General patterns of using accents.
The French script has four superscripts; three accents (grave, aigu, circonflexe) and tréma. Let's consider comparison table general positional patterns and functions of superscripts (including tréma).
Use of signs with letters and basic letter combinations:
In addition, tréma occurs in graphic syntagms; ouï, uï, ayo, oh. No signs are placed above y, œ, eau. Only tréma can appear above a nasal vowel (coïncider).
Accent circonflexe.
Accent circonflexe can stand over any simple vowel letter: â, ê, î, ô, û or letter combination: aî, eî, oî, eû, oû, oê = , except y, au, eau.
Accent circonflexe is never placed above a vowel preceding two consonants (except indivisible groups: tr, cl, etc.) and the letter x. Exceptions: a) before double ss in the words châssis ‘frame’, châssis ‘chassis’ and in forms of the verb croître; b) in the passé simple of the verbs venir, tenir (and their derivatives): nous vînmes, vous vîntes, etc.
Accent circonflexe is never placed over a vowel followed by another vowel, whether the latter is pronounced or not, for example: crû (m. r.), but: crue (f. r.). Exception: bâiller.
In a combination of two vowels, the accent circonflexe always stands above the second: traître, théâtre.
Accent circonflexe is not placed above the last letter of the word. Exceptions: participles dû, crû, mû, interjections ô, allô and foreign words and names (Salammbô, etc.), onomatopoeia (bê-ê!).
Accent circonflexe is not placed over the e if it is the first letter of the word. Exception: être.
Accent circonflexe is never placed above nasal vowels. Even when accent circonflexe is used in a given root, it disappears if the vowel takes on a nasal timbre:
traîner, entraîner, but: train, entrain; jeûner, but: à jeun. Exceptions: nous vînmes, vous vîntes, etc.
- Accent circonflexe never breaks letter combinations, unlike accent aigu and tréma.
Reasons for using accent circonflexe.
The use of accent circonflexe is explained by a number of factors: etymological (it is placed in place of the disappeared letter), phonetic (to indicate the duration of a vowel in combination with a change in its timbre), morphological (in some types of word formation), differentiating (to distinguish homonyms).
Accent circonflexe is most often used as a sign to replace a letter that has disappeared from pronunciation and writing, primarily s. It is no coincidence that accent circonflexe is not used before s.
Exceptions: châsse, châssis, forms of the verb croître. Dropped before another consonant s could have been preserved in the same root in words borrowed from Latin and other languages after the process of extinction s had ceased. In Russian borrowings this s can also be represented. Therefore, as a way to check the spelling of [ˆ], it is recommended to compare it with other words of the same root, where s is preserved, or with the corresponding Russian words (alternating s -ˆ):
fête - festival - festival; bête - bestial - beast, etc.
- In more rare cases, [ˆ] replaces another one that has disappeared
consonant, besides s:
p: âme< anima; t: rêne < retina; d: Rhône < Rhodanus.
- In a number of words [ˆ] appeared instead of a vowel that was gaping, that is, before another vowel. The disappearance of this vowel caused the length of the remaining one, which is indicated by the sign [ˆ]:
mûr< meur < maturum; sûr < seur < securum;
role< roole < rotulam; вge < eage < etaticum.
And in modern spelling [ˆ] is placed instead of the omitted e muet in a number of cases of word production and inflection.
- 4. Disappearance s led to a change in the sound of the previous vowel. The loss of the vowel in gaping had a similar effect. The remaining vowel received longitude (the so-called historical longitude), and its timbre also changed: in is pronounced closed [α:], ô - closed [o:], ê - open [ε:]. This gave reason to interpret [ˆ] as an indicator of a change in the sound of a letter, and in a number of words it was introduced in order to convey the corresponding shade of the pronunciation of a vowel, regardless of etymology, for example: cône, grâce, interjections ô, allô. Longitude is not always preserved, mainly in the stressed syllable; as a rule, such a [ˆ] stands above a stressed vowel (most often above o), in other words of the same root the vowel becomes unstressed and loses its length, [ˆ] can disappear, cf.: cône - conique; grâce - gracieux, etc.
Phonetic [ˆ] is often found in words of Greek origin to designate [ε:], [o:], [α:]. However, when using it, you cannot rely solely on pronunciation, since in many cases such pronunciation of the vowel is not marked with a [ˆ]. So, they write cône, diplôme, arôme but: zone, cyclone, although in all words it sounds [o:].
In the use of [ˆ], two contradictory trends collide. On the one hand, the morphological tendency forces us to use [ˆ] in all words of a given root, regardless of the pronunciation tête [ε:] - têtu [e]), on the other hand, the phonetic tendency forces us to put and omit [ˆ] depending on the pronunciation in one and the same root (cône - conique). The struggle between these two tendencies leads to frequent deviations and inconsistencies in the use of the sign [ˆ]. In many cases [ˆ] is retained or omitted only due to tradition. In addition, in modern pronunciation, the differential features of phonemes expressed by the sign [ˆ] are weakened: [ε] coincides with [e], â and a, ô and o are neutralized (especially in an unstressed syllable).
The arbitrary nature of the use of [ˆ] in a number of cases gave rise to its use without connection with etymology and pronunciation by analogy or, conversely, as a distinctive sign (differentiation of homonyms). Sometimes [ˆ] is preserved in words with a “solemn sound”: chrême, châsse, baptême. In other cases, it is used for ornamental purposes in borrowed words to emphasize their “exoticism”: pô, stûpa.
Accent circonflexe in verb forms, inflections, suffixes.
I. Accent circonflexe is written in the following verb forms.
1. In the forms of the 1st and 2nd l. pl. including passé simple of all verbs:
nous parlâmes, dîmes, lûmes, eûmes, vînmes; vous parlâtes, dîtes, lûtes, eûtes, vîntes.
Exceptions: nous haïmes, vous haïtes (here tréma emphasizes the separate reading of a - i, which [ˆ] cannot show) and according to tradition in nous ouïmes, vous ouïtes.
In forms of the 3rd l. units part imparfait du subjonctif of all verbs: qu’il parlât, qu’il dot, qu’il eût, qu’il vоnt; [ˆ] here is of historical origin (from parlast, etc.). Exception: qu'il haït.
In verb forms ending in -aître, -oître (naître, connaître, paître, paraître, croître and their derivatives). In two cases before t:
1) in the infinitive: naître, accroître and, therefore, in futur and conditionnel: il naîtra, il naîtrait;
2) in the 3rd l. units part présent de l’indicatif: il naît, il accroît. In these verbs [ˆ] replaces the dropped s. Before s [ˆ] disappears: je nais, tu nais, but: il naît, etc.
4. In the forms of the verb croître ‘to grow’ as opposed to the verb croire ‘to believe’.
Présent de l'indicatif Impératif
croire: je crois, tu crois, il croit crois
croître: je croîs, tu croîs, il croît croîs
croire: je crus, tu crus, il crut, ils crurent
croître: je crûs, tu crûs, il crût, ils crûrent
Imparfait du subjonctif
croire:que je crusse, tu crusses, il crût, nous crussions, vous crussiez, ils crussent
croître: que je crûsse, tu crûsses, il crût, nous crûssions, vous crûssiez, ils crûssent
Note. The derived verbs accroître, décroître have [ˆ] only in the 3rd l. units part présent de l’indicatif: il décroît - by general rule verbs ending in aître, -oître.
5. In the 3rd l. units part présent de l’indicatif of verbs plaire (déplaire, complaire), gésir, clore - pepper, t (instead of the dropped s): il plaît, il déplaît, il complaît, il gît, il clôt.
Note: il éclot is currently written without accent circonflexe.
6. In the participe passé of some verbs:
crû (croître) - in contrast to cru (croire) and cru (adj and m); dû (devoir) - in contrast to du (article contracté and partitif); mû (mouvoir) - according to tradition, instead of a dropped vowel in gaping (< теи).
In plural and in forms female accent circonflexe disappears: crus, crue; dus, due; mus, mue.
Note. [ˆ] is not used in derived verbs: accru, décru, indu, ému, promu; however they write redû (redevoir), recrû p. p. and s m (recroître) but: recru (de fatigue).
Accent circonflexe is used in following cases during word formation.
In the suffix of adjectives and nouns -âtre (expresses the incompleteness of the attribute): noirâtre ‘blackish’, marâtre ‘stepmother’.
7. In the suffix of adjectives -être: champêtre ‘field’ (cf.: terrestre ‘earthly’).
8. At the end of the names of the winter months of the Republican calendar (in 1793-1805): nivôse, pluviôse, ventôse.
The Russian ruble has finally acquired an official graphic symbol - now the national currency will be denoted by a crossed out letter “R”. About why currencies need special graphic signs and why most symbols of the world's monetary units contain horizontal "dashes" - in the material on the site.
Why do currencies need graphic symbols?
Not every currency in the world can boast of its own sign. Yes, without special characters Latvian lats, Swiss francs, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish crowns, Croatian kunas and many other currencies of the world are used. In total, according to the global Unicode standard (the standard for encoding characters and signs of written languages), at the moment only about thirty world currencies have officially registered graphic symbols. Among them there are also those that are no longer in use - for example, signs of the Italian lira (£), German mark (ℳ), and French franc (₣), which became obsolete after the introduction of the euro.
Meanwhile, it is hard not to admit that currencies that have their own graphic symbols are much more widespread than monetary units that do not have their own symbols. Thus, the dollar ($), pound (£), euro (€), and yen (¥) are undoubtedly not only the most popular, but also the strongest and most influential currencies in the world.
Approval of the ruble symbol
The introduction of the official symbol of the Russian ruble, according to the Bank of Russia, became the most important event in the country's economy. "Moscow claims the status of an international financial center. An objective need has emerged to introduce a symbol of the national currency, recognized within the country and abroad,” said Elvira Nabiullina, Chairman of the Central Bank of Russia, on December 11, presenting the approved designation of the Russian currency.
The adoption of one sign as a designation of a monetary unit allows, in addition, to unify all variants of its previous spelling: thus, after the official approval of the ruble symbol, there will no longer be any doubt about how best to say about the ruble in writing- 100 rubles, 100 rubles. or 100 rub.
What do the symbols of different world currencies have in common?
Some of the graphic images of monetary units developed naturally, as a result of various historical events, and some were formed during the development of many options, as well as the holding of popular votes. So, it is impossible to present any special requirements for creating a symbol of a particular currency. However graphic image must be convenient and easy to write, otherwise it will be useless - after all, currency symbols are introduced in order to become recognizable and replace them in written speech full names currencies
Dollar, euro, pound, Japanese yen, Vietnamese dong, Israeli new shekel
Graphic symbols of almost all currencies in the world have horizontal “dashes” in their structure. This is not only the British pound sterling (£), the euro (€), the Ukrainian hryvnia (₴), the Japanese yen (¥), the Kazakh tenge (₸) and, finally, the symbol of the Russian ruble that has received official status. Thus, the symbols of the Indian rupee (₹), South Korean won (₩) and many other currencies of the world are also written using one or more horizontal stripes.
Such stripes on signs are a generally recognized symbol of the stability of the currency in whose writing they are present. That is why, as representatives of the Central Bank of Russia themselves stated, the line is also used in the symbol of the ruble.
From Russia with love
The approved symbol of the Russian ruble, which is a crossed out “R”, is not the first sign of the national currency, but it is the only one officially recognized. It must be added, however, that for a long time it was the most popular of the unofficial designations of the Russian currency.
During times Russian Empire there was another way to write the ruble: it was combining capital letters"r" and "y". According to the most common version, the "p" was turned 90 degrees counterclockwise, and then the "y" was written on top of the letter. This designation of the ruble was indicated not after the numbers, as today, but above them. However, despite the attempts of some publishers, this ruble sign was not widely used in print.
Now the graphic symbol of the ruble has become - and is already completely legal - the crossed out letter "R". This sign was approved by the Central Bank of Russia on December 11. The selected symbol was recognized as the most popular based on the results of a vote that the Central Bank conducted on its website. A one-ruble coin with a new graphic symbol of the national currency will appear in circulation in 2014.
Approved symbol of the ruble. Photo: cbr.ru
In early November, the Central Bank submitted the graphic symbol of the ruble for public discussion. The finalist signs have been selected working group Bank of Russia from more than three thousand options. The crossed out “P” was supported by more than 61% of respondents during the voting.
Crossed out letters and more
Since horizontal stripes are a fairly popular “attribute” of currency symbols, it is not surprising that there are already a number of monetary units in the world, the signs of which are very similar to the new ruble designation. Thus, most countries in which pesos are used to pay use the American dollar sign ($) or a similar one, only with two transverse stripes, to designate their currencies. But in the Philippines, the peso, meanwhile, is denoted by a different symbol - ₱, which is similar to the new designation of the Russian ruble.
Symbols of various currencies of the world: including the American dollar, Korean won, Netherlands Antilles guilder
The Nigerian naira is also crossed out - however, already with two stripes (₦). In addition, the Ukrainian hryvnia (₴) and the Laotian kip (₭) have similar designations - in the form of crossed out letters.
In the graphic designs of some national currencies, horizontal lines are present in a different way. Thus, the new Israeli shekel looks more like a beautiful rectangular pattern (₪), that of the country of Bangladesh - like a solid sign from the Russian alphabet (৳), and the guilder of the Netherlands Antilles - like a mathematical notation for a function (ƒ).
Where did the most famous currency symbols come from?
Today there is no single view on the origin of the $ sign, but it is quite possible that the American currency owes its characteristic design to the inhabitants of Foggy Albion. The fact is that the English king George III at one time ordered the use of Spanish reals, which cost 1/8 of the English pound sterling, in circulation. This money was called "piece of eight", which eventually became the abbreviated "peso". Soon they began to be used to pay with them in the North American colonies of England, where they also began to be called dollars.
The crossed out eight was wisely chosen as the written symbol for "piece of eight". However, soon this spelling turned out to be too long and inconvenient, as a result of which the symbol turned into a “truncated” eight - $.
According to the theory of American Patriots, $, however, originated differently: becoming a simplified combination of the letters "U" and "S" (the first letters of the name of the United States - US), superimposed on each other. Another version of the appearance of the American dollar symbol says that the “progenitors” of the $ sign were the Spaniards, who wrote down the peso currency by combining the letters “P” and “S”.
The Roots of Fancy Writing British pound lie in Latin letter"L", supplemented by a horizontal line (or two lines) in the middle. “L” itself comes from the Latin word libra (libra, pound), denoting the main measure of weight in Ancient Rome and England.
The pound - £ or ₤ - is used not only in the UK, but also in some other countries around the world.
The euro, as a young currency, received its sign as a result of an analysis of the public opinion of Europeans. It is believed that the authors of € were four experts, whose names for some reason it was decided not to disclose.
According to the European Commission, the graphic image of the euro carries the significance of European civilization (it is symbolized by greek letter"epsilon"), identity with Europe itself (the letter "E") and stability (parallel lines crossing the letter).
From $ to €
The first use of a symbol of any (some) currency dates back to 1972. It may be necessary if, for example, the symbol of the required currency is not available in a computer font.
Designation of any currency
The sign of some currency is a circle from which, like the sun, four rays extend at an angle of 90 degrees relative to each other.
Anna Teplitskaya
Listen to the audio lesson with additional explanationsI think that many have already noticed that sometimes there are different icons above and below French letters: sticks, houses, dots, worms, commas...
As you understand, they are drawn for a reason.
The letter of the alphabet already known to us is e (this is the one when we put our lips together as if we are going to speak O, and we ourselves say uh) is pronounced differently with different symbols.
é
If you see this icon above it (accent aigu (sharp accent) or “stick to the right”), it needs to be pronounced, smiling.
Prepare your lips for sound And, and say it yourself uh.
That is, stretch your lips towards your ears as much as possible. And with such a smile from ear to ear, you say uh.
fé e, bé bé, café, é cole, é tudie, ré cit, té lé, é té, é crire, litté rature, pré fé ré
Cé cile dé teste le café.
C"est l"é cole numé ro deux.
C"est la discipline pré fé ré e de Bé né dicte.
Le bé bé de Pé pé a le nez é paté.
Il a pitié des bé bé s.
è ê ё
The scientific name for these icons is: accent grave, accent circonflexe, tréma (let’s call them in our own way – stick to the left, house, two dots).
All three options are pronounced the same, like Russian uh.
trè s, prè s, aprè s, frè re, pè re, mè re, poè te, crè me, problè me, modè le
fê te, bê te, rê ve, crê pe, forê t, fenê tre, Noе l
C"est le pè re de Pierre.
Le Noé l est ma fê te préférée.
I hope everyone knows that the French language grew out of Latin (just like Italian, spanish languages). That is, Latin roots predominate in French words.
So here it is. Where in Latin there was a letter s in this root, in modern French there is house. But in other languages (and not only Romance languages, but, for example, in English and Russian) this s has been preserved.
Look at the word fê te!
Let's restore the letter hidden under the house. What happened? Feste.
What does it remind us of? Look at the Spanish word fiesta and Russian word"festival". Right! It's a "holiday"! So you can guess the meaning of the word, which contains e with a house.
And now a word forê t.
We proceed in the same way. We restore the letter s – forest.
Those who speak English have already understood that this is a “forest”. By the way, this letter has been preserved in French, for example, in the word forestier (forester).
Two dots can stand not only above e, but also above other letters too.
The main purpose of this icon is to separate vowels.
Usually two vowels in a row make one sound. For example, the letter combination a i is read as uh(we'll learn more about this later).
But if you put not one, but two dots over i, this letter combination will read as ai.
naï f, égoï ste, Raphaе l, Noе l
The house (accent circonflexe) and the “stick to the left” (accent grave) can stand not only above the letter e.
These icons can be used to distinguish the meaning of words.
du – masculine partial article (or continuous article)
dû – past tense form of the verb devoir
sur – preposition “on, about”
a – verb avoir (to have) for the pronouns “he, she”
à – preposition “in”
ou – conjunction “or”
où – question word “where?” Where?"
la – pronoun “her” (answers the question “who?”)
là – adverb “there, here”
Attention! This does not affect pronunciation in any way.
ç
garç on, leç on, maç on, faç on, faç ade, limaç on, reç u
Apostrophe
This is a comma above and to the right of the letter that hides an extra vowel underneath.
In French everything should be fine :) But two vowels in a row is a mess.
You can't leave de elle. You need to hide the vowel in the preposition under an apostrophe. It turns out d'elle.
Instead of le arbre - l "arbre, je ai - j"ai.
You get used to it very quickly, because very quickly you realize that it is really much more convenient to pronounce it this way.
Lesson summary"Letters with icons":
- é (lips for sound And, and say it yourself uh):
Cé cile dé teste le café. - è ê ё (Russian uh):
Le pè re de Noе l rê ve de fê te. - ç (Russian With):
Le garç on a reç u une leç on. - apostrophe:
instead of le arbre - l"arbre, je ai - j"ai. - two dots above the vowel separate it from the previous one, that is, they do not form a letter combination, but are pronounced separately:
égoï ste, Noе l - house above the vowelû distinguishes the meaning of words, does not affect pronunciation:
su r – preposition “on, about”
sû r – adjective “confident” - stick to the left above the letterà distinguishes the meaning of words, does not affect pronunciation:
a – verb avoir (to have) for the pronouns “he, she”
à – preposition “in”
In addition to using different types text formatting such as: changing the font, using bold or italics, sometimes it is necessary to make an underline in Word. Placing a line over a letter is quite simple; let’s look at several ways to solve this problem.
Using "Diacritics"
Thanks to the symbol panel, you can make a dash on top as follows. Place the mouse cursor in in the right place according to the text. Go to the “Insert” tab, then find and click in the “Symbols” area on the “Formula” button and select “Insert new formula” from the drop-down menu.
An additional tab “Working with Formulas” or “Designer” will open. From the options presented, in the “Structures” area, select “Diacritics” and click on the window called “Stroke”.
In the added window, type necessary word or a letter. 
The result will look like this.
Emphasizing from above using a figure
Using shapes in Word, you can underline a word both above and below. Consider the underscore. Initially, you need to print the desired text. Next, go to the “Insert” tab in the “Illustrations” area and select the “Shapes” button. In the new window, click on the “Line” shape.
Place a cross over the word at the beginning, press and drag the line to the end of the word, moving up or down, align the line and release.
You can change the color of the upper underline by clicking on the line and opening the “Format” tab. By clicking on the “Shape Outline” button, specify desired color. You can also change the underline type and thickness. To do this, go to the sub-item below “Thickness” or “Strokes”.
In accordance with the settings, the stick can be converted into a dash-dotted line, or changed into an arrow in the desired direction.
Thanks to such simple options, putting a line over a letter or number will not take much time. You just have to choose the most suitable way from the above.
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