shocley is included in public life and begins to speak with reports on many social and demographic issues. Offering solutions to acute problems associated with the overpopulation of Asian countries and national differences, it rolls towards Eugene and racial intolerance. Press, television, scientific journals accuse him of extremism and racism. Shocley again "famous" and seems to be satisfied with everything that is happening. His reputation and career of the scientist comes an end. He retires, ceases to communicate with everyone, even with his own children, and lives the life with a rejection.
Different people, different fates, but all of them unites involvement in the opening, fundamentally changed our world.
Date December 19, 1947 can be considered to be considered the birthday of the new era. There was a countdown of the new time. The world stepped into the era of digital technologies.
Literature
- William F. Brinkman, Douglas E. Haggan, William W. Troutman. A History of the Invention of the Transistor and Where It Will Lead US // Ieee Journal of Solid-State Circuits. Vol.32, no.12. Deceptber 1997.
- Hugo Gernsback. A SENSATIONAL RADIO INVENTION // RADIO NEWS. September 1924.
- Novikov M. A. Oleg Vladimirovich Losev - Pioneer semiconductor electronics // Solid State Physics. 2004. Volume 46, vol. one.
- Ostrumov B., Shatakhter I. Inventor Kristadina O. V. Losev. // Radio. 1952. number 5.
- Zhirnov V., Sewat N. Invention of the engineer Losev // Expert. 2004. No. 15.
- Lee T. H., a nonlinear History of Radio. Cambridge University Press. 1998.
- Nosov Y. Transistor Paradoxes // Quant. 2006. No. 1.
- Andrew emmerson. Who Really Invented Transistor? www.Radiobygones.com
- Michael Riordan. How Europe Missed The Transistor // Ieee Spectrum, Nov. 2005. www.spectrum.ieee.org.
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