Russian architecture, sculpture and painting in the second half of the 18th century. Development of culture in the second half of the 18th century

The reforms of Peter the Great strengthened the feudal-serf system in Russia, but at the same time they gave a great impetus to the development of an internal socio-economic crisis. The reforms of Peter I were the beginning of the process of disintegration of the feudal-serf system of the national economy and gave impetus to the formation and development of capitalist relations. Criticism begins of the evils of serfdom, and then of the serfdom system itself.

Economic development Russia in the mid-18th century reached its peak under conditions of feudal-serf relations. Feudalism, growing in depth and breadth, began to collapse from within. Commodity farming could not coexist with serfdom, and as a result, both landowners and serfs found themselves in contradictory relationships. The producer's material interest was needed, and it was inherent only in a free, free person.

The annexation of vast territories to Russia in the 18th century required their development. AND serfdom was an obstacle to the rapid development of these territories.

The Russian bourgeoisie was constrained in its aspirations, at the same time it was generated by the socio-economic development of Russia and was dependent on the monarchy.

After the death of Peter I, a struggle for influence on power began between his followers and the old Russian nobility, also, by the way, followers of Peter. Behind short term there was a change in the faces of political figures.

After the death of Peter I, the favorite of his wife, Menshikov, came forward. In 1727ᴦ. Catherine I dies and the grandson of Peter I, Peter II Alekseevich, ascends the throne. But he was only 14 years old and a Supreme Privy Council was created to govern the country (Menshikov, Prince Dolgoruky, etc.). But there was no unity within this council and a struggle ensued between Menshikov and Dolgoruky, the latter emerging victorious, but he did not have to take advantage of this, because in 1730. Peter II dies. The throne remains vacant again.

At this time, the guards, dissatisfied with the policy of the Privy Council, carry out a coup, elevating to the throne the niece of Peter I, Anna Ioannovna, who lived in Jelgava (near Riga).

Anna Ioannovna was offered some conditions, which she signed, which stipulated that her power was limited in favor of the large Russian aristocracy (Privy Council). The nobles were unhappy and Anna Ioannovna dispersed the Privy Council, restoring the Senate. She ruled for 10 years.

Anna Ioannovna's reign is characterized by mass terror against Russian nobility(Dolgoruky, Golitsin and many others were injured). Biron rises at court, rising from groom to Chancellor of Russia.

Under Anna Ioannovna, a war was waged with Turkey.

The arbitrariness was unbearable and only after the death of Anna Ioannovna did calm come to Russia. Dying, Anna Ioannovna left a will, which stated that the Russian throne should pass into the hands of Ivan Antonovich, Anna Ioannovna’s nephew (grandson of Peter I and Charles CII, former enemies), while still a baby.

Naturally, his mother, Anna Leopoldovna, and regent Biron ruled for him. But November 25, 1741ᴦ. a coup was carried out. Biron and Minich were arrested and exiled. The coup was carried out by the guard, dissatisfied with the dominance of foreigners.

Elizabeth ascends the throne, declaring that the death penalty is cancelled. This ban was in effect throughout the 25 years of her reign.

In 1755ᴦ. Russian university opened.

Elizabeth surrounds herself with a group of advisers, including Shuvalov, Panin, Chernyshov and others.

Under Elizabeth, a 7-year war was fought against Prussia (Frederick II), which led to the victory of Russian weapons. Subsequently, Frederick II said that “It’s not enough to kill a Russian soldier; he and the dead man must also be knocked down.”

The years of Elizabeth's reign were called best years Russia.

After Elizabeth, Peter III ascended the throne, whose reign was characterized by the dominance of the military. Peter III abolished all restrictions for nobles. Under him, the peasants became like slaves. The landowner received the right to exile the peasant to Siberia for hard labor.

Activity Peter III caused a storm of discontent in June 1762ᴦ. a coup d'état was carried out. Peter III was removed from power, and Catherine II the Great ascended the throne.

The distribution of state lands begins, serfdom expands.

Catherine II, again using the nobility, carried out the secularization of church lands in 1764ᴦ. All lands belonging to churches and monasteries were confiscated and transferred to the College of Economics. Church peasants were transferred to quitrent (ᴛ.ᴇ. about 1’000’000 peasants received freedom); part of the land was transferred to landowners.

Catherine signed a decree on the ownership of the land they owned.

In 1767ᴦ. A decree on the attachment of peasants was adopted. Peasants were forbidden to complain about their landowners. The complaint was regarded as a serious state crime. By decree of January 17, 1765ᴦ. peasants could be sent to hard labor by their landowner. By decree of May 3, 1783ᴦ. Ukrainian peasants were assigned to their landowners.

Domestic policy Catherine II was aimed at strengthening serfdom. Code 1649ᴦ. already hopelessly outdated. In this regard, Catherine II convenes a commission to adopt new laws. As a reaction to Catherine's policies, numerous peasant unrest and uprisings began, which subsequently developed into a peasant war led by Emelyan Pugachev in 73-75. The uprising showed that government was not up to date.

After the suppression of the uprising, Catherine begins new reforms. In 1775ᴦ. By decree of Catherine II, regional reforms were carried out. In Russia, provinces and districts were created, governors were appointed, noble supervision was created, noble corporate and class institutions were created, and the staff of officials, police and detectives was increased.

In the same 1775ᴦ. A decree on freedom of enterprise and merchants was adopted. This decree brought with it the utmost importance of reforms in cities. The process of formalizing the privileges of the nobility and merchants ends with two charters on the rights of liberty and advantages of the Russian nobility and a charter granted to cities (1785ᴦ.). The first charter was aimed at consolidating the forces of the nobility, and the second met the interests of merchants. The purpose of issuing charters is to strengthen power, create new groups and layers on which the Russian monarchy could rely.

Catherine decides to strengthen censorship after the French Revolution. Novikov and Radishchev were arrested.

In 1796ᴦ. Catherine II died and Paul I ascended the throne.

The character of the new emperor was largely contradictory. He did many things the opposite of his mother's. Paul demanded that the nobility return to their regiments.

After some time, by decree of April 5, 1797ᴦ. it was approved that peasants should work for the landowner no more than 3 days a week, and prohibited the sale of peasants.

Paul broke off trade relations with England.

The highest nobility created a conspiracy against Paul, and on March 12, 1801ᴦ. he was killed in Mikhailovsky Castle.

Foreign policy Russia in the 18th century was characterized by the struggle for access to the Black Sea; Azov was captured in 1736, Kabardino-Balkaria was completely annexed in 1731. Kazakhstan voluntarily joins Russia. During the 7-year war, Berlin and Koenigsberg were captured.

During the reign of Catherine II, Poland was divided three times, and Poland itself ceased to exist as an independent state.

During the reign of Paul I, great heroic deeds took place Russian troops under the leadership of Suvorov.

Russia in the second half of the 18th century. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Russia in the second half of the 18th century." 2017, 2018.

Catherine's ideology and projectsII.

Catherine II adhered to the policy of “enlightened absolutism”, the main provisions of which were reflected in the “Order” to the Empress of the Statutory Commission (1767):

Creation of a new legislative code based on the principles of educational philosophy;

Abolition of outdated feudal institutions (some class privileges, subordination of the church to the state);

Carrying out peasant, judicial, educational reforms, easing censorship.

Most of these plans were not implemented.

Presentation page 9

Catherine's domestic policyII.

With the “Manifesto on Freedom for the Nobility” (1762) and the “Charter Granted to the Nobility” (1785), Catherine II secured the privileges of the nobility:

The nobles were exempt from taxes and duties.

Noble land ownership increased noticeably.

The exemption of the nobility from compulsory service (introduced by Peter III) was confirmed.

In 1775, the country was divided into 50 provinces instead of the previous 20. The population of the province ranged from 300 to 400 thousand people.

The secularization (confiscation) of church lands in favor of the state continued.

In 1787, a system of city schools was created (main and small public schools)

Presentation page 10

The uprising of E.I. Pugacheva (1773-1775)

In 1773, an uprising of the Yaik Cossacks (who lived in the area of the Yaik River) began, a peasant war led by E. I. Pugachev.

Pugachev proclaimed himself Emperor Peter III.

The peasant uprising covered the lands of the Yaitsk army, the Orenburg region, the Urals, the Kama region, Bashkortostan, part of Western Siberia, as well as the Middle and Lower Volga regions.

During the uprising, the Cossacks were joined by Bashkirs, Tatars, Kazakhs, Chuvashs, Mordovians, Ural factory workers and numerous serfs from all the provinces where hostilities took place.

Basic demands: abolition of serfdom, restoration of Cossack liberties in areas where Cossacks lived.

In 1775 the uprising was suppressed.

Presentation page 11

XVIIIcentury. Wars with Turkey.

Foreign policy objectives:

the struggle for access to the Black and Azov Seas;

liberation of the lands of Ukraine and Belarus from foreign domination and the unification of all Eastern Slavs in one state;

the fight against revolutionary France in connection with the Great French Revolution that began in 1789;

Presentation page 12

Russian foreign policy in the second halfXVIIIcentury. Partitions of Poland.

Together with Prussia and Austria, Russia participated in the division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Poland).

According to the first partition (1772) of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, part of eastern Belarus went to Russia.

According to the second section (1793) - Russia received the remaining part of eastern and central Belarus with Minsk, Volyn and Podolia.

According to the third partition (1795), western Belarus, western Volyn, Lithuania and Courland went to Russia.

Thus, almost all the lands of the Eastern Slavs, who were part of the Kievan Rus, excluding the Galician lands with Lvov (Galicia), which became part of Austria.

Presentation page 13

Russo-Turkish War 1768-1774

After a number of victories on land (under the leadership of P.A. Rumyantsev, V.M. Dolgorukov and A.V. Suvorov) and at sea (under the leadership of G.A. Spiridonov, A.G. Orlov and S.K. Greig ) the war was over.

According to the termsKuchuk-Kainardzhisky world(1774) Russia received:

access to the Black Sea;

the steppes of the Black Sea region - Novorossiya;

the right to have your own fleet in the Black Sea;

right of passage through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles straits;

Azov and Kerch, as well as Kuban and Kabarda passed to Russia;

The Crimean Khanate became independent from Turkey;

The Russian government received the right to act as a defender of the legitimate rights of the Christian peoples of the Ottoman Empire.

Russian-Turkish War 1787-1791 also ended in defeat for Turkey.

ByTreaty of Jassy:

Türkiye recognized Crimea as a possession of Russia;

the territory between the Bug and Dniester rivers became part of Russia;

Turkey recognized Russian patronage of Georgia, established by the Treaty of Georgievsk in 1783.

Presentation page 14

Paul's reformsI (1796-1801)

In 1796, Paul I (son of Catherine II and Peter III) came to power. During his 5 years in power, he carried out important reforms:

1. the law on succession to the throne, according to which the eldest son of the monarch became the heir to the throne,

2. limiting the work of peasants for the landowner to three days a week.

3. reduction of noble privileges and restoration of compulsory service of nobles.

The latter caused discontent among the nobility, and a conspiracy arose during which Paul I was killed.

Presentation page 16

The economic development of Russia in the mid-18th century reached its peak under conditions of feudal-serf relations. Feudalism, growing in depth and breadth, began to collapse from within. Commodity farming could not coexist with serfdom, and as a result, both landowners and serfs found themselves in contradictory relationships. The producer's material interest was needed, and it was inherent only in a free, free person.

The annexation of vast territories to Russia in the 18th century required their development. And serfdom was an obstacle to the rapid development of these territories.

The Russian bourgeoisie was constrained in its aspirations, at the same time it was generated by the socio-economic development of Russia and was dependent on the monarchy.

After the death of Peter I, a struggle for influence on power began between his followers and the old Russian nobility, also, by the way, followers of Peter. In a short period of time there was a change in the faces of political figures.

After the death of Peter I, the favorite of his wife, Menshikov, came forward. In 1727 Catherine I dies and the grandson of Peter I, Peter II Alekseevich, ascends the throne. But he was only 14 years old and a Supreme Privy Council was created to govern the country (Menshikov, Prince Dolgoruky, etc.). But there was no unity within this council and a struggle ensued between Menshikov and Dolgoruky, the latter emerging victorious, but he did not have to take advantage of this, since in 1730. Peter II dies. The throne remains vacant again.

At this time, the guards, dissatisfied with the policy of the Privy Council, carried out a coup, elevating to the throne the niece of Peter I, Anna Ioannovna, who lived in Jelgava (near Riga).

The reign of Anna Ioannovna is characterized by mass terror against the Russian nobility (Dolgoruky, Golitsin and many others suffered). Biron rises at court, rising from groom to Chancellor of Russia.

Under Anna Ioannovna, a war was waged with Turkey.

The arbitrariness was unbearable and only after the death of Anna Ioannovna did calm come to Russia. Dying, Anna Ioannovna left a will, which stated that the Russian throne should pass into the hands of Ivan Antonovich, the nephew of Anna Ioannovna (grandson of Peter I and Charles CII, former enemies), at that time still an infant.

Naturally, his mother, Anna Leopoldovna, and regent Biron ruled for him. But on November 25, 1741 a coup was carried out. Biron and Minich were arrested and exiled. The coup was carried out by the guard, dissatisfied with the dominance of foreigners.

Elizabeth ascends the throne, declaring that the death penalty is abolished. This ban was in effect throughout the 25 years of her reign.

In 1755 Russian university opened.

Elizabeth surrounds herself with a group of advisers, including Shuvalov, Panin, Chernyshov and others.

The years of Elizabeth's reign were called the best years of Russia.

The activities of Peter III caused a storm of discontent and in June 1762. a coup d'état was carried out. Peter III was removed from power, and Catherine II the Great ascended the throne.

The distribution of state lands begins, serfdom expands.

Catherine II, again using the nobility, carried out the secularization of church lands in 1764. All lands belonging to churches and monasteries were confiscated and transferred to the College of Economics. Church peasants were transferred to quitrent (i.e., about 1,000,000 peasants received freedom); part of the land was transferred to landowners.

Catherine signed a decree on the ownership of the land they owned.

In 1767 A decree on the attachment of peasants was adopted. Peasants were forbidden to complain about their landowners. The complaint was regarded as a serious state crime. By decree of January 17, 1765 peasants could be sent to hard labor by their landowner. By decree of May 3, 1783 Ukrainian peasants were assigned to their landowners.

The domestic policy of Catherine II was aimed at strengthening serfdom. Code of 1649 already hopelessly outdated. In this regard, Catherine II convenes a commission to adopt new laws. As a reaction to Catherine's policies, numerous peasant unrest and uprisings began, which subsequently developed into a peasant war led by Emelyan Pugachev in 73-75. The uprising showed that government was not up to date.

After the suppression of the uprising, Catherine begins new reforms. In 1775 By decree of Catherine II, regional reforms were carried out. In Russia, provinces and districts were created, governors were appointed, noble supervision was created, noble corporate and class institutions were created, and the staff of officials, police and detectives was increased.

In the same 1775 A decree on freedom of enterprise and merchants was adopted. This decree led to the need for reforms in cities. The process of formalizing the privileges of the nobility and merchants ends with two charters on the rights of liberty and advantages of the Russian nobility and a charter granted to cities (1785). The first charter was aimed at consolidating the forces of the nobility, and the second met the interests of merchants. The purpose of issuing charters is to strengthen power, create new groups and layers on which the Russian monarchy could rely.

Catherine decides to strengthen censorship after the French Revolution. Novikov and Radishchev were arrested.

In 1796 Catherine II died and Paul I ascended the throne.

The character of the new emperor was largely contradictory. He did many things the opposite of his mother's. Paul demanded that the nobility return to their regiments.

After some time, by decree of April 5, 1797. it was approved that peasants should work for the landowner no more than 3 days a week, and prohibited the sale of peasants.

Paul broke off trade relations with England.

The highest nobility created a conspiracy against Paul, and on March 12, 1801. he was killed in Mikhailovsky Castle.

Russia's foreign policy in the 18th century was characterized by the struggle for access to the Black Sea; Azov was captured in 1736, Kabardino-Balkaria was completely annexed, and in 1731. Kazakhstan voluntarily joins Russia. During the 7-year war, Berlin and Koenigsberg were captured.

During the reign of Catherine II, Poland was divided three times, and Poland itself ceased to exist as an independent state.

During the reign of Paul I, great heroic deeds of Russian troops took place under the leadership of Suvorov.

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1. Introduction……………………………………………………………………………….4

2. Social and economic development of Russia in the second half

XVIII C.………………………………………………………………………………..6

3.Catherine II and “enlightened absolutism”……………………………………………………7

4. Peasant war led by E.I. Pugachev………………11

5. Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………...15

6. List of references…………………………………………….16

Introduction

As a result of the palace coup on June 28, 1762, Catherine II, one of the brightest figures in Russian history, ascended the throne.

The empress’s political program was based on the ideas of European philosophers and educators, which is why Catherine’s era was called “enlightened absolutism.”

The empress's ideal was a strong state with a controlled, structured society, subject to reasonable laws. In this vein were its first administrative and economic transformations - the reform of central government institutions, the unification of the management system, the secularization of the church's land holdings, a nationwide general land survey, and the proclamation of freedom of economic activity in Russia.

One of the central events during the reign of Catherine II was the convening in 1767 of a Commission of elected deputies to draft a new set of laws - the Code. For the deputies of the Commission, Catherine wrote her own Mandate, the most important act of the reign, which determined the main guidelines for the policy of “enlightened absolutism.” Discussions at the Commission meetings highlighted the main contradictions of serf Russia, and the draft laws prepared by the deputies were used in the further legislative work of the Empress.

In the 1770s - 1780s. Catherine II implements her two main reforms - administrative-territorial and class. As a result, a new system of local government was created, the judiciary was reformed, and bodies of class self-government of nobles and townspeople were created. The charters granted to the nobility and cities in 1785 completed the process of legislative registration of the class rights of nobles and various strata of the urban population.

Catherine II considered the most important task of her reign to be the development of education, which, in her opinion, could educate “a new breed of people.” For this purpose, in the 1760s. closed estates were created educational establishments– Smolny Institute, educational homes for orphans in Moscow and St. Petersburg, a school at the Academy of Arts, gentry buildings were reformed. In the 1780s. Public schools were established in district and provincial cities, operating according to a single program, thus creating a system of primary and secondary education for the first time in Russia.

The era of Catherine II became the heyday of Russian culture. The Empress herself gave a powerful impetus to the rise of intellectual life in Russia, raising the task of shaping the cultural environment to the rank of state policy. In the last third of the 18th century. The process of formation of Russian national identity is accelerating, accompanied by growing interest in the historical past of Russia, reflections on its place in world history, interest in folk culture, music, and folklore.

The successes of the Enlightenment existed in Russia simultaneously with serfdom, which had already begun to be recognized by advanced social thought as a brake on the country's development. In 1773-1775 the country was shocked by the performance of the grassroots under the leadership of E.I. Pugachev, which still amazes the imagination with its scale.

1. Social and economic development of Russia in the second halfXVIIIIN.

In the second half of the 18th century. Russia remained one of the largest states in the world. Despite the great merits of Peter I in the field of industrial development, the country maintained the agrarian nature of the economy. Agriculture developed extensively, the increase in production was due to the plowing of new lands in the Black Sea region, the Middle and Lower Volga region, the Urals, and Siberia. The peasantry made up 90% of the Russian population. Traditional forms of its exploitation were preserved. Despite the dominance of the feudal-serf system, new features appeared in the socio-economic development of the country. In the second half of the 18th century. Bread became a commodity and landowners and peasant farms began to work for the market. From the end of the 18th century. Grain exports expanded. The growth of lordly farming led to a decrease and sometimes to the disappearance of the peasant allotment. As a result, the system of otkhodnichestvo developed. The separation of peasants from their allotment and the need to earn money to pay rent contributed to the formation of a labor market. In order to increase the profitability of their farms, landowners used new agricultural technology, ordered fertilizers from abroad, etc. All these new phenomena indicated the first signs of the decomposition of the corvee economy.

In the 50s and 60s of the 18th century, private entrepreneurship actively developed. The presence of large reserves of their own raw materials (flax, hemp, leather, wool, grain) and free labor, as well as the opportunity to profitably sell their products, pushed landowners to set up patrimonial manufactories. But by the end of the 18th century. The number of noble manufactories based on forced labor decreased sharply. The number of peasant and merchant manufactories increased. The development of entrepreneurship was facilitated by the prohibition in 1762 of the purchase of peasants for factories and the permission in 1775 of peasant industry.

By the end of the 18th century. In Russia there were about 100 large industrial enterprises in the most dynamically developing industry - the cotton industry, which was almost entirely based on civilian labor. The process of forming the all-Russian market continued. This was facilitated by the proclamation of free trade in 1762. Fair trade predominated.

Thus, in the Russian economy the second half of the XVIII V. The capitalist structure began to take shape, but it could not firmly establish itself on Russian soil. The main obstacle to this was the absolutist system, which preserved serfdom and strengthened the position of the nobility.

2. EkaterinaIIand "enlightened absolutism".

In 1762, as a result of a coup d'etat, Catherine II ascended to the Russian throne. Her reign marked the beginning of the era of “enlightened absolutism.” There is no single point of view on the issue of the policy of “enlightened absolutism”. Some historians believe that flirting with philosophers was a kind of coquetry on the part of the monarchs, and not real politics. Others see this as a certain stage of development absolute monarchy, which tried to reform in order to prevent the impending bourgeois revolutions. Historians define the chronological framework of enlightened absolutism differently. The most generally accepted point of view is I.A. Fedosov, who considers the beginning of enlightened absolutism in Russia to be 1762, and its completion to be 1815.

Enlightened absolutism is a pan-European phenomenon. This policy was widespread in Prussia, Sweden, Austria, and France. XVIII century went down in history as the age of enlightenment. The philosophy of the Enlightenment was developed by such thinkers as A. Voltaire, D. Diderot, J.-J. Rousseau, C. Montesquieu, I. Kant, etc.

It was based on the ideas of rationalism and reflected the belief that the human mind is capable of comprehending not only the laws of development of nature, but also of society. The idea of progress, steady movement along the path leading to an order based on law and reason, permeated the works of all enlightenment philosophers.

The triumph of rationalism was associated with the “secularization” of spiritual life. Enlightenment scholars mercilessly criticized the church, which kept parishioners in fear and ignorance. Philosophers did not deny God, but were only against the idea of divine predestination. Their main idea was that man is the creator of his own destiny. Recognition of the personal independence and freedom of the individual by his natural rights is the main thesis of the Enlightenment. This is how the theory of “natural rights” appeared, the essence of which is that a person is born to be free, to have his own and to be protected by the state and its fair laws. This resulted in criticism of the old feudal order, which violated natural human rights and freedoms, as well as justification for the need for democratic changes in society.

On the issue of power, Enlightenment scholars shared John Locke's theory of the social contract. A government that violates the personal rights and freedoms of citizens and the terms of the social contract cannot remain in power. Any state exists to provide for the common good. The highest value of every society is the person. French Enlightenment philosophers believed that Russia was a barbaric, despotic country. The absolute monarchy made its inhabitants slaves. Catherine considered autocracy the only possible form of government for the vast territory of the country. All others were not only ruinous for her, but also destructive. In addition, the empress was confident that if citizens were law-abiding, then general prosperity would come. Therefore, work to improve the legislation of the Russian Empire occupied an important place in its domestic policy. The old Council Code, in force since 1649, did not at all correspond to the historical conditions in which Catherine II ruled the country. The Empress herself worked for about two years on the “Order” - special instructions for the future commission on drawing up new legislation. The main text of the “Nakaz” was the first to be particularly humane in nature. It proclaimed the peasants' ownership of movable property and proposed the establishment of a peasant elective court. The Empress condemned the cruel treatment of serfs, the use of torture and the death penalty in the state. Catherine's closest aides persistently recommended that she return to real life and give up dreams, so by the beginning of 1767 she prepared a second, more moderate version of the “Nakaz”, which was translated into German, Latin and French languages. The “Mandate” was a document in which the ideas of “enlightened absolutism” were substantiated and outlined in detail. The main points in it were the substantiation of the inviolability of the absolute monarchy and the assertion that the sovereign in Russia is the source of all state and civil power. All subjects are obliged to unquestioningly carry out the sovereign's will.

Approving the ideas of unlimited absolutism, Catherine called for moderation in laws and government policies. Any punishment not justified by necessity is a manifestation of tyranny. The death penalty is not at all desirable and can be applied in exceptional cases only to incorrigible and dangerous criminals. The most serious crime is a crime against the monarch.

The empress called the nobility the support of the state, which stipulated that belonging to the nobility gives not only certain rights and property, but also imposes obligations to the monarch and the state.

Violation of a nobleman's honor leads to exclusion from the ranks of the nobles and deprivation of the nobility. The content of the “Nakaz” spoke of Catherine II’s desire to largely follow the policy of “enlightened absolutism.” He must show the whole of Europe the enlightenment, humanity and education of the empress.

The laid down commission, convened to draw up new legislation, began its work on July 30, 1767 in the Moscow Kremlin. It was attended by 564 deputies from all segments of the Russian population, except serfs. The discussion of the peasant question caused the greatest urgency. The disputes over the peasant issue became so acute and protracted that Catherine II began to be inclined to dissolve the commission. At the end of 1768, the war with Turkey began, a significant part of the deputies were recalled to the active army, and the empress, taking advantage of this, dissolved the commission for an indefinite period. Her work was not completely useless. The materials prepared by the commission and the ideas expressed during the discussion were subsequently used by Catherine II in legislative and administrative work.

An integral part of the policy of “enlightened absolutism” was the policy of secularization of church property. In 1764, a decree was issued according to which monastic and church estates with the peasants who inhabited them were transferred to the college of economics. The meaning of this decree was that, firstly, the clergy was deprived of its economic base, secondly, monasteries and dioceses became completely dependent on the state, and finally, the situation of the peasants, freed from dependence, improved significantly. They became state peasants. State institutions created by Peter I significantly narrowed their powers. In 1763, the Senate was divided into 6 departments. The colleges came out of the control of the Senate and were later abolished. The Senate lost legislative initiative and increasingly turned into a judicial institution.

Historical-materialist theory evaluates “enlightened absolutism” as liberal demagoguery of the government, maneuvering in the face of the crisis of the feudal-serf system in order to expand the privileges of the nobility and avoid popular unrest. The historical-liberal approach is characterized by an assessment of the named period as a time of gradual reform of society without sudden shocks, while monarchical law dominated. It was a regulatory mechanism for exercising control over society, its function was to enforce obedience, and not to protect individual rights and civil rights. From the point of view of the modernization approach, the reforms of the era of “enlightened absolutism” formed new aspirations of legislative policy, a special state-legal structure, which remained unchanged until the beginning of the 19th century, and in certain features of state-political principles - even later.

Serfdom already reached its apogee at the beginning of Catherine’s reign. In the 60s, a series of decrees were issued that deprived peasants of any minimal rights: they were prohibited from owning real estate, taking contracts and farming out, acting as guarantors, trading without special permission, and leaving their place of residence without written permission. In 1765, landowners received the right to exile peasants to hard labor, and peasants were forbidden to complain about landowners: their complaints were considered a false denunciation, and the one who filed it was subject to severe punishment.

3. Peasant war led by E.I. Pugachev

The strengthening of serfdom, the powerless situation of all segments of the population of the Russian Empire, except for the nobility, became the cause of a powerful peasant war led by E.I. Pugachev (1773-1775). It was attended by Cossacks, serfs, workers of Ural factories and factories, the national composition of which was Russians, Bashkirs, Tatars, Maris, Kalmyks, etc. The Russian people have always had strong traditions of naive monarchism, therefore simple people responded so readily to the appearance of the “resurrected” Peter III, under whose name Emelyan Pugachev performed. The center of the rebels became the Yaitsky town. There, Pugachev’s Manifesto was proclaimed, in which he promised to “bless the people with lands, waters, forests, fish catches, dwellings, meadows, seas, bread, faith, your law, salaries, lead and gunpowder, etc.” The promises of E.I. Pugachev fell on fertile soil. The number of his supporters grew all the time. In October 1773, when he approached Orenburg, he had only 3 thousand people at his disposal, and a few weeks later the number of Pugachev’s troops increased to 15 thousand people.

E.I. Pugachev firmly adhered to his royal title, he organized something like a royal court, ordered the production of a seal with the inscription “Great State Seal of Peter III, Emperor and Autocrat of All Russia,” established a brass order, which he awarded to particularly distinguished associates. A feature of this peasant war was its great organization and the widespread participation of working people of the Urals in it. But still, like other peasant wars, it did not have clear political goals or a constructive program; it turned into a bloody, merciless destruction of the ruling classes, their servants, plunder and division of their property. In the Manifesto of July 31, 1774, Pugachev granted freedom to all serfs, promised to free the peasants from the oppression of villainous nobles and bribe-taking judges, from conscription, poll tax and other taxes. But here he declared the peasants “liberated” by him to be his faithful slaves and gave them, along with their lands, to his associates as property. Thus, they again became serfs, but under new masters. This war, according to a number of historians, was not anti-feudal in nature; E.I. Pugachev did not have a clear idea of the ultimate goals of his movement.

The Peasant War led by E.I. Pugachev caused a number of government reforms. Already in November 1775, the “Institution for the Administration of the Province” was published. According to it, the country was divided into 50 provinces, which, in turn, were divided into 10-12 districts (provinces were abolished). The provinces and districts had identical institutions and approximately equal staffs of officials. At the head of the province was a governor appointed by the emperor; he also headed the main institution of the province - the provincial assembly. He had executive power, control over the activities of all institutions and officials, and ensuring law and order. All military units on the territory of the province were also subject to the governor. In the counties, executive power was transferred to the county noble assembly. New judicial institutions were created, which were class-based: for the nobles, the upper (in the provinces) and lower (in the districts) zemstvo court, for the state peasants - the upper and lower justice (serfs were judged at their own discretion by the landowner himself).

Power, therefore, is administrative-police, financial-economic and judicial. But this was only the first step towards the separation of powers, since all power still remained in the hands of the empress.

In 1775, Cossack self-government on the Don was liquidated and the Zaporozhye Sich was abolished. Soon the Zaporozhye Cossacks were resettled to Kuban. The Yaik Cossacks were renamed Ural Cossacks and police surveillance was established over them. On the Don, the government introduced a special civil administration, subordinate to St. Petersburg. The suppression of the peasant war, the fear of the possibility of its repetition, forced Catherine II to further strengthen the position in society of the noble class - the only support of autocratic power. On April 21, 1785, the “Certificate on the rights, liberties and advantages of the noble Russian nobility” was published. This was a set of noble privileges, which received the unofficial name of the Charter of the Nobility. The nobles could not serve, did not pay taxes to the treasury, the land, together with the peasants sitting on it, became their private property, a nobleman could not be subjected to corporal punishment, he could not be deprived of noble dignity, honor, life and property. Thus, the Russian nobility turned into a special corporation. It received the right to make representations through the governor about its various wishes. From now on and forever, the nobility became the first estate of the Russian Empire.

At this time, the Letter of Commendation to the cities was issued. According to it, the entire population of cities was divided into 6 categories. The first included householders, nobles and clergy. They were all called “real city dwellers.” The second category included the merchants of the three guilds; the third category consisted of artisans registered in guilds, the fourth - foreign and out-of-town merchants, etc. The population of cities had the right to elect the mayor and members of the city duma once every three years at their meeting. Citizens who had reached the age of 25 and owned capital on which they paid a tax of at least 50 rubles could participate in the elections.

Conclusion

Under Catherine II, Russia joined the union of European states. All rulers, without exception, sought the location of Russia; the country sailed all the desired seas, blossomed in art, and became covered with a network of schools.

Catherine's time became not only the golden age of Russian statehood, but also the flowering of the arts and sciences in Russia. Catherine never raised her voice to her servants, unlike other emperors. She forbade her nobility from beating slaves.

Wanting to succeed everywhere, she did not forget anything. Having ascended the Russian throne, she wished well and tried to bring happiness and freedom to her subjects.

She forgave easily and bore no ill will towards anyone. She loved art and adored being in public. “All the years of Catherine’s reign were golden,” as many historians say. Catherine remained in people's memory as a shining star of the era, rightly called Catherine's. Neither before nor after Catherine was there a stronger, smarter or more brilliant ruler in Russia in the 18th century.

Bibliography:

1. Borzikhina I.V., Zapetskaya N.D., Konopleva L.A. Domestic history / Ed. A.V. Trofimova. 3rd ed., revised. and additional Ekaterinburg: Ural Publishing House. state econ. Univ., 2002. – 492 p.

2. Zhuravlev V.V. Political history of Russia: Textbook/Ed. ed. prof. V.V. Zhuravlev. – M.: Lawyer, 1998. – 696s

3. Lichman B.V. History of Russia from ancient times to the second half of the 19th century. Course of lectures/Under. ed. prof. B.V.Lichman. Ekaterinburg: Ural. state un - t. 1995. - 304 p.

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Under Anna Ioannovna, a war was waged with Turkey.

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Elizabeth ascends the throne, declaring that the death penalty is abolished. This ban was in effect throughout the 25 years of her reign.

In 1755 Russian university opened.

Elizabeth surrounds herself with a group of advisers, including Shuvalov, Panin, Chernyshov and others.

The years of Elizabeth's reign were called the best years of Russia.

The activities of Peter III caused a storm of discontent and in June 1762. a coup d'état was carried out. Peter III was removed from power, and Catherine II the Great ascended the throne.

The distribution of state lands begins, serfdom expands.

Catherine signed a decree on the ownership of the land they owned.

Catherine decides to strengthen censorship after the French Revolution. Novikov and Radishchev were arrested.

In 1796 Catherine II died and Paul I ascended the throne.

The character of the new emperor was largely contradictory. He did many things the opposite of his mother's. Paul demanded that the nobility return to their regiments.

After some time, by decree of April 5, 1797. it was approved that peasants should work for the landowner no more than 3 days a week, and prohibited the sale of peasants.

Paul broke off trade relations with England.

The highest nobility created a conspiracy against Paul, and on March 12, 1801. he was killed in Mikhailovsky Castle.

During the reign of Catherine II, Poland was divided three times, and Poland itself ceased to exist as an independent state.

During the reign of Paul I, great heroic deeds of Russian troops took place under the leadership of Suvorov.