Coins are one of the most popular collectibles today. Numismatists are willing to pay hundreds and even thousands of dollars for rare items.
Silver coins are especially popular among collectors. There are many people who want to both sell silver coins and buy them.
When did the first coins appear?
It is believed that the first coins appeared in the 7th century BC in the Malaysian state of Lydia. These coins were cast from an alloy of silver and gold with the addition of copper. The technique for minting these first coins was simple.
The coin circle, which was obtained by ordinary casting, was placed between two stamps, the lower of which was fixed in an anvil, and the upper one was hit with a hammer.
The value of Lydian coins was high and one coin was equal to approximately the average person's monthly expenses.
However, these coins were not intended for buying food at the market; the population was obliged to pay taxes to the king with them.
Following Lydia, all neighboring states began to mint coins. Coins appeared from pure gold, pure silver, and also from an alloy of these two metals.
Starting with Alexander the Great, the tradition of placing portraits of kings and emperors on coins spread.
Later in Ancient Greece, and then iron coins began to be made in China, which gave rise to the concept of denomination.
Ancient Rus' initially did not have its own coins, and payments were made either by imported Roman denarii or silver bars. In the 9th century, after the unification of Russian lands around Kievan Rus Prince Vladimir began issuing his first gold and silver coins.
The appearance of the first Russian coins resembled the Byzantine coin - solidus, which by that time was already in circulation in Rus'.
Over hundreds of years of evolution and development, the coin has repeatedly changed its appearance.
Today, ancient coins can be found both in museums and in private collections of collectors. Rare modern coins, as well as commemorative ones, are popular.
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Before the origin of coins over the centuries, the mission of a means of payment, i.e. money, carried out various items of use: shells, slaves, grain, livestock, and more. During the Bronze Age, metal became the monetary equivalent.
With the development of trade and production, ingots of precious metals and copper began to play a leading role different shapes and weight, having high value with a relatively small mass. In the second millennium BC. In Babylon, merchants, when using ingots or rings made of precious metals, guaranteed their weight and metal content with a stamp.
Around 700 BC In Lydia and the Ionian cities of Asia Minor, coins appeared, which gradually began to replace weighted money. They differed from weighted money in that they were produced by the state itself. The coin turned into money in the form of a convenient piece of metal, for the content of noble metal in which the state vouched for the applied image and inscription. In addition to the economic function, it gave this means of payment and circulation also the function of an information carrier. The emergence of coins became a means of payment for livelihood, and led to the strengthening of the state's key positions in the economy.
For example, in Greece, where money factories were state-owned, life without a state, state regulation and state laws for the citizens of the country became impossible for economic reasons. Coins are a sign minted from gold, silver, copper or other metals and alloys and have a front - obverse, and a reverse - reverse side. On the side, the surface of the coin is edged.
The very first coins appeared in the highly developed culture of ancient China in the middle of the second millennium BC. They were made of bronze by casting. In the 7th century BC. The first minted coins appeared in the Mediterranean countries. The production and minting of coins was a relatively simple matter; first, the metal was melted and small round discs were cast, these discs were minted.
In antiquity, the development of coins took place with the Greek slave states, then with Ancient Rome, and reached its peak during the period of greatest expansion of the territory of the Roman Empire. The word “coin” is one of the names of the ancient Roman goddess Juno and at the same time the name of the first Roman mint at the Temple of Juno on the Capitoline Hill in Ancient Rome.
When the first coins appeared, counterfeits also appeared. So in Ancient Greece this type of crime became widespread, in the 4th century. BC. in Athens, the laws of Solon provided for the production of counterfeit coins the death penalty. Counterfeit coins were an everyday occurrence, the people knew the words carved on the wall of the sanctuary of Apollo in Athens: “ It's better to fake a coin than the truth».
During recent excavations at one of the ancient Viking settlements in England, archaeologists found an ancient Arabic silver coin, which turned out to be not silver at all, but made of copper with a thin silver coating, it was a skillful fake. It is considered that the main center of counterfeiting during the heyday of Ancient Rome was economically weak Egypt. For the first time, methods and techniques for verifying the authenticity of coins arose. When Anthony arrived in Egypt, his retinue included experienced, as we would now call them, “coin examination specialists.”
The main metals used to make coins for centuries were gold, silver and copper. The state or ruler who minted the money certified both the accuracy of the weight and the fineness of the coin's alloy. In history, you can find at least three ways to counterfeit coins. The first is reducing the weight of the coin, or minting an underweight coin. The second is a decrease in the precious metal content in the coin, or a decrease in the fineness of the coin. Sometimes such methods of counterfeiting are called “damage to coins.” And the third method is the production of “gold” and “silver” coins from base metals. They were only given the appearance of authentic ones; sometimes they were covered with a thin layer of precious metal.
There were techniques for verifying the authenticity of coins. Simply use a knife to cut off a piece of a coin and, based on the cut, it was easy to determine whether it was real or fake. For example, only covered with a layer of precious metal. True, the counterfeiters quickly found a way out of the situation: they themselves made a cut on the counterfeit coin and silvered it. Moreover, we learned to do this a long time ago. In addition to the knife, the coin was checked “tooth”: if the tooth does not take it, it means it is fake, since it was well known that gold and silver are relatively soft metals, and the teeth left a mark on them. The coin was tested for sound and thrown onto a stone; if there was a ringing, clear sound, then the coin was genuine, and if there was a dull sound, it was fake.
The production of counterfeit banknotes, as well as the alteration of genuine ones, caused damage to the state, and counterfeiters were always strictly prosecuted in accordance with the laws. However, even the threat of the most severe punishment, and almost everywhere it was the death penalty, did not stop the counterfeiters.
The temptation to counterfeit coins was also caused by the fact that the coins were initially minted extremely carelessly. Their shape was irregular, the images on the obverse and reverse were unclear. This is explained both by the imperfection of technology at the mints of that time, and by the lack of strict government supervision over coinage and the state of monetary circulation.
Sometimes kings could not resist the temptation to enrich themselves through counterfeiting. The English king Henry VI made very original use of the discovery of his court alchemist, who found that if you rub a copper coin with mercury, it is very difficult to distinguish it from a silver one. In order to replenish his treasury, the king without hesitation gave the order to produce a batch of “silver” coins in such an unusual way. They were in circulation for a very short time: the deceived subjects were so outraged that they had to stop “minting” these coins.
Gold coins have also been targeted by counterfeiters in the past. Alchemists - learned to create special metal alloys very similar to gold, also drilled holes, filled them with fake “gold”, and collected the drilled part of the coin for income. Manufacturing counterfeit money in the XVII-XVIII centuries. in England it was commonplace. Sometimes even banks could not determine: where are the real ones and where are the fake ones? The reason is that the production of banknotes was carried out so carelessly that it was not difficult to counterfeit them. This was the case until 1844, when a special law in England established a clear procedure for the production of money and introduced strict requirements for its quality.
Minting coins was one of the most important prerogatives of the state. The issue was associated with the name of the new sovereign. The minting of coins was a sign of his rights, power, and political success. For example, in the X-XI centuries. Some of the oldest Russian coins were minted with the image of an ancient Russian prince on the throne and the signatures: “Vladimir on the table”, “Vladimir, and this is his gold”, “Vladimir, and this is his silver”.
The history of the production and circulation of Russian coins, which goes back ten centuries, can be divided into several periods:
- coins of pre-Mongol Rus';
- payment bullions of a non-coin period;
- coins from the period of feudal fragmentation;
- coins of the Russian centralized state;
- coins of the imperial period;
- coins of modern mintage.
The first 4 date back to the longest period - from the beginning of Russian coinage at the end of the 10th century. until the completion of the monetary reform of Peter I at the beginning of the 18th century. The time of issue of coins of the fifth category practically coincides with the period of existence of the absolutist state in Russia from the beginning of the 18th century. and until 1917. Coins of the imperial period are regularly minted coins with precise dating, indicating the name of the ruler, denomination and place of minting.
The most early mention about counterfeiters in Rus' can be found in one of the Novgorod chronicles. In 1447, a certain “livets and weights” (foundry worker and weigher of precious metals) Fyodor Zherebets made his living by making hryvnias from inferior metal. In Rus', as elsewhere, counterfeiting was punishable, but nevertheless it did not stop.
By decision of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, copper coins with the nominal value of silver coins were issued into circulation in 1655. And after some time it was discovered that some money masters, who had previously lived poorly, quickly became rich with copper money. The reason for this became clear when illegally minted coins and the coins themselves were confiscated from them. Counterfeiting of coins in Russia in the 17th century. has turned into a real disaster. Appeared great amount counterfeit copper money. In addition, Russia also learned how to make “silver” coins by rubbing them with mercury. Such “coins” were not uncommon, and they were called “portutenes”. During the same period, “silver” coins appeared, made by coating copper blanks with tin (tinning).
Beginning of the 18th century known for the radical disruption of the monetary economy that had developed in Russia in the previous era. Reform of Peter 1 in 1698-1717 brought the Russian monetary system to the level of developed European countries. This reform gave the country a convenient means of payment in the form of silver and copper coins, the set of denominations of which was based on the decimal system. Hand minting of coins, which was the basis of Russian coin production, was replaced by machine minting. The copper coin, discredited by the previous reform of 1654-1663, became established in the country’s internal monetary circulation. A unified monetary system was established throughout Russia.
The measures taken by the government were aimed at further adapting the monetary system to the needs of the state. Under the successors of Peter I, the financial economy of Russia was in a very disrepair. The state treasury was burdened by the extravagance of successive empresses on the throne, as well as the enormous costs associated with waging wars. These circumstances could not but affect the state state budget, which was already chronically in short supply. The main actions of the government in the field of monetary circulation were the opportunistic changes in the weight norm of coins and the fineness of the alloy of coins made of precious metals, as well as an increase in the volume of coinage. Thus, in the 18 years that have passed since the first coins of a new type appeared in Russia, introduced by the reform of Peter I, a coin foot of a copper coin, which initially equaled 12.8 rubles. from a pound of copper, increased three times and by 1718 reached 40 rubles. from a pood (at a copper price of about 8 rubles per pood). As a result, the treasury was significantly replenished with additional profits, but extremely undesirable phenomena arose in the country's monetary economy. First of all, the simultaneous circulation of copper coins, minted at different weight rates, led to the disappearance from circulation of full-weight copper coins, as well as silver and gold, which the population kept, and the treasury began to receive state taxes on lightweight copper coins. In addition, the market turned out to be flooded with counterfeit copper coins, the fabrication of which, after the introduction of the 40-ruble coin stack, became extremely profitable and was carried out not only within the country, but also abroad.
The first half of the 18th century was characterized by a sharp increase in the minting of copper coins for fiscal purposes. Having become the main means of circulation and payment, depreciated copper coins entered the treasury in the form of taxes and other payments. This reduced overall effect from their coinage, strengthened financial difficulties government. For this reason, the ruling circles of Russia were forced to temporarily abandon further abuse of the minting of copper coins and a decrease in the content of pure metal in silver and gold coins. The government needed new sources of income, and primarily through the release of new money into circulation. The issue of paper banknotes carried out in Russia in the 60s of the 18th century became such a source. From this time on, the coin in Russia began to circulate in parallel with paper banknotes - banknotes. Coins, primarily copper, gradually turned into a medium of exchange for banknotes.
The constant increase in the number of banknotes in circulation, the issue of which was used by the government as a source of covering its expenses, inevitably led to a fall in the rate of banknotes in relation to gold and silver coins. In this regard, many owners of banknotes sought to exchange them for hard currency. Since by the end of the 80s of the XVIII century. To carry out exchange operations, the State Assignation Bank no longer had the required number of coins, the government was forced to suspend exchange, without issuing a special government act, which led to the disappearance from circulation of gold and silver coins, which had become a means of accumulation.
The Manifesto of June 20, 1810 established the ruble with a pure silver content of 4 spools 21 shares (18 g) as the universal legal monetary unit of account for all payments in the country, which became the basis monetary system Russia in the 19th century. All previously issued silver and gold coins remained in circulation. Their value was expressed in relation to the new silver ruble. Somewhat later, the manifesto of August 29, 1810 finally determined the purpose of the copper coin, which was recognized as a change. The country announced the introduction of a system of open minting of silver and gold coins: anyone could bring metal in bullion to the Mint to make coins from it, no fee was charged for this. It was assumed that all these measures would serve to create a new monetary system in Russia, based on silver monometallism with the circulation of banknotes backed mainly by silver. However, after Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812, when the war required enormous material and monetary costs, the government was unable to complete the reform. Banknotes were recognized as legal tender, obligatory for circulation throughout the empire. All calculations and payments were to be made primarily in banknotes. The ratio between paper and metal money was set by private individuals, not by the government. In 1815, the exchange rate of the assignat ruble fell to 20 kopecks. silver
Changes to the Russian monetary system based on the silver ruble were made in 1839-1843. During this reform, depreciated banknotes were gradually replaced by state banknotes, which were subject to equivalent exchange for silver. Copper money again acquired the role of a medium of exchange for the silver ruble. The designation of the denomination of copper coins of the 1839 sample contains an indication that these coins are equivalent to silver ones, for example: “2 kopecks in silver.” The main means of payment was the silver ruble. State banknotes were assigned the role of only an auxiliary banknote. They were to be accepted at a constant and unchanging rate. This rate was 3 rubles. 50 kopecks banknotes for a silver ruble.
On July 1, 1839, a decree was published “On the establishment of the Silver Coin Deposit Office at the State Commercial Bank" The depository office accepted deposits in silver coins for storage and issued in return deposit tickets for the corresponding amounts. Deposit cash tickets were declared legal tender with the right to circulate throughout the country on a par with silver coins. With the help of deposit notes, 100% backed by silver and exchangeable for it, the government sought to revive the people's confidence in paper banknotes. The government was not able to use the issue of deposit notes to increase revenues of the state treasury, which required different principles of issue. A gradual transition to them was made in the process of issuing a new type of banknotes - the so-called credit notes, only partially covered with metal. Tickets were freely exchanged for specie and circulated on a par with silver coins.
The introduction of a system of silver coins with the circulation of paper banknotes, 1/6 covered with metal, at the first moment contributed to the strengthening of the monetary system in Russia. However, in 1853 the Crimean War began, ending in a severe military defeat for Russia and the depletion of its finances. The issue of temporary issues of state bank notes was the main source of financing for military expenditures and covering the state budget deficit for the Russian government. This led to a fall in their exchange rate and caused serious difficulties with the exchange of banknotes for silver and gold. At the beginning of 1854, the government was forced to stop the free exchange of banknotes for gold. Exchange for silver was carried out intermittently. In 1858 it ceased, since the exchange fund could not provide specie for everyone. In search of a way out of this situation, the government, since 1860, has been increasing the production of small change silver coins by reducing the content of pure silver in it by 15%: if, starting from 1764, the silver ruble in a small change coin contained 18 g of pure silver, now this content has decreased to 15.3 g. A repeated reduction in the content of pure silver in small change coins (to 9 g in a ruble) was carried out for a similar purpose in 1867. At the same time, the price of a copper coin was increased from 32 to 50 rubles. from the pud. Monetary circulation was clearly inflationary in nature.
IN late XIX V. For sustainable development economy in Russia, preparations began for monetary reform, the purpose of which was to replace the inflationary circulation of irredeemable paper banknotes with a system of gold monometallism with banknote circulation, the transition to which has already been made by many developed capitalist countries. The government began monetary reform and took a number of measures to gradually introduce gold coins into monetary circulation, while trying to ensure a certain ratio between the credit and gold rubles. In fact, gold coins participated in monetary circulation. However, the country's monetary unit was still formally the silver ruble, which limited the scope of operation of the gold coin. The first stage of the reform was the resolution in 1895 of transactions with gold. In such transactions, payment was made either in gold coin or in notes of credit at the rate of gold on the day of payment; on May 24, 1895, State Bank institutions were authorized to buy and sell gold coin at the rate. In fact, this meant the establishment of the exchange of credit notes for gold. On January 3, 1897, it was established that 1 rub. gold was equal to 1 ruble. 50 kopecks credit tickets. Thus, the transition to the system of gold monometallism, which was legally established on January 3, 1897, was finally prepared.
In November 1897, unlimited exchange of banknotes for gold was introduced, and they were given the status of legal tender on a par with gold coin. The basis of the monetary system of the Russian Empire was the gold ruble, which contained 17,424 shares of pure gold. In connection with the introduction of the gold monometallism system, the silver coin was transformed into aid payment.
Naturally, silver and gold coins in circulation were constantly the object of interest for counterfeiters. Of course, the authorities took decisive steps to prevent counterfeiting of banknotes. For example, when drawing up new programs for issuing coins, officials of the Ministry of Finance literally from the very first steps began to think about their protection. Thus, in a note from the Minister of Finance, dated February 1, 1867, “On the release of popular appeal new small change silver and copper coins" we read: " To make counterfeiting more difficult, it is necessary to create new, more beautiful designs, adopting, among other improvements, two types of letters for the inscriptions on the coin: convex and depressed. These letters require different ways preparation, and therefore great skill will be needed to make false stamps" It should be noted that, in addition to great skill, the production of depressed and raised inscriptions also requires complex technical devices, including powerful pressing equipment, which, of course, the counterfeiters did not have.
The system of gold monometallism with the circulation of credit notes existed in Russia until 1914. From the very first days after Russia joined the First world war The government began to use the issue of banknotes to cover the state budget deficit, and the law of July 27, 1914 eliminated the exchange of banknotes for gold. With the development of the inflationary process, the process of the disappearance of specie from circulation began. With the cessation of the exchange of credit notes for gold, the population began to hoard gold and then silver coins. Gold, silver, and subsequently copper coins completely disappeared from circulation and ended up in the hands of the population and in the form of treasures.
After a long break, the coin returned to monetary circulation already in Soviet time. At the final stage of the monetary reform of 1922-1924. Previously prepared silver coins in denominations of 10, 15, 20, 50 kopecks were put into circulation. and 1 rub. and copper coins of 1, 2, 3 and 5 kopecks. Thus, the first coin program of the USSR Government was implemented. However, at the end of the 20s, it was finally recognized that minting coins from gold, silver and copper “eats” a huge amount of expensive and scarce metals. This was understood even in pre-revolutionary Russia. In 1910-1911 The Ministry of Finance, together with the mint, has developed a program to replace expensive silver in small change coins with nickel alloys, which have been used since the mid-19th century. successfully used in coinage by some European countries. In the future, it was planned to mint bronze coins. In 1911, test nickel coins were produced, but the coin reform was not completed: the war and then the revolution interfered. It was implemented already during the Soviet period.
In the second half of the 20s, the minting of copper and silver coins was still ongoing, the choice of material for new coins had already been made: bronze and copper-nickel alloy. In 1930, a trial minting of copper-nickel coins was made in denominations from 10 to 20 kopecks , and the Leningrad Mint began their mass production at the end of 1931. In those years, the range of materials from which Russian coins are still made was determined.
This is money issued and in circulation in the form of coins.
History of metal money
The very first coins appeared in the 2nd millennium BC in China. They were made by casting bronze.
The first gold coin familiar to modern man(that is, round) shape appeared in Lydia (today the territory of Turkey) in the 7th century BC. Then the coins quickly spread to the territory of other states - Greece, Macedonia, and Western European countries.
Around the same time, coinage began to be minted in Mediterranean countries. This process was strictly controlled by the state. For production metal money in those days they used gold, silver and copper.
Gold metal money from the 3rd century BC. began to be minted in Rome. It should be noted that it was the Romans who began to call the metal money that was produced in the Temple of Juno the Coin, coins.
In Russia, metal money made of gold appeared during the time of Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich. The first Russian gold coin is the Vladimir zlatnik, weighing approximately 4 g.
Throughout VIII-XIV century. - silver was mainly used for the production of metallic money. In the XV -XVIII centuries. There were coins in circulation, minted from both silver and gold.
XIX - mid. XX century historians characterize it as the time of the gold standard (“solar” metal became the universal equivalent, and silver coins turned into small change). Gold coins were most popular in the 19th century, especially in Great Britain. This state, thanks to the presence large quantity colonies and dominions, ranked first in the world in gold production. The properties of the “solar” metal served as the basis for the transition to the active use of gold metal money. Gold coins are distinguished by uniformity in quality, high concentration of value, excellent preservation, and difficulty in mining and processing.
It was gold coins that were the main competitors to the American dollar. Therefore, the United States tried to abolish . The decision to exclude gold metal money from circulation was made at the Jamaica Conference in the 70s of the last century.
Classification of metal money
Metal money is divided into two main types:
full-fledged (made mainly of noble metals);
inferior (mainly aluminum and its alloys are used for the production of coins).
Defective metal money is used as a bargaining chip.
Experts point out that the state issues metal coins with a so-called forced exchange rate, that is, it specifically assigns them an inflated face value. For example, in Russia, the production of a coin with a face value of 2 rubles costs the state only 79 kopecks.
Characteristics of metal money
Metal money has the following characteristics:
obverse - the front side of a coin, where it is usually minted;
reverse - the reverse side of metal money (the place where religious or state symbols are minted);
edge - edge of a coin.
The minting of metal money is strictly centralized and is carried out exclusively by state mints.
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Numismatists believe that the first large coins appeared in Lydia. That was the name of the small ancient state on west bank modern Turkey. It arose back in the 7th century BC.
Busy trade routes to Ancient Greece and the countries of the East passed through Lydia. Here, early on, there was a need to simplify trade transactions, which was hindered by heavy ingots. The Lydians figured out how to make the very first coins from electrum, a natural alloy of silver and gold. Pieces of this metal, similar in shape to beans, which they used as bargaining chips, began to be flattened and at the same time put on them the sign of the city.
These coins were called Croesoids, named after the legendary immensely rich Lydian king Croesus, who lived in 595-546 BC, more than two and a half thousand years ago.
A few decades later, coins began to be minted in the Greek city of Aegina. They had a completely different appearance than the Lydian ones, and were minted from silver. Therefore, it can be assumed that in Aegina the coin was invented, although later, but independently. From Lydia and Aegina, coins very quickly spread throughout Greece, in its colonies, in Iran, and then among the Romans and many barbarian tribes.
A little later, round coins appeared in distant China. There, for a long time, in seven Chinese states, bronze money was widespread in the form of various household items: knives, bells, spades, swords, hoes. Many of these coins had holes for stringing on a cord. The ancient Chinese were especially fond of “shovel fish” coins. However, such a variety of money in the 3rd century BC. the end has come.
At this time, Qin Shihuangdi - the First Qin sovereign (he lived in 259-210 BC) united all of China under his rule in the Qin Empire... In addition to many important matters, such as the construction of the Great Wall of China, which protected China, from the raids of nomads, Qin Shi Huang abolished all the previously used bronze money - all these bells and knives - and introduced a single money for the entire state - liang. It was a round coin with a square hole in the center... Liang was also destined to live to our time.
There were coins from dozens of cities in circulation on the market, differing in type, weight and value. The coin of one city was worth several coins of another, since it could be made of pure gold, and not of an alloy of gold and silver. Coins with some emblems enjoyed a special advantage, as they were distinguished by the weight and purity of the metal.
Coins of the ancient Greeks.
In Ancient Greece there were several city-states: Athens, Sparta; Corinth, Argos, Syracuse... Each of them had its own coins cast - rectangular and round. There were a variety of stamps and images on them. Most often they depicted gods or sacred animals revered in the city where the coin was issued. After all, each city-state was patronized by its own celestial being.
So, in Olympia, the very place where the Olympic Games were first held, the thunder god Zeus was depicted. Often with an eagle in the palm. In Athens, coins had the profile of the wise daughter of Zeus, Athena, on one side, and an owl, which was considered a sacred bird, on the other. According to her, these coins were called owls.
The coins of Olbia, a Greek city on the northern shore of the Black Sea, were cast in the shape of a dolphin, and then on the round coins of this city they depicted an eagle tormenting a dolphin with its claws. In Chersonesus the goddess Virgo was revered. Her image was also placed on the first coins.
In other cities, in Syracuse, for example, on coins there was the god of light and poetry Apollo in a laurel wreath. The winged horse Pegasus was minted on the coins of Corinth. According to him, they were called foals. The patron of shepherds and hunters, Pan, as well as the mighty hero Hercules were also depicted on coins...
The ancient Greeks had their own coin account. They called a small silver coin an obol. Six obloms constituted a drachma, two drachmas constituted a stater. The smallest coin was the lepta (one hundred lepta made a drachma).
Coins in Ancient Rome.
In the old days they said: “All roads lead to Rome.” Ancient Rome was a powerful state. It was famous not only for the valiant cohorts of warriors who conquered many countries and tribes, but also for the luxury of Roman palaces, the wealth of the nobility, the construction of giant aqueducts (through which water flowed to Rome), magnificent baths (public baths) and, of course, trade.
Merchants from Africa and Asia, from Britain and Scythia brought a variety of goods to the Roman market. There were fabrics, carpets, grain, fruits, jewelry, and weapons. They also traded here live goods - slaves, because Rome was a slave state. From their many campaigns, Roman soldiers brought huge crowds of slaves to Rome.
What kind of money was “circulated” in Ancient Rome? The very first Roman coins were called ases. They were cast from copper, and they also had a rectangular shape. Over time, the aces became round, and the image of the two-faced god Janus appeared on them. He was considered the god of all beginnings (for example, the first month of the year - January - was named after Janus).
Following the asses, silver denarii began to be minted in Rome, equal to the value of 10 assams (denarius - consisting of ten). There was also another silver coin in use - the sistertius (one fourth of a denarius). These coins depicted Roman gods, heroes of myths, and coining tools: anvil, hammer, and tongs.
Often, on the coins of the Roman Empire, a portrait of the emperor was minted, his titles were placed, and sometimes words were of a propaganda nature, glorifying the policies of this ruler. Now it was no longer the deity or the city emblem that vouched for the quality of the coin. Behind it stood a powerful state, personified by the emperor.
Coins-decorations.
Let's listen to the word "monisto". Is it true that there is a connection with the “coin” in it? Monisto is a decoration in the form of beads or necklaces made from coins. Since ancient times, such decorations, strung with coins on thin cords (gaitans), were worn around the neck by Slavic women. We can safely say that the first coin collectors were Slavic fashionistas.
After all, their necklaces contained Arab, Greek, Roman, Kievan Rus, and Hungarian coins. Isn't this surprising?.. Headdresses and dresses were also decorated with coins. In many families, such decorations passed from generation to generation, “overgrown” and replenished with new pieces all the time.
Therefore, a dress, for example, from a large number of coins became heavy, like knightly armor. What attracted fashionistas to coins? Glitter? Melodious ringing? Certainly. But also because each of them is an elegant work of art. Each one can be looked at for hours. That is why the craftsmen decorated jewelry with coins.
How much is a silver ruble worth?
This article will tell you about how, where and when they appeared first coins. What did they look like, what were they made from? The story of the small state of Lydia, which brought great changes to the world of trade. And it seems that money in its very nature brings the decay of society and human nature, since it was in Lydia, after the appearance of coins and markets, that first brothels And gambling.
Over the course of a millennium, one after another, states arose, flourished and disappeared on the coast of the Ionian Sea and the adjacent islands. Each of them left something that its neighbors and heirs adapted for their own culture. Of all the great civilizations that rose and fell in ancient Anatolia, Lydia is not among the most famous. The Lydians spoke a European language and lived in Anatolia after about 2000 BC. e. They formed a small state under the auspices of the Mermnad dynasty, which began in the 7th century. BC, but at its peak Lydia was little more than a sprawling city-state emerging from Sardis (Sardes). The rulers of Lydia were not celebrated in myth or song as great warriors, conquerors, builders, or even lovers.
The names of dynasties and rulers are known to us thanks to the Hittite tablets and the books of the Greek historian Herodotus, and only one name from ancient Lydia is generally known today - Croesus. “Rich as Croesus” is a common expression in modern English, Turkish and other languages of the world.
Croesus ascended to the Lydian throne in 560 BC. and began to rule the kingdom, which was already rich. His predecessors created a strong economic basis for the welfare of the state, producing some of the best perfume and cosmetic products ancient world. Yet these goods alone could not raise Croesus to the level of wealth that the myths ascribe to him. He owes this to one invention of his predecessors - coins, a revolutionary new form of money.
Coin prototypes
Something resembling money and something resembling markets can be found in Mesopotamia, China, Egypt and other parts of the world, but they did not actually use coins until the rise of Lydia and the subsequent minting of the first coins, between 640 and 630 BC. BC. The genius of Lydia's rulers can be seen in their recognition of the need to produce small and easily transportable ingots, costing no more than a few days' labor or a small portion of an agricultural harvest. By making these small ingots of standardized size and weight and stamping them with an emblem that confirmed their value even to the illiterate, the kings of Lydia dramatically expanded the possibilities of commercial enterprise.
The Lydians made the first coins from an alloy of gold and silver. They were oval, several times thicker than modern coins and the size of thumb adult. To ensure their authenticity, the king had to stamp each of them with the emblem of a lion's head. This simultaneously flattened the lumps, which began the transformation of the oval ingot into a flat and round coin. By making nuggets of the same weight and approximately the same size, the king eliminated one of the time-consuming steps of commerce: the need to weigh the gold at each transaction. Now traders could determine the value from words or simply by counting the number of coins. This standardization greatly reduced the possibility of deception in the quantity and quality of gold and silver in exchange. You didn't have to be an expert in using scales or determining the purity of metal to buy a basket of wheat, a pair of sandals or an amphora olive oil. The use of coins that were weighed and stamped at the government mint allowed transactions to be carried out faster and more fairly, and to engage in commerce without even having a scale. Commerce with coins opened up new horizons for new segments of the population.
The wealth of Croesus and his predecessors grew not from conquest, but from trade. During his reign (560-546 BC), Croesus created new coins from pure gold and silver, unlike the previous alloy. Using the newly introduced coins as a standard medium of exchange, Lydian merchants traded everyday necessities such as grain, oil, beer, wine, leather, utensils and wood, as well as such valuable goods as perfumes, cosmetics, precious jewelry, musical instruments, glazed ceramics, bronze figurines, Angora goat wool, marble and ivory.
Emergence of the retail market
The variety and abundance of commercial goods soon led to another innovation - retail market. The rulers of Sardis introduced new system, whereby anyone, even a stranger, if he had something to sell, could come to the central market, instead of looking for a house where someone could buy his oil or jewelry. Countless shops lined the market, and each merchant specialized in a specific product. One sold meat, the other sold grain. One sold jewelry, the other sold clothes. One is musical instruments, the other is pots. This market system began at the end of the 7th century. BC BC, but its legacy can be clearly seen later in Greece, in medieval market squares northern Europe and in suburban shopping centers modern United States.
Trade became so important to the Lydians that Herodotus called them a nation of kareY, which means "trader" or "seller", but with a somewhat negative hidden meaning - "small trader". Herodotus saw that the Lydians had become a nation of traders. They turned ordinary trade and barter into commerce.
The commercial revolution in the city of Sardis caused changes that spread widely throughout Lydian society. Herodotus reported with great amazement the Lydian custom of allowing women to choose their husbands. Thanks to the accumulated coins, women became freer to collect their own dowry and thus gained greater freedom in choosing a husband.
New services were quickly introduced into the market. No sooner had the first shops opened than a certain enterprising businessman offered people engaged in commerce a house specializing in sexual services. First known brothels were built in ancient Sardis. To raise their dowries, many of the unmarried women of Sardis may have worked in brothels long enough to accumulate the money needed for the kind of marriage they desired.
Soon appeared gambling, and the Lydians chalked up the invention of not only coins, but also dice. Archaeological excavations clearly showed that gambling, including the game of babka, flourished in the area around the market.
Commerce created fabulous wealth for Croesus, but he and the noble families squandered their fortunes. They developed an insatiable appetite for luxury goods and found themselves drawn into the game of ever-increasing consumerism. Each family, for example, tried to erect a tombstone larger than that of neighboring families. They decorated monuments with ivory and marble ornaments and held elaborate funerals, burying their dead relatives with gold bands on their heads, bracelets and rings. Instead of increasing their wealth, they destroyed what had been accumulated by their ancestors. The elite of Sardis spent their new wealth on consumption instead of investing it in production.
In the end, Croesus poured his wealth into the two bottomless wells of consumption so common among rulers: buildings and soldiers. He conquered and built. Croesus used his immense wealth to conquer almost all the Greek cities of Asia Minor, including the magnificent Ephesus, which he later rebuilt in an even more magnificent style. Although he was a Lydian and not a Greek, Croesus had a great love for the culture of Greece, including its language and religion. Being a fan of Greece, he ruled the Greek cities with ease.
In the famous episode Greek history Croesus asked the Greek oracle what his chances were in the war against Persia. The oracle replied that if he attacked powerful Persia, the great empire would fall. Croesus took the prediction as favorable and attacked the Persians. In the bloody massacre of 547-546. BC. the empire that fell was the trading empire of the Lydians. Cyrus easily defeated Croesus's mercenary army and marched on the Lydian capital of Sardis.
While the Persian army plundered and burned the wealth of Sardis, Cyrus taunted Croesus, boasting about what his soldiers were doing with the city and the wealth of the great Croesus.
Croesus replied to Cyrus: “This is no longer mine. Nothing belongs to me now. This is your city, they are destroying and stealing your wealth."
With the conquest of Lydia by Cyrus, the reign of Croesus ended, his dynasty of Mermnad died, and the kingdom of Lydia disappeared from the pages of history. Although the great state of Lydia and its rulers were never reborn, the influence of this small and relatively unknown kingdom remained great, disproportionate to its geographical size and comparatively small role V ancient history. All neighboring peoples quickly adopted the Lydian coinage practice, and the commercial revolution spread throughout the Mediterranean world, particularly in Lydia's closest neighbor, Greece.
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