Ministry of Higher and Professional Education of the Russian Federation
Perm State Technical University
Department of Foreign Languages and Psychology
Borrowings in English
Performed:
Art. gr. PRF98-6
Vityukhovskaya Yana
Checked:
Solovyova O. V.
Perm 2000
Introduction. 2
I Etymological structure of the English vocabulary 3
II The role of borrowings in the development of English vocabulary 6
III Classification of borrowings 9
IV Source of borrowings 12
V The problem of assimilation of borrowed words 17
Conclusion 21
Bibliography 22
Introduction.
Topic of this course work belongs to the field of lexicology. As you know, vocabulary is the most dynamic aspect of a language in any period of time. It represents the least degree of abstraction in language, since the word is always subject-oriented; it can be borrowed, formed, formed anew, or from elements existing in the language. In my work, I consider borrowing as one of the main ways of word formation in the English language.
The work is structured in accordance with the goals that the author sets for himself:
1) consider the most important sources and ways of penetration of borrowings into the English language
2) determine their role and place in the vocabulary of the English language
3) consider the features of borrowing words based on etymological analysis
The objectives of the course work also include learning to determine the origins of forms and phenomena reflected in any modern word. To do this, I examined in detail the history of Britain, the history of the language, and also analyzed words (which is the practical part of the work). I also made an attempt to systematize and classify borrowings, based on the research of specialists in the field of linguistics.
The work consists of five chapters and a conclusion. Theoretical provisions were developed on the basis of achievements in the field of borrowing and etymology of the English language. The practical part consists of the etymological analysis of words.
I Etymological structure of the English vocabulary.
Modern language is a product of long historical development, during which the language undergoes diverse changes due to for various reasons. Changes affect all sides (levels, tiers, aspects) of the language structure, but act in them differently. The historical development of each level depends on specific causes and conditions that stimulate changes in the lexical composition of the language, in its phonetic (phonological) organization, in its grammatical structure.
Language development is characterized by processes of growth and decay. Thus, in the English language, analytical forms and a complex system of verb formation are developing, but the system of declension and personal endings of the verb is falling apart, words fall out of the vocabulary, and new ones appear through borrowing or new formations.
The history of a language reveals all the processes that occurred in a language at different stages of its existence. The causes (factors) of changes that are inherent in the language itself are called linguistic (or interlinguistic), and factors associated with the history of a people, with the general development of human society, are called extralinguistic . These 2 concepts and 2 sides of the history of language are constantly in contact.
The accumulation of knowledge about the history of the development of various aspects of the language should ultimately lead to such a level of final preparation when, with the help of an etymological dictionary, and to a large extent without it, it is possible to explain the origins of the forms and phenomena reflected in any modern word.
Table 1. Etymological structure of the English dictionary. language.
This table requires some explanation. First, you should pay attention to the fact that the second column not only contains more groups, but also contains a larger number of words. This is explained by the high percentage of borrowed words in the English language (75%), which came as a result of numerous historical events and international connections.
In terms of vocabulary, English should be classified as a language of international origin, or at least as one of the Romance languages (since French and Latin words predominate). But given the relative frequency of the words, it is clear that the Anglo-Saxon heritage is taking its toll. The local element in English contains a huge number of frequently repeated words, such as articles, prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, as well as words denoting objects Everyday life(child, water, come, good, bad, etc.)
Moreover, the grammatical structure, essentially Germanic, remained untouched by foreign influence.
It should also be noted that at different times, purists tried to cleanse the English language of foreign words, replacing them with Anglo-Saxon ones. One linguistic nationalist wrote: “Avoid Latin derivatives; use short, expressive Anglo-Saxon monosyllabic words.” (AvoidLatinderivatives; use brief, terseAnglo-Saxonmonosyllable) The irony is that the only Anglo-Saxon word in this slogan is "Anglo-Saxon".
Now let's return to the first column of the table, which represents the local element, the basis of the English vocabulary. The column consists of three groups and only the third is dated. Words from this group appeared in English in the 5th century or later. That is, after the Germanic tribes migrated to the British Isles. As for the Indo-European and Germanic groups, they are so old that they cannot be dated.
The Indo-European element refers to words common to all or more languages of the Indo-European group. English words of this group denote elementary concepts without which human communication is impossible. They can be combined into the following groups:
1. family relationships: father, mother, brother, son, daughter
2.body parts: foot, nose, lip, heart
3.animals: cow, swine, goose.
4.plants: tree, birch, corn
5.times of day: day, night.
6.celestial bodies: sun, moon, star
7.adjectives: red, new, glad, sad
8.numbers from 1 to 100
9. personal and demonstrative pronouns(except they)
10. a large number of verbs: be, stand, sit, eat, know
The Germanic element represents words common to all or most languages of Germanic origin. Some main groups of Germanic words are similar to groups of the Indo-European element:
1.body parts: head, hand, arm, finger, bone
2.animals: bear, fox, calf
3.plants: oak, fir, grass
4.natural phenomena:rain, frost
5. seasons: winter, spring, summer
6.landscapes: sea, land
7.human habitation and furniture: house, room, banch
8.seaworthy vessels: boat, ship
9.adjectives: green, blue, gray, white, small, thick, hight, old, good
10.verbs: see, hear, tell, say, answer, make, give, drink
It should be noted that the actual English element, in in a certain way, is opposed to the first two groups. Not only is it approximately dated, but these words have another feature: they are definitely English and do not have a common origin with words in other languages, while a common root can be found in Indo-European and Germanic words.
II The role of borrowings in the development of English vocabulary
The role of borrowings (borrowings, loan-words) in different languages is not the same and depends on the specific historical conditions of the development of each language. In English, the percentage of borrowings is much higher than in many other languages, since for historical reasons it turned out to be, in contrast to, for example, Icelandic, very permeable. English, more than any other language, had the opportunity to borrow foreign words in conditions of direct direct contact: first in the Middle Ages from successive foreign invaders in the British Isles, and later in conditions of trade expansion and colonial activity of the British themselves. It is estimated that the number of native words in the English dictionary is only about 30%.
It would be a vulgarization to believe that the role of a word in a language is determined by whether it is borrowed or original. Nevertheless, all the most common prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs of time and place, all auxiliary and modal verbs, almost all strong verbs and almost all pronouns, adjectives with suppletive formation of degrees of comparison, all numerals, with the exception of second, million, billion and, finally , many nouns that denote the most common concepts that are constantly involved in the act of communication are native words in modern English.
The general law on the unevenness of changes in language elements, as applied to the problem of borrowing, is formulated as follows: the most permeable are the most mobile elements of the language included in the vocabulary of the language, less permeable are the settled elements of the fund, and the grammatical structure of the language is almost not subject to foreign influences.
English is considered one of the richest languages in the world. It contains about 200 thousand words of active vocabulary. Few languages can match its richness of vocabulary. The reason for this is the word-forming abilities of the English language, as well as its ability to borrow words from other languages. Everyone knows that the vocabulary of the English language has truly absorbed a huge number of words from different languages of the world, in this regard, we would really like to know from which languages the vocabulary was borrowed and, finally, from which language of the world the most words were borrowed.
When a word is borrowed from one language to another, it is very difficult to predict what fate awaits it. A word can develop a new system of meanings for it and enter into new relationships in combination with other words in the vocabulary of the borrowing language, move away from its original state and therefore cease to be felt as a foreign element in the language. This, for example, happened with the noun stomach, which, while continuing to remain an anatomical term, became widely used and became part of phraseological units such as to have no stomach for something (to have no taste or desire for something), haughty stomach (arrogance), etc. This process is also observed in other languages. The influence of one language on another does not pass without leaving a trace. This process is observed in all languages of the world, so this topic is relevant for all nations and nationalities. Of course, the language continues to expand through borrowings and borrowings help enrich the vocabulary of the language.
We believe that the topic of this research work is relevant for our time, because borrowing is an integral part of our modern life.
From our point of view, the main centers of attraction for new borrowings are
1. Everyday life in its everyday and cultural aspects:
Sushi, geisha, tenaki-sushi – Japanese;
Machine - French;
Harem – Arabic;
Hamburger – German;
Pizza, spaghetti, macaroni – Italian.
2. Social and political life:
Glasnost, perestroika, nomenclatura – Russian;
Viking – Scandinavian;
Hara-kiri, samurai – Japanese;
Bank, balcony, umbrella – Italian.
3. Sphere of culture (literature, cinema, theater, music, painting, etc.):
Ballet - French;
Karaoke, ikebana – Japanese;
Piano, opera, sonata - Italian.
4. Scientific and technical sphere:
Mechatronics - French;
Tenaki – Japanese.
5. World of sports:
Kimono, aiki-jitsu, aikido – Japanese.
Summarizing the above, it must be emphasized that without this layer it is impossible to imagine the entire corpus of new vocabulary of the English language. And, of course, foreign language borrowings played a huge role in the development of the English language.
3. Research methods
Collection, processing, interpretation of material, as well as analysis of international words and questioning of students in knowledge of the meaning of international words, allowed us to study more deeply this topic and solve the research problem.
4. Goals and objectives of the study
The goal is to explore the process of interpenetration of words in the English language as it interacts with other languages. Identify sources, motivation, scope of borrowing, expand your horizons and vocabulary.
The objectives are to:
1) identify where and why the borrowed word came into English;
2) determine what changes its appearance caused in the vocabulary of the English language;
3) identify international words in the English language and point out some differences in the Russian and English languages;
4) establish the main methods of borrowing;
5) find out why English has a greater ability to borrow foreign words than any other language.
General characteristics of English borrowings
2. 1. The role and conditions of borrowing in the vocabulary
The role of borrowings in different languages is not the same and depends on the specific historical conditions of the development of each language. In English, the percentage of borrowings is much higher than in many other languages, since for historical reasons it turned out, in contrast to many languages, to be very permeable. English, more than any other language, has the opportunity to borrow foreign words in conditions of direct direct contact with other languages: first in the Middle Ages from successive foreign invaders in the British Isles, and later in conditions of trade expansion and colonial activity of the British themselves.
Borrowing is one of the important ways to enrich vocabulary, but not the only one and not even the most important one.
We are interested in where and why the borrowed word came from and how it took root in the language, how it changed its meaning and what changes its appearance caused in the vocabulary of the language that adopted it.
The largest Russian linguist of the 19th century, A. A. Potrebnya, paid attention to the creative element in the process of borrowing. “To borrow,” he said, “means to take in order, perhaps, to contribute more to the treasury of human culture than you receive.”
A borrowed word usually takes on one or more meanings of words closest to it that already existed in the language. In this case, some secondary value may become central or vice versa. It can also happen, and often happens, that words that closely match the meaning of the new word are forced out of the language. This happens because the long-term existence of absolute or almost absolute synonyms in a language is always eliminated either by the delimitation of their meanings or by the displacement of unnecessary words from the language.
It should be emphasized that the consolidation of a borrowed word in a language does not necessarily lead to the displacement of the corresponding original one. The changes in vocabulary caused by it can be expressed in stylistic grouping or in the delimitation of meanings. For example, the borrowed word from the French language people pushed aside the original word folk. The word folk acquired additional meaning. It is used when talking about one’s own: family, fellow villagers, fellow countrymen, compatriots. This word is widespread in popular colloquial speech and in folk art and is not without reason included in the term folklore.
This or that influence of one language on another is always explained historical reasons: wars, conquests, travel, trade, etc., which lead to more or less close interaction of different languages. The intensity of the influx of new borrowed words in different periods is very different. Depending on specific historical conditions, it either increases or falls.
Borrowing vocabulary can occur orally and in writing. In the case of oral borrowing, words quickly take root in the language. Words borrowed in writing retain their phonetic, spelling and grammatical features longer.
2. 2. Basic methods of borrowing
The main ways of borrowing vocabulary are the phonetic method, transliteration and tracing.
The phonetic method is a borrowing of words in which its sound form is preserved. In this way, the words football, trailer, jeans and others were borrowed from the English language. For example, ballet, bouquet and others were borrowed into English from the French regime.
Transliteration is another method of borrowing in which the spelling of a foreign word is borrowed: the letters of the foreign word are replaced with letters of the native language. Using this method, the words cruise (English cruise), motel (English motel), club (English club) were borrowed from English into Russian. Many proper names are also transliterated when borrowed from English: Washington (English Washington), Texas (English Texas ["teksəs]), London (English London). In English there are many words of Greek, Latin and French origin, which have retained their graphic features, although they are read according to the rules of the English language.
Tracing is a method of borrowing in which the associative meaning and structural model of a word or phrase are borrowed. When tracing, the components of a borrowed word or phrase are translated separately and combined according to the model of a foreign word or phrase. For example, the German noun Vaterland, translated in parts, gave the English tracing paper Fatherland; Russian noun suicide - calque of Latin suicide (sui self, cide - murder); The English noun self-service, borrowed into Russian, has the form self-service. The following phrases were borrowed by this method: vicious circle - vicious circle; masterpiece - masterpiece; rep pate - pseudonym; blue stocking blue stocking, learned woman and others.
2. 3. Sources of borrowings
1. French borrowings
The influence of the French language on English was especially strong during the period of French domination in the country (XI-XV centuries), when a national English language had not yet emerged. The French invasion of England in 1066 marked the beginning of the so-called period of the Norman Conquest. French has for a long time been state language England, and there was bilingualism in the country.
During this period, words related to feudal relations (feudal, baron, vassal) were borrowed; almost all titles (peer, prince, count) and addresses sir and madam; words related to the dominant government and the state in general (state, people, nation, government, power, authority, etc.); words related to monetary relations (money, property); words denoting family relationships (parent, cousin, uncle, aunt, etc.); a large number of military terms (army, battle, victory, war, etc.); words denoting pleasure, entertainment (feast, pleasure, delight, comfort, etc.); legal terms (accuse, court, crime, etc.), etc.
The New English language takes shape during the Renaissance. Scientific works of this period are already written in English, but since before that, during the Middle Ages, the language of science was Latin and since the Renaissance was characterized by interest in monuments ancient culture, the use of style, rhetorical techniques of construction of Greek and Roman authors, it is quite natural that the replenishment of the dictionary and the creation of new scientific terminology was largely due to borrowings from Latin, as well as from Greek languages. This is how, for example, the terminology of philosophy, law, medicine, etc. was created.
In addition to French, a number of European languages participated to a greater or lesser extent in enriching the vocabulary of the English language, for example, Latin, Dutch, Italian, Spanish.
2. Latin borrowings
From Latin language A considerable number of words were borrowed into English. Here are the most common of them: street – paved (road); port – port; wall – shaft; vacuum - vacuum; wine – wine; inertia – inertia; mile - a thousand steps.
All these words were borrowed orally and entered the main vocabulary of the English language.
The largest number of words borrowed by the English language from the Latin language are so-called book borrowings. These are words that entered the language not as a result of direct, live communication between peoples, but through written documents, books, and so on. Most Latin book borrowings that have not previously been attested in English occur during the Renaissance in England. It is impossible to give a list of these words within the scope of this work; for this you need to compile a special dictionary.
3. Dutch borrowings
Even in the Middle Ages, there were quite close trade and industrial ties between England and the Netherlands. England recruited quite a significant number of Dutch and Flemish craftsmen of various specialties, mainly shipbuilders and weavers, to work in guild enterprises. There are especially many words of Dutch origin in the terminology of shipbuilding and navigation. These are, for example: cruise - to cruise, dock - dock, geef - reef (hole in the sail for a rope), skipper - skipper, yacht - yacht, etc. Weaving terms of Dutch origin, which entered the English language in the Middle English and earlier New English period . Such as: to gloss - to add shine to fabric, rock - spinning wheel, spool - bobbin, stripe - piece of fabric.
And also a special group of Dutch borrowings in the English language are art history terms that have entered the vocabulary of the English language. For example, landscape - landscape, maulstick - maulstick, etc.
4. Italian and Spanish loanwords
The Italian language also made a significant contribution to the vocabulary of the English language, starting around the 16th century. During the Renaissance, Italian culture, especially in the fields of music, painting, architecture, and literature, had a great influence on the culture of England; this was reflected, in particular, in the borrowing of many words related to the listed areas, already directly from the Italian language and in most cases, preserving their original form. These are the musical terms allegro, aria, legato, libretto, opera, sonata, soprano, tempo, trio; terms from the field of fine arts, for example, fresco, studio, terra cotta, etc. Words such as grotto, granite, fiasco, incognito, soda, umbrella also came into widespread use in England; including words that convey characteristic details of Italian life in the perception of English tourists, for example, macaroni, spaghetti, etc. In connection with the development of trade relations between England and Italy, such Italian words as bank - bank, Lombard - came into the English language Lombard (from the name of the Italian region of Lombardy, from where many moneylenders and money changers came out in the Middle Ages), traffic - trade and others.
The Spanish language contributed a number of its own words to the English vocabulary, and also served as a transmitter of many words from various languages of the indigenous population of America.
IN English vocabulary one can count several dozen Spanish words borrowed directly from Spanish. For example, words such as: armada - navy, banana - banana, barbecue - lattice, bonanza - accumulation of rich ore, booby - fool, bravado - boasting, canyon - gorge, canoe - kayak, chilli - red pepper, chocolate - chocolate, cigar - cigar, negro - black man, potato - potato, tobacco - tobacco, tomato - tomato, tornado - whirlwind, vanilla - vanilla.
5. German borrowings
Modern English vocabulary also contains a number of borrowed German words. Most often, the influence of the German language manifests itself in the form of a phrase, such as: bolt from the blue - a bolt from the blue, chain-smoker - a heavy smoker, homesickness - homesickness, masterpiece - a masterpiece, place in the sun - a place in the sun, song without words - songs without words, storm and stress - storm and stress, swan song - swan song, one-sided - one-sided, time-spirit - spirit of the time, superman - superman, world-famous - world famous. Especially many words and expressions come from the terminology of classical German philosophy, for example, world-outlook.
6. Russian borrowings
The history of Russian borrowings in English reflects the history of trade and political relations between Russia and England. The Russian language began to influence the English language much later than other European languages, such as Latin, French, German, Italian, and Spanish.
Historical borrowings include a group of words pre-revolutionary, revolutionary and Soviet periods: arsheen (arshin), tzar (king), desyatin (tithe), kulak (fist), okhrana (security), bolshevik (Bolshevik), politbureau (politburo), sovnarhoz (economic council), etc.
Everyday vocabulary demonstrates the originality of the way of Russian life: babushka (grandmother), blin (pancake), kovsh (ladle), zakuska (snack), kasha (porridge), samovar (samovar), vodka (vodka), etc. Words of this group found when describing Russian life.
Biogeographic vocabulary is made up of words denoting plants, animals, natural phenomena and zones: badiaga (badiyaga), zubr (bison), tur (tour), sable (sable), suslik (gopher), beluga (beluga), buran (blizzard) , purga (blizzard), steppe (steppe), etc.
Socio-political vocabulary is represented by words denoting the socio-political structure of Russia at the present stage: perestroika (perestroika), glasnost (glasnost), intelligentsia (intelligentsia), Russianness (Russian spirit), Duma (Duma), apparat (apparatus), chinovnik ( official), starosta (elder), etc.
Vocabulary associated with art includes words of original Russian meaning: balalaika (balalaika), bylina (episode), gusli (harp), prisiadka (squat).
Army vocabulary - represented by such famous words as Kalashnikov (Kalashnikov), Katyusha (Katyusha), stavka (rate), feldsher (paramedic).
In conclusion, it should be noted that Russian borrowings also played a big role in improving the modern philosophical and political terminology of all languages, including English.
Having examined all sources of borrowing in the English language and analyzed statistical data from the Internet (see appendices p. 19), we can confidently say that the percentage of borrowings from other languages is very high.
2. 4. International words
A special group consists of international words. It often happens that when denoting an important new concept, a word is borrowed not into one language, but into many languages. Thus, an international vocabulary fund is created, which includes international terminology of various fields human activity: politics, philosophy, science, technology, art, as well as many abstract words.
International, or international words, borrowed from one source, have graphic and sound similarities and, coinciding to some extent in meaning, constitute, as it were, the common heritage of a number of languages due to the vocabulary of the ancients, i.e. Latin and Greek (democracy, proletarian, philosophy , atom, modern, program, system).
The other part comes from modern languages: soviet, kolkhoz, sputnik – from Russian revolution, bourgeois, telegraph – from French football, telephone, cruise, motel, club, analysis, army, communism, culture, nation, function, instruction, international, geometry, geography, mathematics, physics , philosophy This also includes a large number of terms from physics, chemistry, biology, physiology, etc.
From the above examples, we see that many terms belong to international vocabulary, that is, they are the property of not only English, but also a number of other languages.
Practical part
As a result of borrowing, the English language was replenished with international words, which are understood as words that are found in many languages of the world, but have minor phonetic differences associated with the pronunciation features of each language. For example: address, telegraph, socialism.
We conducted a survey among students of our lyceum in order to show the discrepancies in some meanings in the Russian and English languages.
40 students had to write what this or that word means in Russian and what its meaning is in English.
We have chosen several such international words: control, family, general, magazine, original, atom.
These are the results we got from analyzing the answers to the tasks.
The first word was control
All 40 students (100%) know the original meaning of this word ‘control’. 10 students (25%) know that this word has multiple meanings and can take on the following meanings: ‘management’, ‘leadership’, ‘power’.
The second word was family
All 40 students (100%) know that in English family means only ‘family’ or ‘clan’, and ‘surname’ never has a meaning in English.
We took the third word - general
All 40 students (100%) answered that general is the same as the Russian word ‘general’. 30 people (75%) answered that more often this word general appears as an adjective with the meaning ‘main’, ‘general’, ‘ordinary’.
The fourth word we took was magazine
All students (40 people - 100%) answered that the word magazine does not correspond to the Russian ‘shop’, but means ‘magazine’. And two (5%) also translated this word as ‘a warehouse for military supplies’.
The fifth word was - original
All students (40 people - 100%) answered that the noun in Russian and English coincides with its meaning, but 35 students (87.5%) know it as an adjective in the meaning of 'original', 'genuine'.
And the last word was - atom
An international word was proposed that coincides in its literal meaning, but diverges in the possibilities of figurative use.
All 40 people (100%) translated this word as ‘atom’ but not a single student knows figurative meaning of this word – ‘baby’, ‘crumb’, as is sometimes the case in English. Speaking about little Paul Dombe, Dickens calls him ‘the atom’; this metaphor can be translated into Russian in one word – ‘crumb’.
Based on the above, we can draw the following conclusions:
1. Many international words differ not only in external form, but also in meaning.
About 19% of students do not know the main meaning of international words in English.
2. The questionnaire and subsequent conversation with students made it possible to replenish their vocabulary and deepen students’ knowledge of the origin and meaning of many international words.
Therefore, this research work has practical significance and is of great interest to students.
Conclusion
Having familiarized ourselves with the works of scientists available to us in the field of the history of the English language, dealing with the problems of language contacts and borrowings, we have identified such an interesting fact that borrowings in the English language are striking not only in their quantity, but also in the variety of languages from which they are borrowed.
In the process of historical development, the English language has borrowed a huge amount of vocabulary from other languages. French can be considered the most active donor languages (mechatronics, prince, people, money, parent, army, comfort, coach, etc.); Japanese (hara-kiri, sushi, karaoke, ikebana, samurai, geisha, kimono), on this moment Japanese is one of the leading donor languages; Latin (street, port, wine, mile, etc.); Dutch (dock, reef, yacht, rock, spool, landscape, etc.); Italian (sonata, umbrella, balcony, bank, macaroni, spaghetti, etc.); Spanish (banana, barbecue, bravado, canyon, chili, chocolate, potato, tomato, etc.); German (superman, homesickness, hamburger, delicatessen etc.); Russian (tzar, spetsnaz, limitchiki, glasnost, perestroika, etc.).
The vocabulary of the English language will also be replenished from other languages: happy, low, ill, ugly, weak, Viking (Scand.); haiduk, hussar (Hungarian); polka, mazurka (Polish); algebra, harem (Arabic); psychology, alphabet, sympathy (Greek).
Having carried out, to the best of our ability, a thorough analysis of borrowed words in the English language, the following conclusions can be drawn.
Firstly, foreign language borrowings are one of the types of enrichment of the vocabulary of the English language.
Secondly, the vocabulary of the English language has absorbed a truly huge number of words from a wide variety of languages of the world, and the reason for this is huge amount borrowings and the diversity of languages from which they are borrowed lie in the specifics of the historical development of England. This specificity lies in the fact that the English people were constantly in direct contact with many foreign-speaking peoples, first as a defeated people, subsequently due to the transformation of England into a colonial power as a colonizing people. In addition, during a certain historical period in England, Latin and French acted as functional languages in various spheres of social activity. Although the English language emerged victorious from the struggle against the languages of the conquerors, although it was forcibly implanted in colonial countries, nevertheless, it could not help but absorb into its vocabulary many words from the languages with which it came into contact. It is these historical circumstances that explain such an abundance of borrowings in the language.
Thirdly, under the influence of borrowing, many original words fell out of use or changed their meaning. For example, the noun bar in French means ‘bar’, ‘bolt’, but in English this word is translated as ‘bar’, ‘restaurant’, which has no meaning in French.
Borrowings are also interesting because they are able to reflect changes in the cultural and historical life of the country.
We live in very unstable times, a time of change. These changes primarily affect the socio-political sphere of life. therefore, it can be assumed that to a greater extent words will be borrowed from this group. We can only hope that these words will have a positive connotation.
And in conclusion, I would like to note that even in our time, the French language retains its leading position among European donor languages.
Marketing, offshore, Internet, dress code - it seems that the Russian language will soon have no Russian words at all, only Anglicisms. It is not surprising that the English language also has quite a lot of “foreign friends”, borrowings from other languages, and many of them have entered so deeply into English usage that it can be difficult to distinguish borrowed words from native English ones.
The original vocabulary of the English language reflects the most ancient concepts: natural phenomena (“moon” - moon, “night” - night), animals that are common in a given region or are important in the life of the English (“cat” - cat, “bull” - bull ), as well as the most frequently used verbs (“know” - to know, “work” - to work). These words are simple in form and mostly monosyllabic, which means that with the help various suffixes and prefixes, we can easily form their new forms (“know - knowledge - unknown”) and actively use them in stable phrases (“know the ropes” - thoroughly understand).
Where do borrowings come from in languages, and how did the English language, which was originally historically isolated from the mainland by a strait, receive foreign infusions into its structure? Like any other lands, Great Britain was subjected to attacks and conquests, and with its aggressive neighbors new words, concepts, and traditions arrived on the territory of the state, which gradually settled and mixed with national ones. Thus, with the Romans, Latin first came to Britain, and the Norman conquest brought with it French linguistic aspects, which were most firmly entrenched in English. The development of Britain into a superpower led the British to new territories, where, having encountered new concepts, they simply adopted the necessary words from the local peoples, for example, the English language took over the now irreplaceable Spanish “tomate”. At the present stage, the source of borrowing is international relations and tourism, because once an Englishman has tasted the refreshing Russian kvass, he will never forget the sonorous word “kvass”.
So, which languages have most influenced our beloved English?
Scandinavian languages
In the 10th-11th centuries, the harsh Scandinavians, along with their conquests, brought their hardened language to the British Isles. The socio-economic and cultural development of both countries at this stage was very close, so the exchange of words took place at the level of objects already known to the British. Due to the fact that Scandinavian and English belong to the same language branch, borrowings took root very easily, and many philologists even consider these borrowings as interdialectal exchange. Be that as it may, it was the Scandinavians who brought into English the so familiar “angry” (evil), “fit” (suitable), “get” (receive), “skill” (skill), “happen” (happen).
French
The French language came to Britain with the Normans, who brought with their warlike swords the north-eastern vernacular of French, which greatly influenced the English language as we know it today. Having completely seized power on the islands, the Normans made French the official language, which is why most borrowings from French are words from the sphere government controlled, military affairs, organization of city life, for example, “government” - government, “village” - village, “victory” - victory. There are many French words among everyday common vocabulary, for example, “face” - face, “money” - money, “minute” - minute. Also, the English owe many word-forming elements to the French language, for example, such a convenient suffix - able (“acceptable” - acceptable, “adorable” - charming). Thus, French loanwords account for 29% of the modern vocabulary of the English language.
Latin language
Borrowings from the Latin language passed into English peacefully - trade, the development of science and art at different stages of historical development brought with them new words from the mainland into English, so these were words of an everyday nature (“pepper” - pepper, “wine” - wine) , religious concepts (“school” - school, “priest” - priest), scientific, technical, and especially medical terms (“microscope” - microscope, “laboratory” - laboratory). As is known, words when borrowed lose their original form, however, as for Latin borrowings, many of them are fixed in the language as so-called “quotations”, for example, “alma mater” about universities, “ex officio” - according to position. In general, Latin borrowings occupy another 29% of the modern vocabulary of the English language, and these borrowings are even collected in entire dictionaries and reference books.
Russian language
Our native Russian language also brought diversity to English, because philologists date the first borrowings from Slavic languages to the 12th century, linking the modern word “milk” with the Old English “meolk”, which are the same roots as the Slavic word “milk”. An early borrowed word is also the word “sable” (sable), when sable fur was used as a product of exchange and a monetary unit in the 12th-13th centuries, it was simply necessary in the language. Later, Russian borrowings were associated with trade and economic relations, which brought the words “shuba”, “beluga”, “samovar” into English; they also appeared due to the interest of the British in the socio-political life of Russia (“Decebrist”, “nihilism” ). There are not so many Russian borrowings in the English language, but he also enriched English with new linguistic units and concepts.
Throughout the development of any language, it faces great influence from the languages of neighbors, trading partners, and conquerors. Many linguists advocate clearing the language of external interference. This trend is usually called purism. Of course, each language must develop according to its own characteristic rules, like a painting by a skilled artist, maintained in the same style, otherwise the language is doomed to fade, but borrowings can significantly diversify linguistic forms, concepts and add bright touches to an impeccable canvas.
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Introduction
IN modern world English is the most important means of international communication. The expansion of international contacts and the superiority of English-speaking countries in almost all areas of activity contribute to constant emergence English borrowings in Russian. Perhaps this is a manifestation of the “globalization” of the English language, which is so often spoken and written about today. Linguists also mention such a phenomenon as English-Russian bilingualism, which may be a consequence of this very “globalization” of the English language. In the dictionary of S.I. Ozhegov anglicism is a word or figure of speech in any language, borrowed from the English language or created on the model of an English word and expression.
Of course, the abundance of foreign language vocabulary in the Russian language cannot but worry native speakers of the Russian language, especially people of the older generation. "Young people are getting used to lexical phenomena common Russian-English language, thereby, in a sense, losing the originality and traditionality of the native language and destroying its integrity,” they think. But it’s true that many young people consider foreign vocabulary more attractive, prestigious, fashionable, “sounding”: for example, they pronounce “celebrity” rather than celebrity; “top manager”, not a leader; “exclusive” rather than exceptional; “top model”, not the best model; “price list”, not price list, “make-up”, not makeup; “image”, not image, “showman”, not presenter. It is very important to understand that language does not live in isolation from the society in which it develops; Borrowing words is a natural and necessary process of language development, and there is no language that would be completely free from foreign influences. Most of the borrowed words have been successfully assimilated into the Russian language and are no longer perceived as foreign: president, mayor, radio, pudding, biscuit, sandwich, football, sofa, etc.
The purpose of this research work is to study English borrowings as a linguistic phenomenon. The objectives of research activities are:
determination of characteristic suffixal features of Anglicisms for their recognition in the Russian language;
identifying the spheres of human life with the most high concentration Anglicisms;
studying the reasons for the large flow of Anglicisms into the Russian language;
studying the typology of Anglicisms;
studying slang as a conductor of Anglicisms into the native language;
determination of the pros and cons of the presence of Anglicisms in the Russian language
Main part
Examples of Anglicisms in Russian speech can be heard everywhere. “Newfangled gadgets and devices are especially popular among young buyers. On TNT on Saturday evening, viewers can watch the dance battle. The “Dancing” program has announced another casting for professional dancers throughout Russia. An unlucky person is called a loser. The facades of adobe houses are often finished with German siding. There are psychological techniques aimed at measuring the IQ of pupils and students. Without promotion it is difficult to achieve success in labor activity. Tourists enjoy fresh orange juice on vacation. Broadcasts of summits and reports summing up their results arouse great interest among mature and elderly audiences. TV series usually end with a happy ending, etc.” Ordinary people are familiar with numerous economic and financial terms, such as barter, broker, dealer, distributor, marketing, investment, loans, etc. New types are emerging for sports lovers sports activities: windsurfing, arm wrestling, freestyle, skateboarding, snowboarding, kickboxing. With the development of computerization, terms related to computer technology appeared: not only the word computer itself, but also display, file, interface, printer, scanner, laptop, driver, browser, website, etc. Well, a woman’s cosmetic bag is replete with gizmos, for which only English lexical units are used: concealer (corrector pencil), peeling cream (removing small dead skin particles), lifting cream (cream that tightens the skin), perfume (perfume), eye liner (eyeliner), etc.
How can you recognize anglicisms in speech? This tip will help those who do not know English at all.
Spheres of human activity where Anglicisms abound in large quantities have also been identified:
|
Politics / economics / positions |
summit, briefing, speaker, rating, holding, electorate, voucher, impeachment, image maker, speechwriter, investment, sponsor, barrel, media, recession, marketing, leasing, tender, retail, offshore, price list, (top) manager, promoter , distributor, dealer, businesswoman, mentality |
|
Food/clothing/trade |
hot dog, cheeseburger, hamburger, fishburger, barbecue, chocolate pie, popcorn, (orange) fresh juice, yogurt, pudding, Coca-Cola, Nats Twix, Sprite, fast food, lunch, shorts, boots, bandana, cotton, top , non-roll (pillow), multi-brand, unisex, casual, catering, shopping, shopaholic, sale, gel, SPA - salon, supermarket, VIP-room, second-hand, discount, catering |
|
shaping, fitness, diving, surfing, bodybuilding, snowboarding, paintball, freestyle, wrestling, power lifting, bowling, training, skating rink, forward, goalkeeper, biker, sniper, overtime, step class, contest, scooter |
|
|
Art / radio / TV |
thriller, western, video clip, music video maker, newsmaker, musical, blockbuster, bestseller, underground, pop-Art, (had) rock, rock and roll (l), casting, shake, breakdancing, brain ring, (talk) show , hit parade, meteotime, supersta, superman, skinhead |
|
Home/life/office |
air conditioner, cooler, mixer, toaster, blender, siding, roller blinds, roller shutters, antifreeze, Bullet Magic, Vanish, Fairy, Comet, Head & Shoulders, Dove, Tide, perfume, cleaning company, scrub, spray, color, diaper, stapler, tape |
|
Information and communication technologies |
computer, monitor, display, calculator, laptop, printer, scanner, CD, DVD, processor, device, hacker, upgrade, click, Internet, website, blog, smiley, SMS |
So, borrowing words is a natural process of language development. Quite a large number of linguists remain optimistic about the influx of Anglicisms into the Russian language. After all, lexical borrowings enrich the language. At the same time, the basic vocabulary is preserved, and the grammatical structure of the language remains unchanged.
But still, what are the reasons for such a huge flow of Anglicisms in Russian speech?
- lack of a corresponding concept in the Russian language database. In connection with progress in the computer, technical, financial and economic fields, a large number of Anglicisms have poured into the Russian language. In the Russian dictionary there are no native equivalents for, say, laptop, organizer, timer, scanner, tuner, Skype, blogger, franchise, debit, charter, impeachment, etc. It is easier to use existing words from another language than to invent new ones. Probably, these Anglicisms have already become international, and are recognizable not only in the Russian language.
The presence of a Russian lexical unit that does not quite accurately denote the concept, and which is eventually replaced by a more precise anglicism. For example, an image instead of an image, a brand instead of a brand, a name, a tour instead of a trip, vocabulary instead of vocabulary, fitness instead of physical exercise, an investor instead of a person investing money, a spray instead of a spray, etc. IN in this case These borrowings are more specific and easier to pronounce than Russian ones.
- a tendency to use one borrowed word instead of a descriptive phrase. For example: a hotel for auto tourists - a motel, a short press conference for journalists - a briefing, a summit meeting - a summit, figure skiing - freestyle, a marksman - a sniper, an assassin - a hitman, short-distance running - a sprint, a place for car parking - parking/parking, retail - retail, etc.
- tribute to fashion. Knowledge of English is considered highly prestigious. There are a lot of people who study English and are imbued with it. They want to look modern and with great pleasure use attractive anglicisms in Russian speech: shopping, presentation, rating, party, performance, show, chart, boyfriend, personal account, service, security, reception, etc.
- expansion of interstate and international relations between Russia and English-speaking countries;
- Russia’s participation in international cultural events, festivals, competitions, rallies, fashion shows;
-foreign tourism;
-exchange of specialists, functioning of joint ventures.
The listed facts are both the reasons and conditions for the appearance of Anglicisms in the Russian language.
Linguistic scientists identify the following groups of English borrowings: :
Direct borrowings. The word appears in Russian in approximately the same form and meaning as in the original language. These are the following words: weekend - weekend, money - money, cash - cash, certificate - confirming document, change - exchange, etc.
Hybrids. These words are formed by adding a Russian suffix, prefix and ending to a foreign root. In this case, the meaning of the foreign word - source - changes somewhat. For example, buzz (busy - restless, fussy).
Tracing paper. Words of foreign origin, used while preserving their phonetic and graphic appearance (menu, disk, virus, lunch, credit, tuxedo, jeans).
Exoticisms. Words that characterize the specific national customs of other peoples and are used to describe non-Russian reality. Distinctive feature of these words is that they do not have Russian synonyms. For example, chips, hot dog, cheeseburger. English exoticisms include the following words: Miss, Mrs., Mister, Sir, Gentleman, Pound Sterling, Lord, Scout, Peer, Pub, Scotland Yard, etc.
Barbarisms. English words transferred to Russian soil that retain their phonetic and graphic ‘foreignness’. These are alien words that stand out sharply against the background of Russian vocabulary. They are not recorded in Russian language dictionaries. The active use of anglicisms-barbarisms has become a sign of our time. For example: face control, dress code, know-how, xy from xy, message, respect, battle, happy ending, weekend, teenager, receptionist, make-up, relaxation, user, online, baby, gambler, non-stop etc. Anglicisms are especially popular in the names of TV programs, shops, clubs: talk shows; dog show; strip show; Show Business; hit parade; Fan club; Brain-ring; Fan Park; Second hand; Coach Center; Call center; Tennis Hall; Home Credit Bank; Real-comfort; Sweet Mama. The barbarisms are accompanied by English-language inclusions in the Russian language: okay, good bye, hello, high, wow, oops, ouch, etc.
Composites. Words consisting of two English words, for example, a second-hand store - a store selling used clothing, a video salon - a room for watching films.
Jargonisms. Words that appeared as a result of distortion of the original word, for example, cut, like, street, bucks, paronty.
Slang is considered to be the conductor of Anglicisms into Russian speech. . It has pushed back and continues to push back the normative vocabulary. People are used to it and sometimes don’t even realize that certain words are not typical for the literary language. Sometimes we don’t pay attention to where they come from in our lives, and sometimes what they mean.
In this case, the English language is being anglotized. The younger generation cannot help but use English words in their speech, since many of them have long penetrated the Russian language. On the one hand, the emergence of new words expands the vocabulary of native speakers, but on the other hand, its originality and unique beauty are lost. The words they pronounce in the Russian manner cannot always express the same thing that the words of their native language can express.
Borrowings from the English language cover all areas of youth life. The field of study is represented by the following lexical units (teacher, institute, dep, english, hostel, jim, reading room, test, etc.)
There are slangisms related to the sphere of leisure. They can also be divided into the following categories:
Various student events - party, get-together, point, fighting game, etc..
Borrowed by students from the jargon of computer scientists and programmers - cyberboard, mouse, message, etc.
Borrowed from the jargon of musicians - rock, pop, jazz, blues, rap, drummer, clubber, dancer, shopper, etc.
Showdown - kipish, battle, etc.
Interpersonal relationships - friend, meet (meaning meet)
Names of clothing and accessories - dress, trouser, tishort, pins, rings, etc.
Body parts - face, typhus, hands, feet, fingers, nails, etc.
Names of household appliances: teevi, fridge, comp. etc.
Nouns denoting money - money, cash, etc.
The names of family members are parents, phaser, uncle, anti, etc.
Evaluative adverbs and adjectives borrowed from the English language - great, bad, cool, etc.
Of course, there are advantages to using Anglicisms. Borrowings from the English language help students learn it as quickly as possible. Sometimes even they find it easier to express their thoughts and feelings using English rather than their native language. Among the main reasons for using English words in speech, teenagers and young people indicate the ability to convey information to each other, so that the teachers and parents around them do not understand what is being said.
Conclusion
Having examined the problem of Anglicisms in the Russian language today, we can draw the following conclusion:
Anglicisms are an interesting linguistic phenomenon, the role of which in the Russian language is very significant.
Numerous Anglicisms penetrating our speech are a natural phenomenon, reflecting economic, political, cultural, social ties and relations between Russia and other countries, in particular with English-speaking countries.
Many people believe that Anglicisms violate the generally accepted language norm and “clog” the Russian language. Some linguists are sounding the alarm about the English language expansion, leading to the gradual displacement of Russian lexical units from oral speech. However, the influx of borrowings in the Russian language, which has recently assumed a total character, should not be regarded as a completely negative phenomenon. Over time, words either go out of circulation and are forgotten, or are used in limited areas (professionalism, slang), or lose their ‘foreignness’ and become part of the main part of the language, thus enriching the Russian language.
Due to the penetration of Anglicisms into Russian speech, there is some loss of interest in the native language, Russian literature and culture.
English-Russian bilingualism shapes not only Western speech patterns, but also Western thinking and the Western way of life in general.
The Russian language should be protected. You should also take care of the linguistic means of the Russian language, and, where possible, use only them to express your thoughts, emotions and feelings. Anglicisms should not be used always and not everywhere, and always with full awareness of their meanings and the appropriateness of use in everyday speech. When using foreign language vocabulary, you should remember: learning a foreign language, getting to know someone else’s culture is a great thing, during which it is also necessary to preserve the originality, uniqueness and originality of your native Russian language.
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- Sologub O.P. Acquisition of foreign languages structural elements in Russian // Science. University. 2002. Proceedings of the Third Scientific Conference. - Novosibirsk, 2002. - P. 130-134.
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