The most important factors: volume, design and circulation of publications.
The volume and design of the publication primarily influence the amount of royalties, which can be calculated in various ways:
* based on a percentage of the selling (selling) price of the publisher. This type of payment is also called “royalty”. This may be a percentage of the actual revenue received; percentage of sales calculated at the publisher's wholesale price; some fixed price per copy;
The number and type of illustrations also significantly influence the cost of a publication, although this influence is more difficult to measure. This affects, first of all, the amount of remuneration of artists and designers and printing costs to the extent that illustrations increase the complexity of these works. In addition, the presence of illustrations and their colorfulness often determine increased requirements for paper, therefore the cost of paper also depends on the design of the publications.
Thus, the cost is significantly affected by reducing the volume of the book, economical design of publications, and increasing the capacity of the printed sheet (within reasonable limits). However, it must be remembered that a reduction in cost in itself does not always ensure an increase in the profitability of the publication. We must always remember the interests of the person to whom the book is addressed, and, of course, the demands made by the book market.
Thus, the use of more expensive grades of paper will increase the cost of the publication, but at the same time its selling price can also be increased, which will not only offset the increased costs by purchasing expensive paper, but also provide additional profit.
Circulation, as a characteristic of production volume, is a determining factor in the publishing business, since it reflects the amount of resources consumed, costs of production factors, product produced, supply and demand.
Cost dynamics: changes over time in the costs of production and sales of products (expressed in monetary terms), as well as costs per unit of production, due to various factors, including price, technical and others.
Cost structure by type of cost:
I Material costs:
1) Raw materials, materials, components, etc.;
2) Fuel, energy;
3) General production costs.
II Remuneration - wages:
1) main production personnel;
2) auxiliary production personnel (equipment maintenance, etc.);
3) intellectual personnel;
4) employees (management, managers, accountants, etc.);
5) junior service personnel.
III Contributions for social events.
IV Depreciation of fixed assets.
V Other (overhead costs directly related to production and sales; marketing costs, etc.)
The average structure of the cost of publishing products as the ratio of various types of costs in their total amount:
* editorial costs - 10%;
* expenses for printing, paper and binding materials - 58% (this is the part of expenses that is constantly growing and which the publisher has virtually no influence on);
* general publishing expenses - 12%;
* commercial expenses - 8%.
(c) stolen from http://www.aup.ru/books/m81/11_5.htm:
The cost of production is one of the most important quality indicators, in a generalized form reflecting all aspects of the economic activity of enterprises (firms, companies), their achievements and shortcomings. The level of cost is related to the volume and quality of products, the use of working time, raw materials, supplies, equipment, the expenditure of the wage fund, etc. Cost, in turn, is the basis for determining product prices. Reducing it leads to an increase in the amount of profit and the level of profitability. To achieve cost reduction, you need to know its composition, structure and factors of its dynamics. All this is the subject of statistical study in cost analysis.
The cost of products (works, services) is valuation used in the production process of products (works, services) natural resources, raw materials, materials, fuel, energy, fixed assets, labor resources and other costs for its production and sale.
The cost takes into account the costs of past labor transferred to newly created products (raw materials, materials, fuel, electricity, depreciation of fixed assets), costs associated with the use of living labor (wages of workers and employees, deductions for social needs), and other costs. Cost is part of the cost of production and shows how much it costs to produce a product for an enterprise (company).
It is necessary to distinguish between the total cost of all manufactured products - the total cost of manufacturing a product of a certain volume and composition, and individual cost - the cost of producing only one product - and the average cost, determined by dividing the total cost by the number of products produced.
Product cost statistics are based on accounting data, the tasks of which are to determine the total amount of costs, group them by type and calculate the cost of a unit of production. By analyzing accounting and reporting data, statistics solves the following problems:
* studies the cost structure by type of cost and identifies the impact of changes in the structure on the dynamics of cost:
* gives a general description of the dynamics of product costs;
* examines the factors that determine the level and dynamics of costs and identifies opportunities to reduce them.
To study the cost of production, basic statistical methods are used: groupings, average and relative values, graphical, index, and also the comparison method.
Grouping method used when studying the structure of product costs by elements and costing items. The most important thing is grouping costs by element. It makes it possible to judge the volume of consumption of raw materials, materials, fuel, energy, etc. Grouping costs by element is also necessary to calculate the amount of net production. Grouping by costing items allows you to distribute all the expenses of an enterprise for one or another specific purpose. This grouping is of great importance, as it makes it possible to identify costs in individual areas of production and thereby the contribution of each area to the cost of production.
Method of average and relative values used in calculating average cost levels for homogeneous products, in studying the structure and dynamics of cost. After all the costs of an enterprise in their absolute terms are grouped by elements or by costing items, it is important to determine the share of individual elements or items and their ratio in the total value of production costs. Thus, it is possible to establish which elements or items have the greatest share in the total cost, and based on this, outline the main direction of measures to reduce production costs.
Graphical method helps to visualize the cost structure, the changes occurring in it, as well as the dynamics of its components.
Index method is necessary for a summary description of the dynamics of the cost of comparable and all commercial products, to study the dynamics and identify the influence of individual factors on it.
The need to study the cost structure is due to the fact that the costs of an enterprise (firm) for the production of products differ in their economic nature and size, and, consequently, in their share in the total cost. Due to the variety of production costs, they are usually grouped by various signs into qualitatively homogeneous aggregates.
Grouping costs by economic elements. In order to find out under the influence of what factors a given cost level was formed, to what extent and in what direction these factors influenced the total cost, it is necessary to divide the various costs into groups, or cost elements.
Among the production costs, the following elements are distinguished:
* material costs (minus the cost of returnable waste);
labor costs;
* contributions for social needs;
* depreciation of fixed assets;
* other costs, including depreciation of intangible assets; rent; rewards for inventions and innovation proposals; mandatory insurance payments; interest on bank loans; taxes included in the cost of products (works, services); contributions to extra-budgetary funds; payment for the services of advertising agents and audit organizations, communications, computer centers, private security, etc.
The distribution of costs by economic elements allows us to distinguish two main groups: the costs of past labor, embodied in the cost of consumed objects of labor (raw materials, materials, etc.) and means of labor (depreciation), and the costs of living labor (labor costs with deductions for social needs). Of other costs, usually two-thirds relate to material costs, and the rest to living labor costs.
The element-by-element classification of costs represents a grouping of expenses regardless of the place of their origin and does not reflect the process of formation of the cost of products by stages of its production. These goals are met by grouping costs by costing items, which takes into account costs at the place of their origin and direction, and therefore makes it possible to determine the level of cost for individual types of products at enterprises with a wide range of products. In practice, the following typical grouping of costs by costing items is used.
1. Raw materials and supplies (minus the cost of returnable waste), purchased products, semi-finished products and production services, fuel and energy for technological purposes.
2. Labor costs for production workers.
3. Contributions for social needs.
4. Expenses for the maintenance and operation of machinery and equipment.
5. General production expenses.
6. Losses from marriage.
7. General business expenses. (Total – production cost.)
8. Selling expenses. (Total – full cost.)
The listed cost items can be changed taking into account the nature and structure of production.
Based on these items, the cost of production is calculated and estimates are prepared. Therefore, these articles are called calculation articles.
Each of the costing items contains various economic elements of costs, taking into account their role in production. For example, general production and general business expenses include labor costs, depreciation of fixed production assets, and costs of fuel, energy (except for those spent on technological needs) and auxiliary materials, although each of these types of costs represents different economic elements .
Cost accounting at the point of origin allows you to conduct it separately in workshops and the plant as a whole.
Grouping costs by costing items combines into groups costs that are characterized by a common purpose, regardless of their content. Grouping costs by cost items allows you to determine where costs arise, the role of various factors in changing the entire cost and individual cost items, and also calculate the cost per unit of production.
So, by the nature of the connection with the technological process(with production volume) distinguish between fixed and overhead costs.
The main costs are directly related to the production process. They, as a rule, are conditionally variable: their total value is related to the volume of products produced and is approximately proportional to it (consumption of raw materials for the production of products, remuneration of production workers in accordance with the volume of products produced by them, etc.).
Overhead costs are associated with the processes of organizing, managing and servicing production. These costs are weakly related to the volume of production, do not change proportionally to it, and therefore they are called conditionally constant. Conditionally fixed costs include costs, the absolute value of which is limited for the workshop or the enterprise as a whole and is not directly dependent on the volume of implementation of the production program (costs for lighting and heating of premises, wages of management personnel).
To assess the implementation of planned targets and the dynamics of the cost of comparable commercial products, the following three indices are used.
This index characterizes the change in the planned cost per unit of product compared to the average annual cost of the previous year, based on the planned volume and range of products. The difference between the numerator and denominator gives the planned amount of total savings (overspending) from changes in the cost of comparable commercial products:
This index is calculated only for analytical purposes and characterizes the ratio of actual and planned cost levels based on the actual volume and composition of products, which eliminates the influence of assortment shifts. The difference between the numerator and the denominator gives the size of the excess amount of savings (overruns) obtained as a result of a decrease (increase) in product costs:
The last indicator characterizes the dynamics of production costs. Since the denominator of the index is the actual unit cost of the previous year, it only covers products comparable to the previous year. The difference between the numerator and denominator gives the amount of actual savings (overexpenditure) obtained as a result of a decrease (increase) in product costs:
+ here's some info: ^^
The cost of production is a part of socially necessary labor costs, expressing in monetary form the costs of the enterprise for the production and sale of products, which through the circulation process must be constantly returned to the enterprise to reimburse its costs and ensure the continuity of the production process.
The cost of production includes the part of the cost of fixed assets worn out during the production of these products (expressed through depreciation charges), the cost of consumed items of labor (raw materials, materials, fuel, electricity), labor costs, deductions for social needs and other expenses for management and maintenance of the production process.
Depending on the composition of the costs included in the cost of production, a distinction is made between individual, technological, workshop, production and total cost.
Individual cost is the amount of costs for producing a specific order.
Technological cost is the sum of the costs of implementing the technological process of manufacturing products, excluding the costs of purchased parts and assemblies. This indicator is the basis for determining tasks for the cost of a self-supporting team (sites, teams).
Shop cost is the sum of the shop's costs for production. It includes technological costs, costs of semi-finished products and services of other departments of the enterprise, costs of purchased and component products and semi-finished products, costs of management and maintenance of production within the workshop (shop costs).
Production cost is the sum of the enterprise's costs for producing products. It includes workshop costs and general business expenses.
The total cost is the sum of the enterprise’s costs for the production and sale of products. It includes production costs and costs of selling products. The full cost is calculated only for commercial products.
Depending on the calculation method and scope of application, they distinguish the following types cost:
Planned - calculated on the basis of approved production and technological standards, taking into account the reduction of certain types of costs provided for in the plan.
Standard – calculated on the basis of current resource consumption rates.
Actual - determined on the basis of accounting data on actual costs for the corresponding period.
The cost of publishing products includes:
§ editorial expenses (costs of processing and designing copyright originals, their preparation for publication);
§ expenses for paper and binding materials;
§ expenses for printing works;
§ general publishing expenses;
§ commercial expenses.
As you know, the cost per unit of production is the result of the relationship between production costs and the quantity of production. Divide the numerator and denominator in the formula by the area sown. Hence, the most important factors in reducing production costs are
1.increasing productivity, which is directly related to the process of intensifying its production.
2. and savings of all types of resources per 1 hectare of crops.
A reduction in the cost of 1 centner of products will be observed only if the increase in yield outpaces the increase in production costs per 1 hectare of crops. Both of these factors directly affect the size of the entire cost per cent.
You can also identify factors that influence the size of an individual article. For example, the impact of labor productivity on cost reduction occurs through the item “labor costs”. The costs of living labor are reflected in the cost price under the item “wages”. But “wages” are the product of two quantities: man-hours spent per unit of production × wages per man-hour. The change in the level of costs under the item “wages” depends on the degree of change in the two factors. It is not difficult to guess that wages per unit of production will decrease if the cost of man-hours per unit of production (labor intensity) is reduced to a greater extent than the level of wages per man-hour increases.
Hence the rule: labor productivity should increase to a greater extent than the level of wages.
It is possible to achieve a significant reduction in labor costs only if the growth in labor productivity outpaces the growth in wages in the industry.
3. The higher the return on feed, the lower the cost. The return on feed is measured by the yield of a certain amount of livestock products per unit of feed consumed. When analyzing cost, it is more convenient to use the inverse value - the cost of feed per unit of production.
The cost of feed per unit of production can be expressed as the product of two indicators: the cost of one feed unit × the cost of feed units per unit of production. From this it is clear that a reduction in the cost of “feed” is possible if both indicators are reduced. Do you think that faster growth in cow productivity than growth in feed costs will lead to an increase or decrease in the cost per unit of milk?
4.The cheaper the material and technical resources, the lower the cost. Prices for material and technical resources must correspond to their efficiency. Then increase material costs will be covered by an increase in output or savings on the item “wages”.
5. Inflation (depreciation of money) has a huge impact on the growth of the cost of 1 centner. Inflation influences the rise in prices, along with which the cost also increases.
In practice, it is not always possible to reduce costs under the influence of factors. Therefore, most often it is not about reducing costs, but about minimizing costs. With rising resource prices, unit costs may rise next year even if the selected technology and target yield remain unchanged.
Minimizing costs is bringing their size to the standard level in the technological map. Based technological map it is possible to obtain a standard cost, which should be considered the minimum cost at a given level of prices for resources and the selected production technology. When the standard level of costs is reached, then another benchmark arises - a minimum of costs corresponding to a different set of machines, a different technology, a different scale of production.
Related information:
- Lt; question1> Non-compliance with the requirements of regulatory documentation for the manufacture or supply of products refers to ... defects
- A) a firm enters into contracts to purchase certain components to produce its products instead of making them itself.
Production cost estimates
The cost estimate is a consolidated plan of all expenses of the enterprise for the upcoming period of production and financial activities. It determines the total amount of production costs by types of resources used, stages of production activity, levels of enterprise management and other areas of expenses. The estimate includes the costs of main and auxiliary production associated with the manufacture and sale of products, goods and services, as well as the maintenance of administrative and management personnel, the performance of various works and services, including those not included in the main production activities of the enterprise. Planning of types of costs is carried out in monetary terms for the production programs, goals and objectives provided for in annual projects, selected economic resources and technological means of their implementation. All planned targets and indicators are specified at the enterprise in the corresponding estimates, including a valuation of costs and results. For example, a cost estimate is drawn up as a plan of expected costs for various types of work performed and resources used. The prospective income estimate establishes the planned cash receipts and expenses for the coming period. The cost estimate for production of products shows the planned levels of inventories, volumes of products, the cost of various types of resources, etc. The summary estimate shows all costs and results for the main sections of the annual plan for the socio-economic development of the enterprise.
For any organization, the quality of decisions made regarding cost management is a guarantee of its effective operation. Product cost is a complex concept, and it depends on the influence of a large number of different factors. All factors, firstly, can be divided into two main categories: external origin, i.e. located outside the enterprise, and internal order. External factors include: changes in prices for materials, semi-finished products, fuel, tools and other valuables received by the enterprise for production needs; changing the established minimum wage, as well as all kinds of mandatory contributions, deductions and charges. The main internal factors are reducing the labor intensity of manufacturing products, increasing labor productivity, reducing the material intensity of manufactured products, eliminating losses from defects, etc.
Secondly, the most important technical and economic factors influencing the level of production costs can be divided into four groups: factors determined by the technical level of production; factors determined by the level of organization of production, labor and management; factors associated with changes in the volume and range of products; national economic factors.
The first group of factors takes into account the influence of scientific and technological progress on reducing production costs through the introduction of new equipment, technology and modern resource-saving equipment, mechanization and automation of production processes, improving the design and technical characteristics of manufactured products. Reducing standards for material consumption and increasing labor productivity, achieved as a result of technical progress, makes it possible to reduce costs by reducing the cost of materials and wages with deductions from it.
The second group of factors influences the reduction of production costs by improving methods of organizing production and labor, better use of working time, reducing the technological cycle of production and sales of products, improving production management, reducing management costs on this basis, etc. When assessing the influence of factors in this group the results of reducing downtime and lost working time should be taken into account. This same group of factors includes improved use of fixed assets, leading to a reduction in depreciation costs.
The third group of factors takes into account the impact of changes in the volume and range of products on production costs. Thus, an increase in production output at the same production areas and equipment leads to a reduction in production costs by reducing the share of fixed costs.
The fourth group of factors determines the impact on the cost of changes in prices, tariff rates, transport tariffs, tax rates, inflation rates, interest rates bank loans etc. Factors of the fourth group are external to the industrial enterprise.
The degree of influence on the level and structure of product costs is different for each group of factors. For example, when production volume increases to a certain limit, cost reduction is achieved by reducing the share of fixed costs per unit of production, as well as by increasing labor productivity as a result of increasing work skills. Increasing the technical level of production has a significant impact on reducing production costs as a result of the introduction of advanced equipment and production technology, modernization and replacement of obsolete equipment, mechanization and automation of production processes.
Factors influencing the cost of production can be classified according to several criteria.
Technological - changing the product range; duration of the production cycle; improving the use and application of new types of raw materials and materials, the use of economical substitutes and the full use of waste in production; improving product technology, reducing its material and labor intensity.
2. Based on the time of occurrence, planned and sudden factors. An enterprise can plan the following activities: commissioning and development of new workshops; preparation and development of new types of products and new technological processes; optimal placement of certain types of products throughout the enterprise. Sudden (unplanned) factors include production losses; changes in the composition and quality of raw materials; changes in natural conditions; deviations from established production standards and others.
3. Based on the place of occurrence, factors are divided into external (independent of the enterprise) and internal (depending on the enterprise). The cost of production, regardless of the enterprise, can be affected by the economic situation in the country, inflation; natural and climatic conditions; technical and technological progress; changes in tax legislation and other factors. Internal include the production structure of the enterprise; management structure; level of concentration and specialization of production; duration of the production cycle.
4. Based on their purpose, major and minor factors are distinguished. This group factors depends on the specialization of the enterprise. If we consider a material-intensive production, for example, a meat processing plant, then the main factors include the following factors: prices for material resources and consumption of raw materials and other materials; technical equipment of labor; technological level of production; production rate; nomenclature and range of products; organization of production and labor. To a lesser extent, the cost of production will be affected by the management structure; natural and climatic conditions; wages of production workers.
1.4 Factors influencing production costs
Factors influencing the cost of production can be classified according to several criteria.
Technical factors include:
Introduction of new progressive technology;
Mechanization and automation of production;
Scientific and technical achievements;
Improving the use of fixed assets;
Technical and energy equipment of labor.
Technological factors include the following:
Change in product range;
Duration of the production cycle;
Improving the use and application of new types of raw materials and materials;
Use of economical substitutes and full use of waste in production;
Improving product technology, reducing its material and labor intensity.
Based on the time of occurrence, planned and sudden factors are distinguished.
An enterprise can plan the following activities:
Commissioning and development of new workshops;
Preparation and development of new types of products;
Preparation and development of new technological processes;
Optimal placement of certain types of products throughout the enterprise.
Sudden (not planned) factors include:
Production losses;
Changes in the composition and quality of raw materials;
Changes in natural conditions;
Deviations from established production standards, etc.
Based on the place of occurrence, factors are divided into external (independent of the enterprise) and internal (depending on the enterprise). The cost of production, regardless of the enterprise, can be affected by:
Economic situation in the country;
Inflation;
Technical and technological progress;
Changes in tax legislation, etc.
Internal ones include:
The production structure of the enterprise;
Management structure;
Level of concentration and specialization of production;
Duration of the production cycle.
By purpose, primary and secondary factors are distinguished. This group of factors depends on the specialization of the enterprise. If we consider material-intensive production, the main factors include the following:
Prices for material resources and consumption of raw materials and other materials;
Technical equipment of labor; technological level of production;
Product production norm; nomenclature and range of products;
Organization of production and labor.
To a lesser extent, the following factors will affect the cost of production:
Managment structure;
Natural and climatic conditions;
Wages of production workers;
Structure of other costs, etc.
2. ANALYSIS OF PRODUCTION AND ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES OF JSC "KERAMIN"
2.1 General characteristics of the enterprise
OJSC "Keramin" is a stable, large, dynamically developing enterprise producing high-quality building materials: ceramic tiles, ceramic granite, sanitary ceramic products, ceramic stones and brick. Production is carried out in close cooperation with the world's leading manufacturer of equipment for the ceramic industry - the Italian company SACMI.
OJSC Keramin is the oldest production facility in Belarus. The company traces its development history back to the beginning of the 20th century, every year strengthening its position in the market, increasing production capacity, strengthening customer confidence and business authority among partners.
Continuity of professionalism and a high level of product quality value define Keramin OJSC as a leading manufacturer in the domestic ceramics industry.
Today OJSC Keramin creates high-quality and reliable products of modern style and design, new aesthetics for interior perception, and sells its products at an attractive price for the buyer.
The company develops and improves special programs flexible response to distributor requests, brand standards in merchandising and a clear, modern logistics system for uninterrupted supply of products.
From modern history enterprise, the following points can be highlighted:
1996 – 2000 – the first stage of a comprehensive reconstruction of production in collaboration with the world’s leading manufacturer of equipment for the ceramic industry - the Italian company SACMI;
1996 – participation of the President of the Republic of Belarus A.G. Lukashenko in the launch of the RKS-1650 line for the production of glazed ceramics;
1997 – launch of the first line CAT-1860 (equipment from the Italian company SACMI) for the production of Gres ceramic granite. Ceramic granite belongs to the field of high technology and represents a new generation of ceramics that not only imitates natural stone, but through the use of natural raw materials and modern high technologies reproduces the properties natural stone.
1998 - launch of the second line CAT - 1860 (equipment from the Italian company SACMI) for the production of Gres ceramic granite;
2000 – the beginning of a large-scale reconstruction of the Stroyfarfora plant for the production of sanitary ceramics, part of the Keramin OJSC association;
2000 – A.D. Tyutyunov, General Director of Keramin OJSC, was awarded the title “Honored Worker of Industry of the Republic of Belarus”;
2000 – certification of Keramin OJSC products in accordance with the international quality standard ISO 9000;
2000 – installation of the FMS-2500/113.4 line for the production of glazed ceramic granite. Today OJSC Keramin is the only manufacturer in the CIS countries of this unique beauty and technical specifications product;
2000 – 2003 – the second stage of production reconstruction. Most of the equipment has been updated. Italian equipment “System Ceramics” was installed and the technology of drawing a picture using the “ROTOCOLOR” installation was introduced. It has become possible to imitate various textures of natural stone, textile materials, wood, and metal.
2003 – 2004 – the company has a certified quality system for the production of all types of tiles (including friezes) and sanitary products in accordance with STB ISO 9001-2001. This international standard guarantees compliance with all stringent requirements at the stages of production, transportation and storage of products;
2004 – 2005 – a third firing line from KEMAS was installed for the production of frieze tiles and two lines for the production of volumetric decorative elements;
2005 - the enterprise was issued an environmental certificate of conformity, which certifies that the environmental management system for development and production at the enterprise complies with the requirements of STB ISO 14001-2005. Which confirms environmentally safe production and high quality control at JSC Keramin;
2006 – full-scale reconstruction of the Stroyfarfor sanitary ceramics plant was completed. This is one of the largest, modern enterprises in Europe, which has innovative technologies production, which has no analogues in the post-Soviet space;
Questions for the exam for the course “Enterprise Economics” part 2.
1.The concept of labor productivity. Labor productivity as the main factor of economic development.
Labor productivity is characterized by the efficiency of labor inputs and the amount of output per unit of time or labor inputs per unit of output produced.
Labor productivity is calculated through indicators of output and labor intensity, between which there is an inverse relationship.
Factors of labor productivity growth:
1)increasing the technical level
2)improving the organization of production and labor
3) changes in production volume and structural changes in production
4) changes in external natural conditions, etc.
Methods for measuring labor productivity. Output and labor intensity as the main indicators for assessing labor efficiency.
Output - the number of products produced per unit of working time and per one average employee for a certain period of time.
B=V/T ; B=V/Av.sp.
V - volume of production output
Labor intensity is the cost of living labor to produce a unit of output. Establishes a direct relationship between production volume and labor costs.
T is the time spent on the production of all products.
Time decreases, productivity increases.
Depending on the composition of included labor costs, they are distinguished:
1) technological labor intensity (reflects the labor costs of the main workers (piece workers, time workers)
Ttechn = Tsdelshchikov + Tpovrmen
2) labor intensity of production maintenance
Tosl.prod = Tosn.aux + Tvs
Tosn.auxiliary - labor intensity of auxiliary workers of the main production
Tvspom - labor intensity of auxiliary workers
3) production labor intensity
Tproizv = Ttechn + Tobsl
4) labor intensity of production management
Tupravl = Production employees + General plant employees
Serving as PR managers, shop floor specialists
Tobshezavodskikh - director, deputy director, accounting department, etc.
5) full labor intensity
Tfull = Tobsl + Ttechn + Tupravl
Types of labor intensity:
1) standard (time to complete an operation, calculated on the basis of current time standards for the relevant technological operations for manufacturing a unit of product or performing work.
Expressed in standard hours. To convert from the actual labor intensity of time, it is adjusted using the coefficient of fulfillment of standards, which increases as the worker’s qualifications increase)
2) actual (actual time spent by this worker to perform a technological operation per unit of production)
3) planned (the time spent by one worker to perform a technological operation or manufacture one product approved in the plan and valid throughout the entire planned period)
The output indicator is an industrial indicator of labor productivity. The higher the output, the higher this figure.
The labor intensity indicator is an inverse indicator of labor productivity. The lower the labor intensity, the higher the productivity.
If labor intensity decreases, then the production rate changes.
Kv = (100*Ktr)/(100-Ktr) Kv-increase in output in %, Ktr-coefficient with a decrease in labor intensity, Ktr = (100*Kv)/(100+Kv)
2. Forms and systems of remuneration.
There are two forms of remuneration:
1) piecework (salary is determined depending on the quantity of products produced and prices per unit of production)
2) time-based (salary depends on the amount of time worked (hours, days) and the tariff rate (hourly, daily)
Piecework form of remuneration
1) with piecework wages, the basis is the piecework price per unit of production of work and services
RSD = Tst.h/Nvyr.h.
Tst.h-hour tariff rate (rub/hour), Nvyr.h.-production rate per hour, RSD = (Tst.h*Tcm)/Nvyr.h.
TSM-shift duration (hour)
2) simple wages with piecework
Zprost.sd = Rsd*Q
3) piecework-bonus wages
Remial.sd=Zprost.sd. + Bonus
4) piece-rate progressive remuneration (represents payment for labor at piece rates within the established norm, and for performing work in excess of the norm, payment is made at progressive (increasing) piece rates.
At this wage, the worker's earnings grow faster than his output.
Zprogress = Rsd*Nvyr.plan. + (New fact - New plan) * RSD * Kuv
Kv-coefficient of increase in piece rate. Depends on exceeding standards. The greater the overfulfillment, the higher the coefficient.
5) indirect piecework wages
6) lump sum wages (the total amount of earnings is determined before the start of work according to current standards and piecework rates, that is, piecework rates immediately establish the entire volume of work that must be completed on time.
It encourages the completion of the entire range of work with fewer workers and in a shorter time frame.
If the contract specifies a condition for performing high-quality work, then such payment is called a lump sum bonus)
7) collective piecework wages (a worker’s earnings depend on the final results of the entire team.
Z sd.i = (Z br * Ti*K Ti)/SUM(T i *K Ti)
Zsd.i - piecework salary of the i-th employee
Salary of the entire team
Ti is the actual time worked by the I employee
Kti-tariff coefficient of the i-th team member
n-number of team members
Time-based form of remuneration
Applies under the following Conditions:
The production process is strictly regulated; the worker’s functions are reduced to monitoring the technological process code; the quality of labor is more important than its quantity; an increase in product output may lead to defects or deterioration in quality
Time-based wages depend on the hourly wage rate and the amount of actual time worked.
1)Zpovr = tst.h * tfact
tactual time actually worked by workers
Tst.h-hour tariff rate
2) time-bonus
Premium repair = Zpovr. + Awards
3) salary (payment is made according to the established monthly official salary. Used for managers, specialists and employees.
Official monthly salary is the absolute amount of salary established in accordance with the position)
4) contract (used in commercial organizations and for managers of state enterprises.
A contract is a legally formalized employment agreement that stipulates the mutual obligations of the employee and the enterprise.
The contract defines the minimum wage level, as well as the conditions for termination of the contract).
3. Tariff system. Elements of the tariff system.
Tariff system– a set of norms and standards that ensure differentiation of wages based on differences in the complexity of the work performed, working conditions, intensity and nature of work.
The main elements of the tariff system are:
1. Unified Tariff and Qualification Reference Book (UTKS)– intended for tariffication of workers, classification of work by category and distribution of workers by profession and category. It contains detailed production characteristics various types of work, it is indicated that the worker must know what he must be able to do.
2. Tariff rate– determines the amount of remuneration of a worker per unit of time (hour, shift, month). The initial base is the minimum tariff rate or the 1st category tariff rate.
3. Tariff schedule– serves to establish wage ratios for workers depending on their qualifications. Each category is assigned certain tariff coefficients, showing how many times the tariff rate of this category is higher than the rate of category 1 (for public sector employees, a tariff schedule has been developed that includes 18 categories).
4. Regional coefficients– represent a standard indicator of the degree of increase in wages depending on the location of the enterprise and living conditions. The range of regional coefficients ranges from 1.15 to 2.0.
Tariff rate- absolute amount of remuneration various groups and categories of workers per unit of time. The starting point is the minimum tariff rate or the first category tariff rate. It determines the level of payment for the simplest work.
Tariff scales serve to establish the ratio of wages depending on the level of qualifications. This is a set of tariff categories and their corresponding tariff coefficients. The tariff coefficient of the lowest category is assumed to be equal to one. Tariff coefficients of subsequent categories show how many times the corresponding tariff rates are greater than the tariff rate of the first category.
4. Tariff-free wage system.
A possible option for improving the organization and stimulating labor is a tariff-free wage system.
At tariff-free wage system the wages of all employees of the enterprise from director to worker are employee’s share (coefficient) in the wage fund(Payroll) or the entire enterprise, or a separate division. Having determined for each employee ( workplace) specific meaning its coefficient, you can calculate the salary using the following formula:
§ - wages of the th employee, rub.;
§ - employee coefficient;
§ - the sum of the coefficients for all employees;
§ Payroll - the amount of funds allocated for wages.
When determining a specific value, each group of workers develops its own criteria. In these conditions the actual salary of each employee depends on a number of factors:
§ qualification level employee;
§ labor participation coefficient (KTU);
§ actual time worked.
5. What is the difference between tariff, hourly, daily and monthly wage funds.
6. The concepts of “costs”, “expenses”.
7.The concept of product cost.
1.The concept of product cost
Cost is all costs (expenses) incurred by an enterprise for the production and sale of products or services. Cost is the monetary expression of an enterprise's costs for the production and sale of products. Product cost is one of the most important quality indicators that reflects all aspects of the economic activity of enterprises. The level of cost is related to the volume and quality of products, the use of working time, raw materials, supplies, equipment, the expenditure of the wage fund, etc. Cost, in turn, is the basis for determining product prices. Reducing it leads to an increase in the amount of profit and the level of profitability. To achieve cost reduction, you need to know its composition, structure and factors of its dynamics.
Factors influencing production costs
3)reduced labor intensity
8.By what criteria are enterprise costs grouped?
1. By types of costs (by economic elements) - this group provides information on the total costs of resources used by the project. In each position of the grouping the costs are homogeneous in content.
Group positions:
1)material costs minus returnable waste
2) labor costs (salaries of basic workers and employees, salaries of all categories of workers)
3) contributions to social insurance (employer tax on the employee’s salary)
4) depreciation (machines, equipment, non-material assets)
5) other expenses
2. For objects or cost carriers, the cost carrier (object) is the manufactured product), used in calculating costs.
Calculation for the production and sale of product units
Calculation is a system of calculations with the help of which the cost of all products and their parts is determined.
Costing process included:
1) differentiation of costs for production of products and unfinished production
2)calculation of costs for defective products
3) distribution of costs between types of products (the product is produced on the site or workshop)
4)calculation of unit cost of production
The procedure for compiling calculations is defined by standard, methodological instructions.
Cost grouping
Where these costs arise(Is carried out in the context of structural divisions of the enterprise):
1) the occurrence of main costs
2) the occurrence of preliminary costs or auxiliary
Method of attribution to cost(methods for calculating cost of production costs):
Directly related to the manufacture of specific types of products)
2) indirect (due to the manufacture of various types of products and are included in the cost in proportion to the indicator established by industry instructions)
According to the functional role of formation of product costs:
1) basic costs (related to the production (technological) process of manufacturing products, i.e. from article 1-5)
2) overhead costs (item 6-10, i.e. costs associated with creating the necessary conditions for the functioning of production, as well as its organization, management and maintenance)
According to the degree of dependence on changes in production volume:
1) conditionally variable (costs, the amount of which depends directly on changes in production volume, i.e. article 1-5)
2) conditionally constant (costs, the absolute value of which does not change or changes slightly when production volume changes.
Are divided into:
Starting (that part of fixed costs that arises with the resumption of production and sales of products. For example, depreciation, electricity consumed for lighting)
Residual (that part of the fixed costs that the enterprise continues to bear, despite the fact that production and sales of products have been completely stopped for some time))
The sum of variable and fixed costs is the total cost of the enterprise.
E = C2 - C1(saving)
By degree of homogeneity:
1)elemental (homogeneous. Costs that cannot be divided into component parts, i.e. article 1-5)
2) complex (costs consisting of several homogeneous costs that can be divided)
9.What are direct and indirect costs.
3.What are direct and indirect costs
1) direct (costs of materials, wages, accruals, i.e. from article 1-5.
Directly related to the manufacture of specific types of products - chair, table, cabinet (in one action)
2) indirect (due to the manufacture of various types of products and are included in the cost in proportion to the indicator established by the industry structure) 6-10 article.
10.What is meant by full production cost.
The total cost is the sum of costs from 1-10 items
Full = Su-per + Su-post/I, where I-index, shows the change in production, if I = 1, the volume of production does not change
Classification of production costs is the division and combination into separate groups of various production costs that are homogeneous according to a certain characteristic. The cost of production on an industrial scale is determined by a huge number of different costs; their reduction into a few groups is a prerequisite for planning and accounting for the cost of industrial products. Classification of production costs is necessary to determine the cost structure; calculating the cost of individual units of production or production operations; determining costs for individual workshops and production areas. Depending on the nature of participation in the production process, costs are grouped into production and non-production. Production costs include all types of costs associated to one degree or another with the process of manufacturing products. Non-production costs include costs of selling products: for containers, packaging, delivery of products to departure stations (piers) and others, as well as deductions for scientific and technical work, expenses for technical propaganda, personnel training, etc.
11.Give a description of the economic elements of costs.
5. Describe the economic elements of costs elemental (homogeneous. Costs that cannot be divided into component parts, i.e. article 1-5) Economic elements of costs are primary, homogeneous in content costs for the production and sale of products, which at the enterprise level cannot be divided into component parts. Classification of costs by economic elements: Material costs minus returnable waste, i.e. all costs of materials Labor costs, including salaries of main workers and employees, additional and main salaries
Social insurance contributions
Depreciation
Other expenses The classification by economic elements is the same for all enterprises, regardless of their size and industry. The identification of economic elements is necessary to establish planned and actual costs for the enterprise as a whole, as well as to determine the wage fund, the volume of purchased resources, the amount of depreciation, etc. The classification is based on the principle of economic homogeneity of costs, regardless of their place of origin and direction.
12.How variable and fixed costs change with changes in production volume.
Variable costs are costs the amount of which depends on changes in production
Fixed costs are costs, the absolute value of which does not change or changes slightly when production volume changes.
Variables change when output volume changes, and constants change when unit costs change.
13.Calculation of actual cost. Calculation methods: order-based, process-by-process, assignment-based and normative
1) Custom-made (provides for the summation of costs for individual work (orders). The object of calculation is a production order opened for a separate product or a small-scale manufactured product.
A card or statement is issued for each order. Costs arising during the production process are tracked in the following way: direct costs are included directly in the order sheet, other costs are taken into account at the place of their origin and destination and are charged to the cost of individual orders using a given rate and distribution base)
The choice of costing method depends on the characteristics of the production process and the type of product produced.
The cost of each order is determined after completion of work on its implementation, and before that, all costs related to this order are considered work in progress.
2)process-by-process(is that direct and indirect costs are taken into account in calculus for the entire production output, and the cost units of products (works, services) are determined by dividing the sum of all production costs for a month (quarter, year) by the volume of GT for the same period .
It is used in an enterprise where production is of a mass nature, where products of the same type are produced and produced, limited by the nomenclature, which moves from one technological section to another in a continuous flow.
Incomplete utterance - absent, insignificant.
Example: mining, chemical industry, construction, etc.
Example: to determine the cost of coal, it is necessary to determine the costs for all items of the technological process (preparation, production, extraction of coal, loading coal into cars, transportation, sorting, enrichment) and divide by the number of tons of coal.
3)transverse(used in enterprises with homogeneous, in terms of source material and nature of processing, mass products, in which physicochemical and thermal production processes predominate with the transformation of raw materials into finished products under the condition of a continuous and, usually, multiple process in the form of a series of sequential processes, each of of which or a group of which constitutes a separate independent process or stage of production, each of which ends with the release of intermediate products, semi-finished products that can be sold externally.
The process for calculating the limit is as follows:
direct costs are calculated according to limits; indirect costs are taken into account separately and distributed among redistributions. The total costs of the redistribution determine the cost of production of the limit or finished product at the last redistribution.
The list of redistributions according to which costs are recorded and the cost of products is calculated, the procedure for determining the costing groups of products, and the calculation of the cost of work in progress or its assessment is established in industry instructions.
Actual cost (2 calculation methods):
The cost of each stage is calculated only in terms of processing costs
Cost formation scheme
Cost calculation is carried out for each processing stage, but taking into account carryover costs based on the cost of raw materials and materials from the previous processing stage.
This option is called a semi-finished product and involves the use of account #21 “Semi-finished products of own production”.
Production costs are calculated on an accrual basis.
25,000,000 + (25,000,000+7,000,000) + (32,000,000+10,000,000) = 99,000,000 rub.
Intra-plant turnover = 25,000,000+32,000,000 = 57,000,000 rubles
Production costs = 99,000,000 - 57,000,000 = 42,000,000 rubles
Products of the 1st stage will be sold at 25 million rubles
Products of the 2nd stage will be sold at 32 million rubles
Products of the 3rd stage will be sold at 42 million rubles (at the final stage)
Cost per unit of production by processing:
1st stage: 25/20=1.25 million rubles
2nd stage: 7/20=0.35 million rubles
3rd stage: 10/20=0.5 million rubles
Total: 1.25+0.35+0.5=2.1 million rubles
4)normative(Standard costing.
It is characterized by the fact that the enterprise prepares a preliminary calculation of the standard cost of products for each product based on current standards.
During the actual production process, deviations from the planned standards are possible => in current accounting, expenses are taken into account by dividing them into expenses according to standards and deviations. Fixed causes of deviation and places of occurrence. These data allow managers at all levels to manage product costs and at the same time simplify the final stage of the process of calculating actual costs.
Direct costing
Cost calculation method based on direct costs. It involves calculating partial costs.
Processed in general enterprise costs.
Application this method has proven its effectiveness in solving management problems: optimizing production volume, assortment program, pricing, in cost-volume-profit analysis, in justifying the acceptance of a special order.
ABC method
Method for calculating actual cost. The essence is cost accounting by functions.
Proposed by Kaplan in 1988. Costs are caused by activities and products create demand for all activities.
14. How are savings from reducing product costs determined?
Factors influencing production costs
1)reducing costs for materials
2)increasing utilization rate
3)reduced labor intensity
4)increase in production volume
Calculation of product cost reduction
To determine the amount of change in the cost of production due to the influence of the above factors, the following formulas are used:
15. Concept and structure of enterprise income. What is the fundamental difference between systematic and unsystematic income?
The income of an enterprise characterizes the financial result of its activities. The receipt of income completes the cycle of capital turnover, when it again acquires a monetary form.
The total (gross) income of an enterprise is formed by the total (gross) economic benefit, expressed in an increase in the assets of the enterprise and a decrease in liabilities.
Income is associated with an increase in the capital of the enterprise, as a result of the enterprise carrying out various types of commercial activities.
An increase in capital as a result of contributions from participants (founders) of the amount collected by the enterprise on behalf of 3 persons in the form of export duties, taxes and other contributions to the budget does not apply to the income of the enterprise.
That is, income is associated only with activity.
The income of an enterprise, depending on the nature, conditions of receipt and direction of activity, is divided into income from ordinary activities and other income.
Income from ordinary types of activities: In their composition, the largest share belongs to income from the sale of products, performance of work and provision of services. These incomes relate to the current and systematic income of the enterprise.
Operating income and non-operating income are unsystematic and irregular
Extraordinary income - income that arose as a consequence of emergency circumstances (insurance compensation, remaining material assets after an emergency)
Systematic income includes those that arise as a result of the main activity, and unsystematic income is income received from the sale of other property: securities, currency values, intangible assets and other property, the use of which is further activities inappropriate.
16.The economic essence of profit. How gross and net profit is formed.
Profit is the monetary expression of achieving the goal of a business enterprise.
Profit = Income – Expenses
Profit functions:
· Characterizes the economic effect obtained as a result of the enterprise’s activities
· Has a stimulating function (profit is not only a financial result, but also the main element of an enterprise’s financial resources)
· Is one of the most important sources formation of budgets at various levels (i.e. it comes in the form of taxes to the budget)
At an enterprise, profit includes gross (balance sheet) profit, profit from non-sales operations, profit from the enterprise's real estate, profit from sales and net profit.
Gross (balance sheet) profit– how the final financial result is determined on the basis of accounting of all business transactions of the enterprise.
“Balance sheet” profit means that the final financial result of the enterprise is reflected in its balance sheet. compiled based on the results of the quarter or year.
The main elements of gross profit: Profit from sales; Profit from non-operating operations; Profit from sold property of the enterprise
Net profit is formed after payment of all taxes and other obligatory payments from the gross profit and remains at the full disposal of the enterprise.
Net profit goes to the development of production, the development of the social sphere, the wage fund, etc.
The distribution and use of net profit is fixed in the charter of the enterprise.
Profit is the monetary expression of achieving the goal of a commercial enterprise
Not all the profit received remains with the enterprise, since the enterprise has obligations to the state and society. Namely, pay taxes on profits and profits (20%). The company manages the rest of its profits independently.
Net profit can be directed to the accumulation fund, consumption fund, reserve fund and can also be distributed among the founders.
Net profit is directed to the development of production, the development of the social sphere, to the wage fund, etc., but the use and distribution of net profit is fixed in the charter of the enterprise.
To develop the production potential of an enterprise, part of the profit received should be allocated to savings in the form of investments in various assets through long-term investments and financial investments.
Long-term investments - funds allocated for new construction, reconstruction, re-equipment of existing complexes, acquisition and creation of new fixed assets and intangible assets.
Financial investments – investments of the enterprise in securities, authorized capital of other enterprises and loans provided by organizations both on the territory of the Russian Federation and abroad.
Consumption Fund - includes expenses for the operation of social and public facilities on the balance sheet of the enterprise, financing construction, holding recreational, cultural events, etc. This fund is used to encourage staff.
Reserve fund - the remainder of the profit not used to increase property and social needs, constitutes a reserve that can be used to compensate for losses.
If there is profit left at the enterprise after the creation of 3 funds, then it is distributed as dividends among the founders.
The balance of retained earnings is added to the authorized capital.
18. Methods of profit planning.
For profit planning, it is very important to determine the composition of the total gross profit.
Gross profit is planned for all types (profit from sold products, sold property, from non-sold products)
The main methods of profit planning are:
Direct counting method
Analytical method
· Combined calculation method
Direct method Accounting is used for a small range of products; the essence is that profit is defined as the difference between product revenue at corresponding prices minus its full cost and taxes.
Profit on commodity output is planned on the basis of estimates and costs of production and sales of products, in cat. the cost of commodity output for the planned period is determined.
It is necessary to distinguish the planned amount of profit per commodity output from the profit planned per volume products sold.
Profit from the volume of RP in the plan period is determined as the sum of the profit from the balances of unsold products at the beginning of the planning period + profit from the volume of output of the GP in the plan period, minus the profit from the balances of unsold products at the end of the plan period.
A variation of the direct counting method is the method of assortment profit planning. With this method, the profit is summed up for all assortment positions and the profit in the balances of the state enterprise unsold at the beginning of the planning period is added to the result.
Analytical method used for a wide range of products. Applies in addition to direct method, because it allows you to identify the influence of individual factors on the planned profit.
The essence of the method: profit is not calculated for each separate species output of products, and for all comparable products in general. Profit on incomparable products is calculated separately.
Profit calculation analytical method consists of 3 stages:
· Determination of profitability of products. during the reporting period
· Determination of the volume of products. in the planned period at the cost of the reporting year and determination of profit based on basic profitability
· Taking into account the impact of various factors on the planned profit: reducing costs, improving product quality, changing the range, prices, etc.
After performing calculations for all 3 stages, the profit from the sale of GP is determined.
The combined calculation method uses elements of the 1st and 2nd methods. For example, the cost of the state enterprise in prices of the planning period and the cost of the reporting year are determined by the direct calculation method, and the impact on the planned profit is determined by the analytical method.
19. Define profitability.
Profitability ratios show the degree of efficiency of an enterprise.
There is overall profitability, product profitability, sales (sales) profitability, and asset return.
5. How are overall profitability, product profitability and sales profitability determined?
Profitability is a relative indicator of production efficiency, characterizing the level of return on costs and the degree of use of resources.
Profitability ratios show the degree of efficiency of the enterprise
1) Profitability of OPF (total) (FORMULAS FROM NOTEBOOK)
This coefficient serves to assess the production and economic activities of the enterprise and shows how many rubles. 1 ruble invested in open pension fund brings profit.
2) Product profitability
Shows how much profit we receive per ruble invested in production; as well as how much the selling price is higher than the cost and reflects the relative efficiency of production compared to competitors, or an inflated selling price.
3) Profitability of sales (sales)
This indicator characterizes what percentage of profit the enterprise receives from each ruble of products sold. Serves as the basis for choosing the range of products.
(There is also a return on assets indicator, which shows the economic profitability of all capital used)
20.How is overall profitability, product profitability and sales profitability determined?
Profitability- This is a relative indicator of production efficiency, characterizing the level of return on costs and the degree of use of resources; the profitability ratio shows the degree of efficient operation of the enterprise.
*Profitability of production assets. (total)
R= P(balance sheet, net)\ amount (OPF+OSob) *100%
P - profit (balance sheet - calculated on the basis of the balance sheet, net - calculated)
Serves to evaluate the production and economic activities of an enterprise and shows how many rubles of profit are brought by 1 ruble invested in OPF+OS
*Product profitability.
R=Profit: S/st or (P: S/st) – 1
Shows how much profit we get per 1 ruble invested in the cost price. Shows how much the sales price increases production costs and reflects the relative efficiency of production compared to competitors, or an inflated selling price.
The profitability of the enterprise shows:
Shows how much profit we make per 1 ruble invested in cost Shows how much the sales price is higher than cost and reflects the relative efficiency of production compared to competitors, or an overestimation of the selling price.
Example: an enterprise produces products at a price of 180 rubles per piece, the total cost of the product is 140 rubles. Determine the profitability of the product.
*Profitability of sales (sales)
This indicator shows what percentage of profit the enterprise receives from each ruble of products sold, and also serves as the basis for choosing the range of products.
R=Profit/Revenue
21. Break-even point.
In market conditions, it is economically important to determine the minimum volume of production at which all costs are covered by revenue. The answer to this question is given by finding the break-even point.
Break-even point (critical production/sales volume) is the volume of sales at which the received income provides reimbursement of all costs, but does not provide the opportunity to make a profit. (lower limit of production volume at which P = 0)
The break-even point is characterized by the following indicators:
· Critical (threshold) sales volume
· Profitability threshold, rub
· Margin of financial strength, rub
· Safety margin, pcs.
The profitability threshold is sales revenue at which the company no longer has losses, but does not yet make a profit.
Financial safety margin – the amount per cat. the enterprise can afford to reduce revenue without leaving the profitability zone
The value of the critical sales volume and the profitability threshold is influenced by changes in the amount of fixed costs, the amount of variable costs and the price level.
The margin of financial safety and the margin of safety evaluate how far the enterprise is from the break-even point. If they approach the breakeven point, then the problem of managing fixed costs increases, i.e. The greater the difference between the actual volume and the critical volume, the higher the financial strength of the enterprise.
A company with a small share of fixed costs can produce fewer products to ensure break-even and safety.
Marginal profit – additional. profit received from revenue growth with constant fixed costs.
The position of the break-even point changes under the influence of changes in the parameters that determine the value of the break-even point.
Taking these changes into account allows us to answer the following questions:
· What is the preliminary price level for the product when other parameters change?
What volume of revenue is needed to ensure a given profit?
· What is the preliminary level of variable costs permissible for given parameters of price and profit, or fixed costs.
22.The economic meaning of the break-even point. (HIGHER)
23. Indicators characterizing the break-even point. (ABOVE)
24. Marginal profit.(ABOVE)
25. Price structure. Price system.
Price is the monetary expression of the cost of a product, product, item, work or service, i.e. the amount of money a buyer pays for a product or service.
Price determines the structure or volume of production; movement of material flows; distribution of commodity mass; influences profits, profitability, and the standard of living of society.
Pricing methods are ways of setting prices for goods and services.
2 main methods: cost and parametric.
Cost ones are based on taking into account the costs of production and sales of products, i.e. cost:
· The full cost method is a method of pricing based on all costs, which, regardless of their origin, are written off per unit of product
· Standard costs – allows you to create prices based on cost calculations according to standards, taking into account deviations of actual costs from standard ones
Direct costs - a method of pricing based on determining direct costs based on market conditions and expected sales prices
Parametric are based on taking into account the technical and economic parameters of the product:
· Unit price method – based on the formation of prices according to one of the main parameters of product quality
· Points method – based on the use of expert assessments of the importance of goods
· Regression method – determination of empirical formulas for the dependence of prices on the value of several basic quality parameters within the framework of a parametric series of goods.
26. Marginal revenue, relative and production leverage.
To analyze the break-even of an enterprise, the following indicators are used:
· Marginal revenue (gross margin)
· Relative income
Gear ratios (production lever)
Production leverage expresses the relationship between variable and fixed costs. The higher the fixed costs relative to the variable costs, the higher the leverage.
With an equal increase in sales volume, higher rates of profit growth will be for those enterprises that have a higher “transfer ratio” indicator
Fixed costs grow at a higher rate in an enterprise where equipment is more productive and expensive. Thus, marginal revenue will be higher where the proportion of fixed costs is greater. That is, an enterprise is more profitable where the specific income is higher.
24. Operating, financial and related levers.
Leverage is an indicator characterizing the relationship between the cost structure, capital structure and financial result.
A slight change in this indicator can lead to a significant change in the final indicators (profitability and profit)
There are 3 types of lever:
· Operational (production) – an indicator of the potential for changes in profit due to changes in the cost structure and sales volume. Shows by what percentage profit will change when sales volume changes by 1%.
The effect of operating leverage: boils down to the fact that any change in sales revenue leads to an even more significant change in profit.
The strength of operating leverage shows the degree of risk, that is, the risk of loss of profit associated with fluctuations in sales volume, i.e. the more ef. OP, the greater the share of fixed costs, the greater the production risk.
· Financial – an indicator of the potential for changes in profit due to changes in the ratio of borrowed and fixed funds. The effectiveness of financial leverage characterizes the degree of financial risk, i.e. the possibility of loss of profit and reduced profitability with a large amount of borrowed funds.
2 methods for determining the effect of financial leverage:
1) Links the volume and cost of borrowed funds with profitability and profit
2) Shows how much net profit per share will change if total profit changes by 1%, i.e. show opportunity to increase profitability own funds and net profit through the use of credit.
· Conjugate – characterizes the combined impact of production and financial risks and shows by how many percent the net profit of the enterprise will change when production volume changes by 1%
25. Indicators characterizing the financial condition of the enterprise.
A necessary condition for the sustainable development of an enterprise is its good financial condition.
The overall stability of an enterprise is a state when the enterprise operates stably, i.e. has been producing competitive products for a long time, receiving net profit for consumption and production development, i.e. is liquid and solvent.
Factors influencing the financial condition: external (do not depend on the activities of the enterprise) and internal (depending on the enterprise)
An assessment of the financial condition of an enterprise is necessary not only for the manager and personnel of the enterprise, but also for persons directly involved in economic activities (investors, creditors, auditors)
To determine the financial state of the enterprise, the following indicators are used:
· Financial stability (assumes such a state of its financial resources, the distribution and use of these resources, which ensures the development of the enterprise due to the growth of profits and capital while maintaining solvency and creditworthiness in the conditions permissible level risk)
Solvency (the ability of an enterprise to pay its obligations)
· Balance sheet liquidity (step-by-step coverage of the enterprise’s liabilities with such assets, the period of transformation of which into cash corresponds to the maturity date of obligations)
· Creditworthiness (the ability to obtain a loan and the ability to repay it on time using one’s own funds and other financial resources)
Profitability
· Profitability
All indicators characterizing financial state of the enterprise, combined into a trace. groups:
· Solvency indicators (absolute liquidity ratio, intermediate coverage ratio, total coverage ratio)
· Indicators of financial stability (equity ratio, share of borrowed funds, ratio of equity and borrowed funds)
· Indicators of business activity (general turnover rate, turnover rate, turnover of own funds)
· Profitability indicators (profitability of enterprise property, rent of own assets, rent of production funds, long-term and short-term investments, own and borrowed assets, balance sheet profit rate, net profit rate)
·
26. Assets and liabilities of the enterprise. Balance sheet liquidity.
· Solvency – the ability of a company to pay its obligations. Most the best option: It has the resources to pay off its debts on time. But it is considered solvent even in the case when free cash is insufficient or absent, but it is able to quickly realize its assets and pay off creditors.
· Assets are classified by degree of liquidity:
· Current: A1 The most liquid - cash in the bank, at the cash desk, short-term securities
A2 Quickly liquid – accounts receivable, deposits
· A3 Slowly liquid – finished products in warehouse, unfinished products, stocks of raw materials and supplies.
· Constant: A4 Difficult to liquid - OPF
· To determine the solvency of a business taking into account the liquidity of its assets, inflation and content are used. in the balance sheet, and an analysis of the liquidity of the balance sheet, concluding in comparing the size of assets, grouped by the degree of liquidity with the amounts of liabilities, grouped by their maturity dates.
· Balance sheet liabilities according to the urgency of their repayment are also classified into the following groups:
· P1 – the most urgent obligations (accounts payable)
· P2 – short-term liabilities (short-term loans and borrowings)
· P3- long-term loans and borrowings (rent)
· P4 – permanent liabilities (own assets: authorized capital, profit)
· Balance sheet liquidity - the degree to which liabilities are covered by such assets, the period of conversion of which into cash corresponds to the maturity of the obligations.
· The balance is considered absolutely liquid if A1≥P1, A2≥P2, A3≥P3, A4≤P4
· Simultaneous observance of the first 3 rules necessarily entails the achievement of the 4th rule.
27. Methods for calculating indicators characterizing financial condition
enterprises.
· All indicators, characteristic financial status. pr-i, combined into groups:
· 1) solvency indicators: – characterize the company’s ability to pay short-term creditors at a given time. payments own.sr-you.
· Own sources of financing: internal - authorized capital, depreciation of open pension fund and no assets, profit; external - targeted financing (according to the decision of the government, resources are allocated for specific purposes); equivalent - salary arrears, payments to the budget.
· Borrowed sources of financing: bank loans, loans, budget. appropriations (loans from government), funds from extra-budgetary funds.
· General payment terms – used to assess the liquidity of the balance sheet as a whole.
· Absolute liquidity ratio – shows what part of the short-term debt the organization can repay in the near future at the expense of cash and short-term securities.
· Critical liquidity ratio – shows what part of short-term liabilities can be immediately repaid at the expense of cash in various accounts in short-term securities, as well as proceeds from settlements with debtors
· , optimal 1
· Coefficient Current liquidity – show. What part of the current obligations on loans and payments can be repaid by attracting working capital.
· Coefficient of security of own working capital – the requirement for the organization to have its own working capital, which is necessary for its financial stability.
· 2) indicators of financial stability - the degree of protection of attracted capital and calculated on the basis of the balance sheet. Ownership (independence) coefficient
· Debt to equity ratio. Wed:
· KSZiSS =
· 3) business activity indicators. Capital turnover ratio
· Ownership turnover ratio
· Accounts receivable turnover ratio
· Turnover ratio of all current assets
· Banking asset turnover ratio
· 4) Profitability indicators. Profitability of property
· Profitability of own assets
· General profitability of productive assets
28. Basic financial documents.
Balance sheet, consolidated income statement, statement of funds and their use, financing account
Balance. Financial reporting is the primary basis for determining the solvency and profitability of the business. Information about the debt is reflected in the balance sheet. Balance sheet.fin. condition of the item on a certain date. It consists of 2 parts: assets (reflected assets, which have the property) and liabilities (reflected sources of assets, i.e. equity and borrowed capital).
consolidated income statement - shows the amount of profit or loss for the year, reflects the profitability of the company, that is, the result of activities in the defined period. Here the amount of revenue from the sale of goods and other types of income is compared with all costs and capital investments
financing account - reflects the movement of capital and liabilities, shows at the expense of what resources the development of the project took place and what are the directions of their use.
statement of funds and their use - reflecting net changes in comparable balance sheets different periods, identifying changes in monetary assets during a given period or changes in working capital.
29. Economic efficiency of investment projects.
Investments-investments of the Finnish system, material and technical assets, intellectual properties, i.e. development of the industry as a whole.
The structure of capital investments and investments is understood as the distribution of their values, expressed in % between territories, industries, sources of financing and departments.
There are 5 structures:
1. territorial (distribution of HF and I between departmental territories or regions)
2.sectoral (distribution of CV and I between departmental sectors of the national economy)
3. by sources of financing (determining the share of investment funds allocated from budgetary and extra-budgetary sources (own and borrowed funds)
4. technological (percentage distribution of capital investments between departments and their elements)
5.reproductive (distribution of HF between individual forms of reproduction of industrial enterprises, technical re-equipment, expansion, construction, reconstruction)
Efficiency from an investment project: Ef = R-Z, where R-result, Z-costs
Relates. Efficiency of the investment project: Ef=R/Z
The duration of the creation and operation of the project is called the calculation horizon, which is measured by the number of calculation steps
30. System of indicators for calculations economic efficiency investment project.
When assessing the effectiveness of an investment project, it is necessary to compare indicators at different times. This is accomplished by bringing their value to the beginning of the year, i.e. discounting. To bring simultaneous costs and efficiency, use the discount rate:
= – discount factor
Eg – discount rate equal to the investor’s acceptable rate of return on capital
When calculating the efficiency of an investment project, the following system of indicators is used:
1. Is there commercial (Finn) efficiency that takes into account the Finnish consequences of the investment project. Commercial efficiency must provide the required rate of return on capital:
R – results in the defining year, Z-costs in the defining year, N – rate of return on investment capital
Industrial operations and financial activities form the basis of the com.effect determined by the flow real money taking into account the inflow and outflow of money
Prd = Pd-Od, P-inflow, O-outflow, Prd-real money flow
The flow of real money from investment activities includes income and expenses associated with capital investments in fixed capital and increases in fixed capital.
The flow of money from operating activities includes all types of income and costs from the sale of products, taking into account production costs, loans, taxes, etc.
The flow of real money from Finnish activities includes the inflow and outflow of real money, including shares, subsidies, loans and dividends.
2.Does the budget.efficiency reflect the financial consequences of the project implementation for the federal, regional and local budgets?
Budgetary efficiency is determined by the ratio of expenses and income from projects financed by their federal, regional or local budgets. Defined as the difference between income and expenses
The expenses include funds from the budget for financing, bank loans, as well as guarantees for investment risks.
3. Whether economic efficiency studies the costs and results associated with the implementation of the project and beyond the direct financial interests of the participants in the investment project. Determined by the national economic efficiency system by reducing (discounting) costs at different times to the value in the initial period and with a discount rate acceptable to the investor.
The choice of the best project for implementation is carried out by comparing various investment projects and their sequences.
Existence 3 methods for choosing the best investment project:
1.) Pure discounting income method
NPV - net discount income
T-horizon of calculation. The project counts. e.effective and expedient if the NPV is greater than 0
2.) Yield index method
BH=1/K - profitability index
K-capital investment
Z-costs minus capital costs.
The project counts. eq.effective and appropriate if the RR is greater than 1
3.) Method of internal rate of return - they represent the rate of return at which the value of the given effects is equal to the value of capital investments.
IRR is determined during the calculation process and is compared with the investor's required rate of return on capital, otherwise this project not acceptable. The payback period of capital investments (loan repayment period) is the period starting from the initial investment and other costs associated with the investment project are covered by the total results of its implementation.
32. Structure of capital investments.
Capital investments These are investments aimed at the construction or acquisition of fixed assets (funds). Capital investments are otherwise referred to as investments in non-current assets.
Knowledge of the structure of capital investments allows you to present them in more detail, obtain objective information about the dynamics of capital investments, determine trends in their changes and, on this basis, formulate an effective investment policy and influence its implementation.
Depending on the characteristics underlying the classification, the structure of capital investments is divided into:
1.Territorial. Characterizes the distribution of capital investments and investments between individual territories and regions
2. Industry-characterizes the distribution of capital investments and investments between individual sectors of the national economy.
3.By sources of financing characterized by the determination of the share of capital investments directed to their budget (federal, regional and local budget) to extra-budgetary sources (own + borrowed funds).
4.Technological. associated with the technological process % distribution between their individual elements
5. Reproductive.( re-equipment, reconstruction). Distribution of capital investments between individual forms of reproduction of general enterprises.
When analyzing the reproductive structure, the share of costs for:
Technical re-equipment and reconstruction;
Expansion of existing enterprises;
New construction;
Maintaining existing capacities (major repairs).
33.Planning the economic activities of an enterprise. Methods and types of planning.
Planning is the development, planning and installation by the manager of a business of a system of quantitative and qualitative indicators of the development of a business, which determines the pace of development, proportions and trends, development trends both in the current and in the future.
There are 5 planning methods:
1) balance sheet – ensures the establishment of a connection between resource needs and sources of covering them.
2) Calculation and analytical – used for calculating plan units, analyzing their dynamics and factors providing the required quantity level. Within the framework of this method, the basic level of the main plan crops is determined, changes in the planning period are calculated due to the quantitative influence of the main factors, and indexes of changes in the planned crops are calculated compared to the base level.
3) Economic-mathematical – allows the development of an economic model of the dependence of populations based on changes in the number of parameters compared to the main factors. Allows you to develop several plan options and select the optimal one.
4) Graphic-analytical - makes it possible to present the results of the economic method graphically, namely with the help of graphs. Using network diagrams, parallel execution of work in space and time on complex objects is modeled.
5) Program-target method - allows you to draw up a plan in the form of a program, that is, a set of tasks and activities, united by one goal and timed to specific dates. Since a characteristic feature of the program is its focus on achieving certain results, the main core is the final / general goal, which is specified in a number of subgoals and objectives. Goals are achieved by certain performers who are endowed with the necessary resources.
Types of planning by time frame:
1) Prospective is based on forecasting. with its help, the future need for new types is predicted, and a product sales strategy for the sales market is prepared.
The long-term plan has a program-target nature; it formulates an economic strategy for the long term with the expansion of the sales market. The goals and objectives of the long-term plan are specified in the medium-term plan. objects of the medium-term plan are: organizational structure, production capacity, capital investments, needs for financial resources, etc.
2) The current is being developed within the framework of the medium-term plan; here the terms of the medium-term plan are specified. The page and stage of current planning differ depending on the object and the subdivision of the plant, workshop and team.
The main sections of the current plan: production and implementation plan; technical development plan for the production; investment and capital construction plan; labor, personnel, salary; self, profit, profitability; finn.plan(budget); environmental development funds pr-ya; environmental protection; social development of the team; external activities.
3) operational and production planning clarifies the assignment of the technical plan for shorter periods of time (month, decade, day) for production units. it serves as a means of ensuring product output and uniform operation of the plant.
From the point of view of the obligation to accept and implement plan tasks:
1) directive - characterized by the mandatory acceptance and implementation of accepted plan targets coming from higher organizations. In a market economy, it is carried out at the level of the technical plan.
2) indicative - a form of state regulation through regulation of prices and tariffs, taxes, bank interest rates for loans, minimum salary and other factors.
indicators are characteristics or pairs, the characteristic state and direction of development of the system, developed by the governing bodies. The plan is advisory in nature.
Strategic planning sets long-term goals and develops means for achieving them, and most importantly, it develops the main directions of the project
Tactical – for short-term periods and is aimed at the implementation of these plans, which are specified in comprehensive plans for social and environmental planning.
Business planning is a type of economic planning.
Reactive – analysis of past experience from the bottom up
Inactive - based and focused on the existing position of the enterprise for the survival and stabilization of the business
Proactive - based on a forecast taking into account future changes and implemented from top to bottom by optimizing solutions
Interactive – consists of designing the future, taking into account the interaction of the past, present and future, directed upward. Effective development of the project.
34.The essence of innovation.
35. Classification of innovations.
36. What are the differences between the concepts of “novelty”, “innovation” and “innovation”?
37. Models innovation process at the enterprise.
38. The essence of bankruptcy.
Bankruptcy is a consequence of the imbalance of the economic mechanism of non-efficient work (price, investment and financial policies)
Bankruptcy is recognized by an arbitration court, that is, it is recognized that the debtor (or) is not capable of fully satisfying the demands of creditors for monetary obligations or fulfilling the obligation to pay obligatory payments. The bankruptcy process in the Russian Federation is regulated by the Federal Law “On Insolvency or Bankruptcy” dated October 26, 2006.
Loading...