In conditions of acute confrontation with warlike neighbors, Ancient Rus' would not have been able to establish itself as an independent national entity, which would be recognized and taken into account by other peoples, without a well-organized military affairs. During the formation of tribal unions, during the so-called period of military democracy, in case of general danger or during campaigns, the Slavs gathered an army and elected a leader - a prince. Initially, he was elected at a people's meeting - the veche, and then the power of the prince became hereditary. There were also advisers with him - tribal elders. The prince was entitled to a large share of military spoils and income from the land, which allowed him to maintain a squad with him - military comrades, professional warriors. Thus, an apparatus of power and a permanent core of troops were gradually created. By the end of the 8th century, the military forces of the ancient Slavs consisted of princely squads and people's militia. The militia was organizationally divided into clans (hundreds), tribes (regiments) and a union of tribes (army). The number of such formations at that time was different: for example, a clan - from 50 to 100 warriors.
The basis of the army was made up of foot soldiers, armed with two spears - a light throwing one (sulitsa) and a heavy one for hand-to-hand combat, as well as bows and swords. There was also cavalry. Byzantine sources repeatedly reported on Slavic horsemen who won victories even over the heavily armed cavalry (cataphracts) of the empire: “One of the enemy detachments (Slavs) entered into battle with Asbad (a warrior from the emperor’s bodyguard detachment). He commanded the regular cavalry, which... consisted of numerous excellent horsemen. And without much difficulty the Slavs put them to flight and killed many during this shameful flight” (1).
The battle formation of the Slavs was a deep formation in the form of columns. United by clan and tribal ties, they possessed enormous striking power. It is no coincidence that Byzantine military treatises ordered their commanders to maintain extreme caution when invading the lands of the Slavs: to have strong reconnaissance, fortify overnight and camp sites, and choose fairly level terrain for battle. All these precautions indicated that the Byzantine army, which preferred to fight with throwing weapons (archery) at a distance, could not withstand the massive pressure of the Slavic columns.
Slavic warriors fought skillfully both on the plain and in forests and mountains. Unlike the Byzantines, they sought to get close to the enemy, hit him with spears and arrows, and then began to fight hand-to-hand. The Danish chronicler Saxo Grammaticus (1140-1208) reported that the main fighting quality of the Slavic warrior was determination in battle: “In hand-to-hand combat, the Slavs threw the shield behind their backs... and with an open load... with a sword in their hand they rushed at the enemy "(2).
In the fight against the enemy, he improved and gained combat experience. If the enemy invaded unexpectedly and with a large army, the Slavic warriors attacked him in small detachments and “were in no hurry to measure their strength.” They used false retreats, organized ambushes and night attacks, exhausting and weakening the invaders. Having tired the enemy, the columns of the Slavs suddenly fell on him, trying to inflict damage on him. complete defeat. Such tactics terrified the Byzantine warriors: every gorge and forest area was fraught with formidable danger. It is known that in 602 Byzantine soldiers rebelled, flatly refusing to participate in the campaign against the Slavic lands.
The Slavs widely used military cunning. They skillfully camouflaged themselves in the area. A Byzantine source says that the Slavs “were accustomed to hiding behind small stones or behind the first bush they came across and catching enemies” (3). Being taken by surprise, they knew how to dive into the water and for a long time, breathing through a hollow reed, stay at the bottom of the river. Byzantine writer of the 7th century. Theophylact Simokatta wrote that during campaigns, Slavic warriors set up field fortifications - camps made of carts. Hiding behind the carts, the Slavs inflicted heavy losses on the enemy with archery and carried out unexpected forays.
But it was not only on land that Slavic warriors distinguished themselves in battles. They were also known as skilled shipbuilders and sailors. Their longships (boats) could accommodate up to 20 warriors. The boat fleet made long sea voyages to Greece, Italy, Spain, and boldly entered into single combat with the Byzantine fleet. The Slavs skillfully organized the interaction of their fleet and ground forces. Sometimes, having started a battle on land, they pinned down the main forces of the enemy and at the same time landed part of the army in his rear on boats, “actions according to ... with the help of countless numbers of ships cut from one trunk (one-tree)
" (4).
Before battle, Slavic warriors swore an oath: to stand to the death for their father and brother, for the lives of their relatives. The word of honor was highly valued and obliged warriors to observe military twinning. Those who violated it were “knocked out of the ground” - expelled from the territory of the tribe. The Slavs considered captivity a disgrace. Such coordination in actions was inaccessible to the multi-ethnic army of the empire - in many ways, only the fear of cruel punishments kept the huge formations of the Byzantine phalanx in obedience. The resilience of the ancient Russian warrior in hand-to-hand combat was noted by Byzantine chroniclers. So, in 1019, the Byzantine army fought in Italy and in the first three battles suffered defeats from the Normans, “who remained victorious, but in the fourth battle, where they had to fight the Russian people (a detachment of Russian soldiers), they (the Normans) were defeated , turned into nothing” (5).
The combat skills of warriors were acquired not only in battles, but also in constant exercises in peacetime. Usually, at funeral feasts (funerals for deceased relatives), competitions of experienced warriors were organized, who introduced youths to the military profession. The fight of an unarmed warrior against an armed one was shown, the so-called abattoir fight, which included elements of protection from a sword or spear during a fight. The accumulated combat experience was passed on from generation to generation, preserving the best military traditions of Slavic warriors.
The Russian army, in the struggle to strengthen the political and economic positions of their state, showed high examples of military art, which clearly manifested themselves during the period of acute confrontation between Kievan Rus and Khazaria and Byzantium in the 10th century.
But Rus' was forced to fight not only the empire and the kaganate. Its borders were constantly hit by waves of raids by nomadic Pechenegs and Polovtsians. As for the Pecheneg raids, under Svyatoslav’s successors the Pechenegs tried to attack Rus', but were able to withstand only about eight battles. In 1036, the Kiev prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich (ruled from 1015 to 1054) inflicted a crushing defeat on the Pecheneg hordes, after which the Pechenegs chose to live in peace and carry out border service in Rus'. To combat the nomadic danger, the Russian princes built a network of fortified fortress cities along the Desna, Vorskla, Sula, Stugna, and Ros rivers, which strengthened the defense of the steppe borders. Not only the garrisons of fortresses, but also mobile cavalry units took part in their defense. Having received news of the attack, they quickly went to the threatened areas and began to fight the nomads. Russian warriors achieved no less success in naval affairs.
The fleet of Kievan Rus consisted of longships. The river boat was made from hollowed out trunks of aspen, linden or oak. Sometimes three or four boards, each up to 30 centimeters high, were sewn onto the base. Such a boat (dugout, single-tree) easily crossed shallow waters and was dragged through dangerous river rapids without much difficulty.
Vessels intended for navigation on the seas had from 15 to 20 pairs of oars, were equipped with sails, were distinguished by sufficient speed and could accommodate from 40 to 50 people with supplies. A sea boat could accommodate from 8 to 10 war horses. In the middle of the 12th century, decked military ships with two rudders - stern and bow, which had great maneuverability, began to be built on the Dnieper.
The Rus' boat fleet was an integral part of their fighting forces and had its own characteristics. Therefore, there is no reason to assert that Rus' borrowed the art of navigation from the Scandinavians, as well as statehood.
The tactics of the Russian boat fleet can be judged by the news of an eyewitness - a major scientist of the 11th century, advisor to the Byzantine emperor Constantine (Michael) Psellus.
In 1042, Constantine IX Monomakh (1042-1055) ascended the throne, who dealt not only with his rivals, but also with those who could potentially support them. The Russian ambassador was one of the first to fall dead. In Constantinople, the emperor provoked an attack on Russian merchants and plundered the Orthodox monastery in Athos. In response, the last one took place sea voyage Russian boat fleet to Byzantium. It was headed by Yaroslav's son Vladimir.
In 1043, 15 thousand Russian soldiers on 400 boats unexpectedly appeared at the walls of the capital of Byzantium. Emperor Constantine Monomakh assembled a fleet - fire-carrying ships and heavy "transport" palace ships and lined them up against the Russian boats, "standing at the harbor on the other side." The Russians, the Byzantine historian reports, placed all their ships one by one in a row, in a chain, so to either “attack us themselves, or accept our attack.”
The opponents, having lined up their ships in battle formation at a certain distance from each other, did not move for a long time. The Russians expected an attack by Byzantine ships, and the Byzantines - Russians. Unable to withstand the tension, the Byzantine emperor ordered two large ships to go to the Russians. “When they came forward smoothly and orderly, the spearmen and stone throwers from above raised a war cry, and the fire throwers lined up in an order convenient for throwing it; then most of the enemy boats sent towards, rowing quickly, rushed towards our ships, and then, dividing, surrounding and, as it were, encircling each of the individual triremes, tried to break through them from below with beams” (6).
Soon, the concerned Byzantine emperor sent all his ships to the Russian fleet, but things did not come to a general battle. Nature helped the Byzantines. An ensuing storm prevented the battle. A strong whirlwind pretty much battered the Russian boats, some of them were thrown ashore, as the Russian chronicler wrote, “and smashed the ships of Rus'.”
The Byzantine emperor organized the pursuit of the surviving part of the Russian flotilla. The Russians met 24 ships sent against them and boldly entered the battle. The Byzantines were defeated.
Vladimir Yaroslavich returned to Kyiv on boats. But a different fate awaited 6 thousand Russian soldiers, thrown ashore by a storm. They decided to reach their homeland by land, but near Varna they were surrounded and taken prisoner. The emperor ordered some of them to have their eyes gouged out and others to be cut off. right hand, so that they cannot raise a sword against the empire.
Yaroslav began preparing a new campaign, and in the meantime, the emperor, who had come to his senses, hastened to send an embassy to Kyiv. He promised to compensate for all losses incurred by Russian merchants, return the prisoners to their homeland and give sixteen-year-old Vsevolod Yaroslavich his daughter Princess Maria, the future mother of the Russian commander Vladimir Monomakh, as his wife. In 1046 peace was concluded.
Thus ended the Russian campaign against Constantinople. The experience of this campaign testifies that the Russian boat fleet fought at sea in a certain, long-established formation. Having large Byzantine ships in front of them, Russian longships lined up “one in a row.” This battle formation was suitable both for attacking and for meeting the advancing enemy. When attacking, Russian boats rushed in groups towards large enemy ships. Each group of people surrounded the ship and immediately began to destroy its sides. As a result of these actions, the ship, having received holes, sank into the sea. There were probably also means (hooks with rope ladders) for climbing from the boats onto the side of the ship. Not only on land, but also at sea, Russian soldiers were able to fight with experienced enemy sailors, which, undoubtedly, were the sailors of Byzantium.
In the last years of Yaroslav's reign, Kievan Rus reached the apogee of power. After the death of his brother Mstislav Vladimirovich in 1036, the Kiev prince became the sole “autocrat of the Russian land.”
Two years before his death, he divided the Russian lands between his sons. He gave Kyiv to Izyaslav, Chernigov to Svyatoslav, and Vsevolod was imprisoned in Pereyaslavl. At the same time, he ordered his sons not to quarrel over lands. But this reasonable advice had no effect. After the death of Yaroslav in 1054, the first signs of feudal fragmentation appeared in the lands of Rus'.
During the era of the beginning of the collapse of the once unified state into separate principalities, changes also occurred in the military organization of Rus'. In the armed forces, feudal militias - armed detachments, fielded by individual princes - began to occupy an increasing place. These units were called regiments. The regiments were gathered in the cities of the Russian lands and brought to the battlefield by the princes. The regiments were called by the name of the territory in which they were assembled (Kiev regiment, Novgorod regiment), or by the name of the prince who led the regiment. In the event of a serious military danger, at the call of the people's veche (meeting), a militia of free people - peasants and townspeople - was convened. Each family sent adult sons to it, with the exception of the youngest. Refusal was considered a shame. The people's militia took part in all major wars against external enemies. Only thanks to the support of the people were the grandiose campaigns and victories of the Russian army possible. The order of battle was also changed. It has been divided along the front and in depth, becoming more complex and flexible. Usually the Russian army at this time was built in a regimental row, which consisted of several independent regiments united by a common command: an advanced one, sometimes two advanced regiments in the first line, a right wing, a center and a left wing in the second line. In front of the first line were soldiers armed with throwing weapons. The division of the Russian army into regiments can be traced throughout the entire period of developed feudalism. The regimental row became the main battle formation of the Russian army. It had the necessary stability and at the same time allowed flexible maneuvering on the battlefield, allowing regimental leaders to take the initiative in battle.
For battle, a wide, flat area was usually chosen, where visual and sound communication could be maintained between the regiments. After this, the Russian army formed into battle formation. The right to build (“arrange”) regiments before the battle belonged to the eldest prince. The army was controlled orally and with the help of signals with a banner, the sounds of a horn, trumpets and a tambourine. The battle began with warriors armed with throwing weapons. Being in front of the front regiment, they bombarded the enemy with arrows from a distance of 150-200 steps, and then retreated to the first line, i.e. to the forward regiment. Along with bows, Russian warriors skillfully used crossbows. The crossbow was a bow that was attached to a wooden stock equipped with a device for throwing arrows out of a special chute.
The riders were armed with a saber and a lightweight sword, adapted for cutting from a horse. But the predominant place in the cavalry was occupied by a heavily armed warrior with a spear. In the infantry, the warrior preferred an ax and throwing weapons. The outcome of the battle was decided in hand-to-hand combat.
The marching order of the Russian army during this period still consisted of guards, main forces and convoys. The guards were the most experienced warriors, who were entrusted with reconnaissance and security during the campaign. The watchman was given great importance. The success of the entire campaign depended on reconnaissance of routes, timely collection of information about the enemy, and skillful guarding of the main forces during the campaign. With the help of foot envoys and mounted messengers, the “capital city” (capital) kept in touch with the army that had gone on a campaign. In case of extreme importance and complete secrecy of the news, it was encrypted, sealed and sent with authorized persons. There were several methods of secret writing. In Rus', encrypted news was called “gibberish letters” when the Glagolitic alphabet (signs) was used instead of the Cyrillic alphabet. In addition to messengers, signaling using fires was widely used. Signals were transmitted from special observation points located in the direction of a probable enemy invasion, from one point to another, until they reached the capital city.
The warriors in Rus' had the right to transfer to service from one prince to another. This right was confirmed every time in princely agreements. However, such transitions were very rare. Since loyalty to the prince was considered one of the highest virtues of a warrior. It was considered a shame for the squad and for each of its members to leave the battlefield, and for the prince it was shameful to abandon his squad in danger. Military exploits and military merits have not gone without rewards since ancient times. Most early sign The difference was the gold neck hryvnia - medals that were worn around the neck on a chain.
Russian squads were familiar with the use of ambushes, luring the enemy with a deliberate retreat and then suddenly going on the offensive. Variety of combat formations and tactics indicates that Russian military art during this period was in many ways superior to the military art of Western European countries, where the battlefields were dominated by single combat of heavily armed knights, and infantry played the role of a living obstacle, doomed to destruction. It should also be noted that there are shortcomings in the organization of the armed forces of the Old Russian state - the emerging disunity of the troops of the princes, which the nomadic peoples took advantage of when raiding Rus'. Princely strife ruined the people, undermined Russian statehood, creating a crisis situation within the country. This was aggravated by the invasion of nomadic hordes and had the character of a nationwide disaster.
In the 11th century In the southern Russian steppes, the Torks were replaced by Polovtsian hordes. And if the Torks were quite easily repulsed even by Vsevolod’s Pereyaslav army, then the wave of nomads that followed them marked the beginning of the grueling wars between Rus' and the steppe, which lasted more than 150 years. Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh (1053-1125) had to break the power of the Polovtsians. He managed to unite the military forces of the principalities and move from passive defense to a strategic offensive deep into the Polovtsian steppes. The results of the campaigns against the Cumans (1103, 1107, 1111) were impressive. Part of the hordes migrated to North Caucasus and to Georgia. The borders of Rus' have found peace. However, with the death of Vladimir Monomakh in 1125, the process of separation of Russian principalities resumed. The united Old Russian state practically ceased to exist, but its legacy in military affairs had a huge impact on the construction of the armed forces and the development of military art in subsequent centuries.
* * *
The wars of Ancient Rus' significantly enriched Russian military art: the strategy, tactics and organization of Russian troops received further development.
The strategy of the Russian army was decisive. For this purpose, long campaigns were carried out into enemy territory. Finding and defeating the main forces of the enemy was the main task of the Russian troops. The strategy was also influenced by the population of Ancient Rus', especially when repelling the raids of nomads. Under pressure from the people, the Kyiv princes moved from passive defense of the state's borders to large-scale campaigns, having previously abandoned mutual claims - civil strife. The principle of strategic surprise and the seizure of strategic initiative were widely used.
The tactics of ancient Russian troops were also important in the development of military art. The tactics of the columns of the Slavic tribes, the variety of combat techniques (detours, ambushes), the use of terrain features, and the coordination of actions forced the Byzantines to borrow the tactical forms of armed struggle of the ancient Slavs. During the formation of the Old Russian state, tactics and combat formation changed. The Russian army was a monolithic “wall” that decided the outcome of the battle in hand-to-hand combat, while a reserve was allocated - a second line to guard the rear. In the XI-XII centuries. The battle formation was divided along the front and in depth - the army was divided into three regiments (Listven 1024), and then into two lines of regiments in the battle with the Cumans on the Salnitsa River in 1111 - which increased the maneuverability of the army. There is an uneven distribution of forces in the battle formation, which made it possible to fight to encircle the enemy: in the battle on the Koloksha River near Suzdal in 1096, the Novgorodians reinforced one of the flanks with two infantry detachments standing one behind the other, and behind them they placed a detachment of cavalry intended for coverage of the enemy's rear (7). In campaigns against the Polovtsy, a strong vanguard was created. He delivered an unexpected blow to the enemy's advanced units, seized the initiative and thereby ensured moral superiority. The organization of interaction between infantry and cavalry on the battlefield is noteworthy, with the infantry and militia playing a decisive role in the outcome of the battles. In contrast to Western European military art, the tactics of Russian troops were based on close interaction between military branches.
The high achievements of military art can be judged not only by the campaigns and battles themselves, but also by chronicle sources created in Ancient Rus'. Such monuments include “The Tale of Bygone Years”, “Russian Truth”, “Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh”, and monuments of folklore.
“The Tale of Bygone Years” is the first monument to Russian military thought, a unique military history Russian antiquity. Its authors not only outlined the course of events, but also analyzed them. The chronicle was a summary of the events of the civil history of Ancient Rus'; it also summarized the extensive military experience that the Russian people accumulated in the 10th-12th centuries.
Another monument to military thought of the 10th-11th centuries are the lives of prince-commanders. The first life known to us is “The Legend of Svyatoslav.” This is a story about his campaigns and a revelation of his military leadership based on the stories of direct participants in Svyatoslav’s campaigns. The image of the warrior prince, according to the author of the “Tale,” was supposed to be an example on which warriors of subsequent generations would be brought up.
In some historical monuments an attempt was made to broadly generalize the military art of that time. Among the latter are the “Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh” (8) - a unique set of military thoughts and instructions on military affairs.
All of the listed monuments of written literature expressed not only the ideas of the prince-voivodes, but the thoughts and moods inherent in the entire army, right down to its lower ranks: the lower-level governors and ordinary soldiers.
Literature:
1. Materials on the history of the USSR. M., 1985, Issue 1. P.228.
2. Klibanov. The order of battle among the ancient Slavs. Military History Magazine, 1945. No. 1-2. P.78.
3. Procopius from Caesarea. War with the Goths. M., 1950. P.209-210.
4. Materials on the history of the USSR. P.261.
5. Grekov B.D. Kievan Rus. M., 1953. P.329-330.
6. Vasilievsky V.G. Varangian-Russian and Varangian-English squad in Constantinople in the 11th-12th centuries. - Journal of the Ministry of Public Education. 1875, March (No. 3). P.91.
7. The Tale of Bygone Years. M.-L. Part 1. P.370-372.
8. Ibid. P.354-359.
In the next period, associated with the dominance of the Turkic-Bulgarians in the steppes, the Slavs found themselves cut off from the Byzantine borders, but in the 9th century two events took place that immediately chronologically preceded the era of the Old Russian state - the Russian-Byzantine War of 830 and the Russian-Byzantine War of 860. Both expeditions were by sea.
Features of the development of ancient Russian statehood at its early stage (the presence of powerful tribal unions with local princely dynasties and large urban centers with veche self-government, their subordination to the Kiev prince on a federal basis, features of emerging feudal relations, the absence of private ownership of land) largely determined the uniqueness of the military organization Ancient Rus'.
Troop organization
9th-11th centuries
With the expansion in the first half of the 9th century of the influence of the Kiev princes on the tribal unions of the Drevlyans, Dregovichi, Krivichi and Northerners, the establishment of a collection system (carried out by the forces of 100-200 soldiers) and the export of polyudye, the Kyiv princes began to have the means to maintain a large army in constant combat readiness, which was required to fight the nomads. Also, the army could stay under the banner for a long time, making long-term campaigns, which was required to defend the interests of foreign trade on the Black and Caspian Seas.
The most numerous part of the army was the militia - the warriors. At the turn of the 10th century, the militia was tribal. Archaeological data indicate a stratification of property among the Eastern Slavs at the turn of the 8th - 9th centuries and the emergence of thousands of mansions of the local nobility, while tribute was calculated in proportion to the households, regardless of the wealth of the owners (however, according to one version of the origin of the boyars, the local nobility was prototype of the senior squad). From the middle of the 9th century, when Princess Olga organized the collection of tribute in the Russian North through a system of graveyards (later we see the Kyiv governor in Novgorod, transporting 2/3 of the Novgorod tributes to Kyiv), tribal militias lost their importance.
The recruitment of warriors at the beginning of the reign of Svyatoslav Igorevich or when Vladimir Svyatoslavich formed the garrisons of the fortresses he built on the border with the steppe are of a one-time nature; there is no information that this service had any duration or that the warrior had to report for service with any equipment .
In the wars of Ancient Rus', mercenary troops took a certain part. Initially these were the Varangians. They participated not only as mercenaries. Varangians are also found among the closest associates of the first Kyiv princes. In some campaigns of the 10th century, Russian princes hired Pechenegs and Hungarians. Later, during the period of feudal fragmentation, mercenaries also often took part in internecine wars. Among the peoples who were among the mercenaries, in addition to the Varangians and Pechenegs, there were Cumans, Hungarians, Western and Southern Slavs, Finno-Ugrians and Balts, Germans and some others. They all armed themselves in their own style.
The total number of troops could be more than 10,000 people.
XII-XIII centuries
Thus, for speed of movement, the army used pack horses instead of a convoy. For battle, the army often dismounted; Leo the Deacon under 971 indicates the unusual performance of the Russian army on horseback.
However, professional cavalry was needed to fight the nomads, so the squad became cavalry. At the same time, the organization took into account the Hungarian and Pecheneg experience. Horse breeding began to develop. The development of cavalry occurred faster in the south of Rus' than in the north, due to differences in the nature of the terrain and opponents. In 1021, Yaroslav the Wise and his army traveled from Kyiv to the Sudomir River, where they defeated Bryachislav of Polotsk, in a week, that is, the average speed was 110-115 km per day. In the 11th century, cavalry was compared in importance to infantry, and later surpassed it. At the same time, horse archers stood out; in addition to bows and arrows, they used axes, possibly spears, shields and helmets.
Horses were important not only for war, but also for the economy, so they were bred in the owner’s villages. They were also kept on princely farms: there are known cases when princes gave horses to militias during the war. The example of the Kyiv uprising of 1068 shows that the city militia was also mounted.
Throughout the pre-Mongol period, infantry played a role in all military operations. She not only took part in the capture of cities and carried out engineering and transport work, but also covered the rear, carried out sabotage attacks, and also took part in battles along with the cavalry. For example, in the 12th century, mixed battles involving both infantry and cavalry were common near city fortifications. There was no clear division in weapons, and everyone used what was more convenient for him and what he could afford. Therefore, everyone had several types of weapons. However, depending on this, the tasks they performed varied. So, in the infantry, as in the cavalry, one can distinguish heavily armed spearmen, in addition to the spear, armed with sulits, a battle axe, a mace, a shield, sometimes with a sword and armor, and lightly armed archers, equipped with a bow and arrows, a battle ax or an iron mace, and, obviously without defensive weapons. The infantry often used stone throwers.
Strategy
The Kyiv princes in the period of the 9th-11th centuries, as a rule, did not split up their forces, but consistently attacked different opponents. It is known that the campaign was interrupted due to a threat to the capital (siege of Kyiv (968)).
In 1129, it is known that the Principality of Polotsk was attacked simultaneously from several directions, which occurred, however, under the conditions of the overwhelming advantage of the attacking side.
From a strategic point of view, the northern campaign of Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich (1180-1181) during the internecine wars is also of interest. Chernigov and allied troops, gathering from three centers (Chernigov, Novgorod, Polovtsian steppe), successively encountered three opponents, conducting two regroupings between these clashes and all the time covering Chernigov with allocated secondary forces. The hike took all seasons: from winter to autumn. During the campaign, the Chernigov squad covered about 2 thousand km, the Novgorod army and the Kursk squad - about 1.5 thousand km.
Military training and education. Our ancestors paid exceptional attention to the military education of the younger generation. The training of a professional warrior began in early childhood from the day of “tonsure” or “mounting a horse.” From this act, the boy entered adulthood, going to live with his father’s half, under the care of the “uncle,” who began to prepare him both physically and morally-psychologically to overcome the difficulties of combat and camp life. If representatives of the highest aristocracy trained individually, then for the children of vigilantes, the institution of “gridays” (later “children’s”) played an important role, who underwent military training and education collectively, under the control of their commanders and courtiers.
In military education, the main attention was paid to the formation of such qualities as devotion to one’s prince, including after his death, and personal honor - strict adherence to a certain code of conduct. In battle, this meant an unconditional willingness to sacrifice for the sake of the prince and even a willingness to die in the same place after his death. As in the West, honor for a professional warrior was an absolute concept and far exceeded the value of life. For the prince, in addition to personal honor, and even more important value was glory - the idea established in society of him as a fair, generous, pious ruler, a brave and successful commander.
In addition to individual ideas and qualities that stimulated a certain type of behavior, in the ancient Russian army, and not only in the druzhina environment, the concept of collective honor and glory was extremely developed. Thus, the soldiers of Svyatoslav, besieged by superior forces of the Byzantines, were most concerned about the glory of Russian weapons, which until then had remained invincible. Therefore, death in battle for them seemed preferable to breaking out of the fortress and leaving the Danube without a truce and booty, which was considered tantamount to flight and recognition of oneself as the defeated side. Svyatoslav was ready to die, since “the dead have no shame,” and the squad expressed their readiness to lay down their heads where his “head would fall,” but not to lose the honor of the Russian soldiers.
With the adoption of Orthodoxy, military ideology is ennobled. The words of the Gospel: “Greater love has no one than this, that someone lay down his life for his friends,” meaning readiness for self-sacrifice not only for the sake of the prince and military comrades, but also for all those whom the Orthodox warrior is called to protect, henceforth become the basis of his behavior . With the strengthening and comprehensive development of Kievan Rus, the ideas of the Russian people about its and their own role in history are expanding. Warriors of Rus', “glorious in all four corners of the earth,” can already read “the first work of Russian literature - “The Word of Law and Grace”, that they live in God’s chosen country, which is destined for a great destiny - to serve the ideals of Christian love, goodness and justice and lead the fight against world Evil in the name of the triumph of God's truth on earth.
Armament
Offensive
Protective
If the early Slavs, according to the Greeks, did not have armor, then the spread of chain mail dates back to the 8th-9th centuries. They were made from rings made of iron wire, which reached 7-9 and 13-14 mm in diameter, and 1.5 - 2 mm in thickness. Half of the rings were welded, and the other half was riveted during weaving (1 to 4). In total, at least 20,000 of them were used for one piece of chain mail. Later there were chain mail with copper rings woven in for decoration. The ring size is reduced to 6-8 and 10-13 mm. There were also weavings where all the rings were riveted together. Old Russian chain mail, on average, was 60-70 cm in length, about 50 cm or more in width (at the waist), with short sleeves of about 25 cm and a split collar. At the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th century, chain mail made of flat rings appeared - their diameter is 13-16 mm with a wire width of 2-4 mm and a thickness of 0.6-0.8 mm. These rings were flattened using a stamp. This shape increased the coverage area with the same weight of armor. In the 13th century, a pan-European heavier armor took place, and knee-length chain mail appeared in Rus'. However, chain mail weaving was also used for other purposes - around the same time, chain mail stockings (nagavitsy) appeared. And most helmets were equipped with aventail. Chain mail in Rus' was very common and was used not only by the squad, but also by humble warriors.
In addition to chain mail, lamellar armor was used. Their appearance dates back to the 9th-10th centuries. Such armor was made from iron plates of a close to rectangular shape, with several holes along the edges. Through these holes, all the plates were connected with straps. On average, the length of each plate was 8-10 cm, and the width was 1.5-3.5 cm. More than 500 of them were needed for the armor. The lamellar had the appearance of a hip-length shirt, with a hem that widened downwards, sometimes with sleeves. According to archeology, in the 9th-13th centuries there was 1 lamellar for every 4 pieces of chain mail, while in the north (especially in Novgorod, Pskov, Minsk) plate armor was more common. And later they even supplant chain mail. There is also information about their export. Scale armor was also used, which were plates measuring 6 by 4-6 cm, attached at the top edge to a leather or fabric base. There were also brigantines. To protect hands, folding bracers have been used since the late 12th and early 13th centuries. And at the end of the 13th century, early mirrors appeared - round plaques worn over armor.
During the siege of Constantinople in 626 by the Slavic-Avar army, the siege equipment consisted of 12 copper-clad mobile towers, several rams, “turtles” and throwing machines covered with leather. Moreover, it was mainly Slavic detachments that manufactured and serviced the vehicles. Mention is made of arrow-throwing and stone-throwing machines and when
Any settlement has borders that must be protected from enemy invasions; this need has always existed for large Slavic settlements. During the period of Ancient Rus', conflicts tore the country apart; it was necessary to fight not only with external threats, but also with fellow tribesmen. Unity and agreement between the princes helped create a great state that became defensible. Old Russian warriors stood under one banner and showed the whole world their strength and courage.
Druzhina
The Slavs were a peace-loving people, so the ancient Russian warriors did not stand out too much from the background of ordinary peasants. They defended their home with spears, axes, knives and clubs. Military equipment and weapons appear gradually, and they are more focused on protecting their owner than on attack. In the 10th century, several Slavic tribes united around the Prince of Kyiv, who collected taxes and protected the territory under his control from the invasion of the steppes, Swedes, Byzantines, and Mongols. A squad is formed, 30% of which consists of professional military men (often mercenaries: Varangians, Pechenegs, Germans, Hungarians) and militias (voi). During this period, the weapons of the ancient Russian warrior consisted of a club, a spear, and a sword. Lightweight protection does not restrict movement and ensures mobility in battle and on the march. The main force was infantry, horses were used as pack animals and for delivering soldiers to battlefields. The cavalry is formed after unsuccessful clashes with the steppe people, who were excellent riders.
Protection
Old Russian wars wore shirts and ports, common for the population of Rus' in the 5th - 6th centuries, and put on bast shoes. During the Russian-Byzantine war, the enemy was amazed by the courage and bravery of the “Rus”, who fought without protective armor, hiding behind shields and using them at the same time as weapons. Later, the “kuyak” appeared, which was essentially a sleeveless shirt, it was trimmed with plates from horse hooves or pieces of leather. Later, metal plates began to be used to protect the body from slashing blows and enemy arrows.
Shield
The armor of the ancient Russian warrior was light, which ensured high maneuverability, but at the same time reduced the degree of protection. Large ones, human-sized, have been used by Slavic peoples since ancient times. They covered the warrior's head, so in the upper part they had a hole for the eyes. Since the 10th century, shields have been made in a round shape, they are covered with iron, covered with leather and decorated with various family symbols. According to the testimony of Byzantine historians, the Russians created a wall of shields that tightly closed with each other, and put spears forward. This tactic did not allow the advanced units of the enemy to break through to the rear of the Russian troops. After 100 years the form adapts to new kind troops - cavalry. The shields become almond-shaped and have two mounts designed to be held in battle and on the march. With this type of equipment, ancient Russian warriors went on campaigns and defended their own lands before the invention of firearms. Many traditions and legends are associated with shields. Some of them are still “winged” to this day. Fallen and wounded soldiers were brought home on shields; when fleeing, the retreating regiments threw them under the feet of the pursuers' horses. Prince Oleg hangs a shield on the gates of the defeated Constantinople.
Helmets
Until the 9th - 10th centuries, Old Russian warriors wore ordinary hats on their heads, which did not protect them from the chopping blows of the enemy. The first helmets found by archaeologists were made according to the Norman type, but they were not widely used in Rus'. The conical shape has become more practical and therefore widely used. In this case, the helmet was riveted from four metal plates; they were decorated with precious stones and feathers (for noble warriors or governors). This shape allowed the sword to slip without causing much harm to the person; a balaclava made of leather or felt softened the blow. The helmet was changed due to additional protective devices: aventail (chain mail mesh), nasnik (metal plate). The use of protection in the form of masks (faces) was rare in Rus'; most often these were captured helmets, which were widely used in European countries. The description of the ancient Russian warrior, preserved in the chronicles, suggests that they did not hide their faces, but could fetter the enemy with a menacing gaze. Helmets with a half mask were made for noble and wealthy warriors; they were characterized by decorative details that did not have a protective function.
Chain mail
The most famous part of the vestment of the ancient Russian warrior, according to archaeological excavations, appears in the 7th - 8th centuries. Chain mail is a shirt made of metal rings tightly connected to each other. At this time, it was quite difficult for craftsmen to make such protection; the work was delicate and took a long period of time. The metal was rolled into wire, from which rings were rolled and welded, fastened to each other according to a 1 to 4 pattern. At least 20 - 25 thousand rings were spent on creating one chain mail, the weight of which ranged from 6 to 16 kilograms. Copper links were woven into the fabric for decoration. In the 12th century, stamping technology was used, when woven rings were flattened, which provided a larger area of protection. During the same period, chain mail became longer, additional elements of armor appeared: nagovitsa (iron, wicker stockings), aventail (mesh to protect the neck), bracers (metal gloves). Quilted clothing was worn under the chain mail to soften the force of the blow. At the same time, they were used in Rus'. Manufacturing required a base (shirt) made of leather, onto which thin iron slats were tightly attached. Their length was 6 - 9 centimeters, width from 1 to 3. Lamellar armor gradually replaced chain mail and was even sold to other countries. In Rus', scale, lamellar and chain mail armor were often combined. Yushman, bakhterets were essentially chain mail, which were equipped with plates on the chest to increase their protective properties. At the beginning of the 14th century, a new type of armor appeared - mirrors. Large metal plates, polished to a shine, were usually worn over chain mail. On the sides and on the shoulders they were connected leather belts, often decorated with various kinds of symbols.
Weapon
The protective clothing of the ancient Russian warrior was not impenetrable armor, but was distinguished by its lightness, which ensured greater maneuverability of warriors and shooters in battle conditions. According to information obtained from historical sources of the Byzantines, the “Rusichi” were distinguished by enormous physical strength. In the 5th - 6th centuries, the weapons of our ancestors were quite primitive, used for close combat. To cause significant damage to the enemy, it had a lot of weight and was additionally equipped with damaging elements. The evolution of weapons took place against the backdrop of technological progress and changes in combat strategy. Throwing systems, siege engines, piercing and cutting iron tools were used for many centuries, and their design was constantly improved. Some innovations were adopted from other nations, but Russian inventors and gunsmiths have always been distinguished by the originality of their approach and the reliability of the manufactured systems.
Percussion
Weapons for close combat are known to all nations; at the dawn of the development of civilization, its main type was the club. This is a heavy club that is wrapped in iron at the end. Some options include metal spikes or nails. Most often in Russian chronicles, a flail is mentioned along with a club. Due to their ease of manufacture and effectiveness in combat, impact weapons were widely used. The sword and saber are partially replacing it, but militias and warriors continue to use it in battle. Based on chronicle sources and excavation data, historians have created a typical portrait of a man who was called an ancient Russian warrior. Photographs of reconstructions, as well as images of heroes that have survived to this day, necessarily contain some type of impact weapon, most often the legendary mace acts in this capacity.
Slashing, piercing
In the history of ancient Rus' great value has a sword. It is not only the main type of weapon, but also a symbol of princely power. The knives used were of several types; they were named according to the place where they were worn: boot knives, belt knives, side knives. They were used along with the sword and the ancient Russian warrior changed in the 10th century, the sword was replaced by a saber. The Russians appreciated its combat characteristics in battles with nomads, from whom they borrowed the uniform. Spears and spears are among the most ancient types of piercing weapons, which were successfully used by warriors as defensive and offensive weapons. When used in parallel, they evolved ambiguously. Rogatins are gradually being replaced by spears, which are being improved into sulitsa. Not only peasants (warriors and militias), but also the princely squad fought with axes. For mounted warriors, this type of weapon had a short handle, while infantrymen (warriors) used axes on long shafts. Berdysh (an ax with a wide blade) became a weapon in the 13th - 14th centuries. Later it was transformed into a halberd.
Strelkovoe
All means used daily in hunting and in everyday life were used by Russian soldiers as military weapons. Bows were made from animal horns and suitable types of wood (birch, juniper). Some of them were more than two meters long. To store arrows, they used a shoulder quiver, which was made of leather, sometimes decorated with brocade, precious and semi-precious stones. To make arrows, reeds, birch, reeds, and apple trees were used, with an iron tip attached to the splinter. In the 10th century, the design of the bow was quite complex, and the process of its manufacture was labor-intensive. Crossbows were a more effective type. Their disadvantage was their lower rate of fire, but the bolt (used as a projectile) caused more damage to the enemy, piercing armor when hit. It was difficult to pull the bowstring of a crossbow; even strong warriors rested their feet on the butt to do this. In the 12th century, to speed up and facilitate this process, they began to use a hook, which archers wore on their belts. Before the invention of firearms, bows were used by Russian troops.
Equipment
Foreigners who visited Russian cities of the 12th - 13th centuries were surprised at how equipped the soldiers were. Despite the apparent cumbersomeness of the armor (especially on heavy horsemen), the horsemen coped with several tasks quite easily. Sitting in the saddle, the warrior could hold the reins (drive the horse), shoot from a bow or crossbow, and prepare a heavy sword for close combat. The cavalry was a maneuverable striking force, so the equipment of the rider and horse had to be light but durable. The chest, croup and sides of the war horse were covered with special covers, which were made of fabric with iron plates sewn on. The equipment of the ancient Russian warrior was thought out to the smallest detail. Saddles made of wood allowed the archer to turn in the opposite direction and shoot at full speed ahead, while controlling the direction of the horse's movement. Unlike European warriors of that time, who were completely encased in armor, the light armor of the Russians was focused on fighting with nomads. Noble nobles, princes, and kings had combat and ceremonial weapons and armor, which were richly decorated and equipped with state symbols. Foreign ambassadors were received there and went on holidays.
The Slavs had their own “berserkers” - wolf-knights. And not a single berserker could compare with the Slavic knight, because "The Slavs are superior to the Germans both in body and spirit, fighting with bestial ferocity..."(Jordan, ancient historian, 6th century).Berserk is an effective and deliberately caused combat frenzy, as an extraordinary phenomenon of human fortitude, in ancient Germanic and ancient Scandinavian society a warrior who dedicated himself to the god Odin.
Among the Germanic peoples it turned into a kind of cult of the warrior-beast. Animal-like “transformations,” which are the highest form of development of combat rage, are known among all Germans. Late ancient historians report on the “Frankish fury”, on the “wolf warriors” of the Lombard people... At the same time, such unstoppable forces were released that even a closed, disciplined formation and the art of “correct combat” could not always resist them.
Even the Vikings themselves treated berserkers in their pure form with a feeling halfway between admiration, fearful respect and contempt. These are the true “dogs of war”; if they were able to be used, it was mainly in the position of “tamed animals”.
Berserkers were protected from throwing (and also from striking) weapons by a kind of “wisdom of madness.” Disinhibited consciousness enabled extreme responsiveness, sharpened peripheral vision, and likely enabled some extrasensory skills. The berserker saw (or even predicted) any blow and managed to parry it or bounce away.
Traditionally, berserkers formed the vanguard of the battle. They could not fight for long (the combat trance cannot last long), having broken the ranks of the enemies and laid the foundation for a common victory, they left the battlefield to ordinary warriors who completed the defeat of the enemy.
Not every berserker knew how to competently use internal energy. Sometimes they spent it too extensively - and then after the battle the warrior fell into a state of “berserker impotence” for a long time, which could not be explained only by physical fatigue.
The attacks of this powerlessness were so severe that the beast warrior could sometimes die after the battle, without even being wounded.
The Slavs had their own “berserkers” - wolf-knights. And not a single berserker could compare with the Slavic knight, because “The Slavs surpass the Germans both in body and spirit, fighting with bestial ferocity...” (Jordan, ancient historian, 6th century).
The knight is the living embodiment of Slavic anger. Already in the name you can hear a furious animal roar, and the word itself literally means “growl warrior.” In Rus', knights were special warriors who were able to successfully fight against an enemy many times superior in numbers, under any conditions, with all types of weapons, simultaneously with both hands. The knight outwardly looks like a complete madman, but internally he remains icy calm. The purpose of his life is to serve his family. Historical sources they say that one knight was able to disperse 10-20 warriors, and two knights put a hundred armed people to flight.
Three hundred knights of the city of Arkona - guards of the temple of Svetovit, terrified the entire non-Slavic coast of the Baltic. The temple of Radogost in the city of Retra was famous for the same warriors. There was even a whole Slavic tribe of knights - Lutichi(from the word “fierce”), all of whose warriors fought in wolf skins.
A warrior who wanted to find a patron spirit, usually a wolf or a bear, had to fight them alone and naked. This is the reason why the enemies were so afraid of the knight, and the one who went through this test himself became more dangerous than the beast he defeated.The knights fought naked or wearing only animal skins, without chain mail and shields (they simply got in their way!). They were always the first to rush into battle, with a battle cry “ Yar!» rushing forward. Roaring like those possessed, the knights destroyed their opponents, cutting a footman in half in a jump, and a horseman to the saddle. Having lost his weapon, having fallen under enemy arrows, the knight continued to tear apart enemies with his bare hands, without fear of death, without feeling either pain or fear, possessing an unbending will. And neither steel nor fire could do anything with them.
The Slavic princes recruited close warriors and comrades-in-arms from the knights, and often they themselves were knights-wolfhounds.
The rulers of Byzantium, China, the Caliphate - all had heard about the great Slavic warriors, and had in their troops elite guards units assembled exclusively from Slavs.
“Olbeg Ratiborich, take your bow, and lay a shot, and strike Itlar in the heart, and beat up his entire squad... “(Radziwill Chronicle: L.: Nauka, 1989, p. 91.) Eloquently.
The Nikon Chronicle speaks no less eloquently about Ragdai: “And this man went against three hundred soldiers” (!).
“Ragdai died as a daring warrior, as he ran into three hundred warriors” (Ragdai died as a daring warrior, who fought alone against 300 warriors).
What is this, hero worship? Where there! The chronicler is disgusted by the “ungodliness” of the bloody showdowns. Barbarian beauty is not his path at all. This is the real point.It is known from legends that Raghdai was like a wolf, and tales about the treasure sword originate from this character. Which he waved as if it had no weight.
“The filthy ones had nine hundred mines, and Rus' had ninety copies. Those who rise to the strength, the abominations of the pond, and ours are against them... And the wallpaper was dreamed of, and evil was coming... and the Polovtsians fled, and ours chased after them, they slashed..." (Radziwill Chronicle, p. 134. 26)..
Unfortunately, much of what our forefathers could and did is now lost, forgotten, shrouded in secrecy and dark rumors, and requires new discovery. Fortunately, the roots are not completely lost...
Few researchers draw parallels with Russian fairy tales about Ivan Tsarevich and the Gray Wolf; about Sivka the Burka, through whose ear the good fellow, having made his way, received new strength; about Van turning into a Bear, etc.
The legends of the skalds speak of berserkers as great creators of victories. In ancient Russian fairy tales - as about werewolves for the sake of victories on a larger scale. Everything worked out for the sorcerer warriors because they had the highest, inhuman capabilities. For they were the favorites of the Gods! Masters of extraordinary powers!
By awakening within oneself the accumulated reserves of evolution and animal nature and combining THIS with the trance capabilities of human consciousness, one can actually be a super-activated person - for the sake of success and victories in life.
Mastering trance skills, hypnoid qualities, special condition, into which the Berserker falls to induce a “gloomy” stupor on the enemy. The victorious maneuvers of the Berserker are so fast and high-quality that the enemy does not even have time to understand that he no longer exists...
It is impossible to defend against the powerful energy of Berserkers, nothing can stop them, because in an instant of the enemy’s reaction, the Berserker manages to get ahead of the enemy by several moves and deliver 3-4 victorious blows.
Berserk is not just a warrior’s teaching, but, unfortunately, it became such in official history; the Judeo-Christian Church stood in the way of this closed brotherhood, outlawing berserkers, after which these people were exterminated for a reward. Since that time, it has been generally accepted that these were ill-mannered people, full of anger and rage, who were impossible to control.
SECRET WEAPONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD: WEREWOLVES AGAINST ARMIES
“Having arranged an interrogation, Alexander began to find out where the captives were from. But the barbarians, having fallen into a dying frenzy, seemed to rejoice in the torment, as if someone else’s body was suffering from scourges.” Byzantine Chronicles Tales of bestial warriors are very typical of early sources describing the battles of antiquity.
Scandinavian berserkers and Slavic wolfhounds haunt serious historians and young fantasy lovers. They are credited with certain qualities, which can most easily be explained by battle magic and the magic of forest sorcerers. It’s easiest when there is no desire to look for answers to questions. But we, contrary to generally accepted patterns, will try to find a rational grain in one of the main secrets of ancient Europe. Home distinctive feature The elite lone warrior is his seemingly supernatural strength, which allows him to fight with many armed opponents. Inhuman speed and insensitivity to pain make the “werewolf” truly a weapon of mass destruction. But there's another one important point, characterizing a warrior-beast. As a rule, he moved ahead of the main detachment, which means he was the first to engage in battle with (!) the ranks of the enemy army that had not yet been broken.
From the point of view of common sense, this is not only stupid, but also impossible in principle. Unless they hid a barrel of gunpowder under the wolf's skin. But there was no gunpowder then, and the poor guy had to tear the enemy apart with his hands. To explain this phenomenon, they resort to both fly agarics and combat trance. Having read this crap, young romantics comb the forests in search of magic mushrooms and jump with tambourines, trying to find true power. Strength does not increase, and neither does intelligence.
Belov Alexander Konstantinovich (Selidor) reasonably suggests that berserkers, apparently, possessed certain mental properties, possibly having a genetic basis. This is quite plausible, given the fact that any trait, including those from the field of behavioral psychology, is, to one degree or another, based on genetics.
But then the question arises: “If there is a certain “berserker gene,” then why does it not manifest itself in the modern world?”
After all, if back in the 12th century a special decree was issued in Iceland prohibiting animal madness, then, apparently, we are dealing with a once quite widespread phenomenon. In general, genetics itself is only half the battle. The environment must be conducive to the development of the desired properties, otherwise the gene will lie dormant. That is, genes are turned on by the environment.
With the transition to a civilized society, circumstances could well have arisen in which the “fury genes” were out of work. Beast warriors could well be difficult to control, and therefore made life quite difficult for themselves and those around them. In the era of large military formations, smooth formations and coordinated interaction of many units, “werewolves” could find themselves without work.
And yet, what could be the material nature of this interesting phenomenon, if, of course, it really existed? Slavic wolfhounds and Scandinavian berserkers have always inspired terror in their opponents. Isn't this their true superiority? As Napoleon used to say: “Ten thousand vanquished men retreat before ten thousand victors simply because they have lost heart...” A demoralized enemy is unable to fight. Moreover, the key to defeat is to open the ranks of the enemy detachment. Isn't that why they were sent? terrifying warriors ahead of their own, so that strangers falter and break the ranks?
Many years of experience in abattoir combat shows that a lone individual has a chance of victory only in the case of deep mental superiority over the opposing enemy group. That is, the hunter must not only believe in his victory, but also passionately desire to fight the enemy, feeling his own strength. Only by feeling like a shark in a pool of swimmers can he be truly effective. And not only because in such a state he does not know fear, the consequence of which is muscle stiffness. The point is also that the attacking unit reacts sharply to the movements of the central fighter. The hunter's confident, powerful movements mentally suppress the attackers, and they simply do not risk exchanging blows.
More than once I have had the opportunity to observe how a hunter on a competition site chases a fighting troika, as if for a moment turning into an invulnerable werewolf. And I’ll note again: it’s all about the psychological processing of the fighter. One pleasant spring evening, a group of athletes encountered a numerically superior herd of Gopniks. The resulting fight ended in victory for the former. However, the “city street hyenas” were thirsty for revenge and tracked down the offenders, waiting until the enemy group was reduced to three people. By this time, the gopas themselves had received more reinforcements and launched an open attack right next to the city hall building. Stones and bottles were thrown at the athletes, and the herd rushed into battle. Suddenly they saw someone running towards them, dodging the cobblestones, who, according to all the laws of logic, should have sought shelter. The fittings glittered unkindly in his hands.
And then everything developed according to a completely illogical scenario. The first ranks of the attackers wavered and turned back, colliding with those who were pressing from behind. For a second, a pile of malas appeared, and then, obeying the herd instinct, the “posons” fled from the battlefield, holding up their pants. The battle was won without a single blow. Why? The one who came to meet them went to kill, stepping over his death. And such an intention is easily and quickly read by both animals and humans. Any dog breeder knows that animals perfectly sense a person’s fear or confidence. This mechanism is associated with the body’s hormonal response to the current situation. Thus, fear is caused by the action of adrenaline, and it is its smell that the predator senses, immediately recognizing the prey behind it. Rage is a product of norepinephrine, and feels just as good. People, oddly enough, react to all these aromas that enter the air along with sweat, no less acutely than four-legged pets.
However, this mechanism is not able to explain the combat effect of an overclocked psyche. Academician Bekhterev, who at the beginning of the last century studied on request, will come to our aid Soviet power crowd behavior. If I'm not mistaken, it was he who introduced the concept of “dominant”. The fact is that human behavior is based on foci of excitation in the brain. The dominant focus in its strength is called the dominant. Each neuron, receiving a signal from the outside, independently, based on many factors, decides whether to be excited or not. If the excited neurons gain a certain critical mass, a dominant appears. And human behavior obeys its program.
It is interesting that the spread of excitement in the crowd follows this same pattern. Each individual, based on a set of external stimuli, makes a decision whether to respond or not. The more people who fall under the power of the exciting force, the greater the percentage of probability that each new member of the crowd will fall under its influence. This is how the speaker’s dominance is transmitted to the protesters. Only, if in the case of brain neurons the communicative function was performed by neurotransmitters (say, dopamine), then in a situation with a group of people it will be verbal and non-verbal signals. Up to 70% of information during human contact is transmitted by the sphere of the unconscious. At this level, we easily and naturally unconsciously encode each other. We encode the psyche of the interlocutor for the appropriate reaction.
This reaction, for example, may be the activity of the amygdala and, as a result, fear. Posture, facial expressions, gestures, voice timbre, motor specificity itself - everything is subordinate to the emerging dominant. And this huge flow of information, absolutely not subject to falsification, falls on the subconscious of the people around, and they, of course, react.
Neurophysiologists operate with the concept of “strong nervous system" By this term they understand the ability of the nervous system to quickly and powerfully move into an excited state and maintain it for some time. True... after this there may be a period of nervous exhaustion. Doesn't this remind you of anything?..
The secret of the wolfhounds did not disappear into eternity with them. True, today there is no need to put on wolf skins. Mental suppression of the enemy, coupled with the advanced capabilities of the human body, continues to be studied in military laboratories. But in civil society the law of 1123 is still in effect, depriving the berserker of the right to life and freedom...
The armament of the Russian warrior consisted of a sword, saber, spear, sulitsa, bow, dagger-knife, various types striking weapons (axes, maces, flails, six-fingers, klevtsy), piercing and chopping halberd reeds; various protective weapons, which included, as a rule, a helmet, a shield, a breastplate-cuirass, and some elements of armor (bracers, leggings, shoulder pads). Sometimes the horses of rich warriors were also equipped with protective weapons. In this case, the muzzle, neck, chest (sometimes chest and croup together) and legs of the animal were protected.
Slavic swords IX-XI centuries were not much different from the swords of Western Europe. Nevertheless, modern scientists divide them into two dozen types, differing mainly in the shape of the crosspiece and handle. The blades of Slavic swords of the 9th-10th centuries are almost the same type - from 90 to 100 cm long, with a blade width at the handle of 5-7 cm, tapering towards the tip. As a rule, there was one fuller in the middle of the blade. Sometimes there were two or even three of these dols. The true purpose of the fuller is to increase the strength characteristics of the sword, primarily the working moment of inertia of the blade. The thickness of the blade in the depth of the fuller is 2.5-4 mm, outside the fuller - 5-8 mm. The weight of such a sword averaged one and a half to two kilograms. In the future, swords, like other weapons, change significantly. Maintaining continuity of development, at the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th centuries, swords become shorter (up to 86 cm), lighter (up to 1 kg) and thinner; their fuller, which occupied half the width of the blade in the 9th-10th centuries, occupies only a third in the 11th-12th centuries , so that in the 13th century it completely turned into a narrow groove. The hilt of the sword was often made of several layers of leather, rarely with any, usually wooden, filler. Sometimes the handle was wrapped with a rope, often with special impregnation.
The guard and the “apple” of the sword were often decorated with fine workmanship, precious materials and blackening. The blade of the sword was often covered with patterns. The handle was crowned with a so-called “apple” - a knob at the end. It not only decorated the sword and protected the hand from slipping from the handle, but sometimes acted as a balance. It was more convenient to fight with a sword in which the center of gravity was close to the handle, but the blow with the same given impulse of force was lighter.
Stamps were often applied to the fullers of ancient swords, often representing complex abbreviations of words; from the second half of the 13th century, the marks decreased in size, were applied not to the fuller, but to the edge of the blade, and subsequently blacksmiths applied marks in the form of symbols. This is, for example, the “Passaur top” applied to Dovmont’s sword. The study of forge marks of blades and armor constitutes a separate section of historical sphragistics.
In clashes with light and mobile nomads, a lighter weapon became a more advantageous weapon for cavalrymen. saber. The saber strike turns out to be sliding, and its shape determines the displacement of the weapon upon impact towards the handle, facilitating the release of the weapon. It seems that already in the 10th century, Russian blacksmiths, familiar with the products of Eastern and Byzantine craftsmen, forged sabers with a center of gravity shifted to the tip, which made it possible, with the same given impulse of force, to deliver a more powerful blow.
It should be noted that some blades of the 18th-20th centuries retain traces of reforging (more elongated, “twisted” metal grains are visible during microscopic analysis of metallographic sections), i.e. old blades, including swords, became “new” in shape, lighter and more convenient in the forges.
A spear was among the first tools of human labor. In Rus', the spear was one of the most common elements of weapons for both foot and horse warriors. The horsemen's spears were about 4-5 meters long, the infantrymen's spears were a little more than two meters long. A separate type of Russian spear was spear- a spear with a wide diamond-shaped or laurel-shaped tip up to 40 cm long (tip only), mounted on a shaft. With such a spear it was possible not only to stab, but also to chop and cut. In Europe, a similar type of spear had the name protazan.
In addition to the spear, a throwing spear received its own name in the sources - sulitsa. These spears were relatively short (probably 1-1.5 meters) with a narrow, light point. Some modern reenactors add a belt loop to the sulitsa shaft. The loop allows you to throw the hook further and more accurately.
Archaeological finds suggest that in Ancient Rus' there were also widespread pillums, a weapon that was in service with the Roman legionnaires - throwing spears with a long, up to 1 m, neck of the tip and a wooden handle. In addition to their damaging function, these spears, which pierced a simple shield and got stuck in it, became a significant hindrance for the owner of the shield and did not allow it to be used correctly. In addition, as the armor becomes stronger, another type of spear appears - peak. The pike was distinguished by a narrow, often triangular tip mounted on a light shaft. The pike replaced both the spear and the spear, first from horse and then from foot weapons. The pikes were in service with various troops before the outbreak of World War II.
Among several types of impact weapons, the most common is axe. The length of the battle ax blade was 9-15 cm, the width was 12-15 cm, the diameter of the hole for the handle was 2-3 cm, the weight of the battle ax was from 200 to 500 g.
Archaeologists have discovered mixed-purpose axes weighing up to 450 g, and purely battle axes - mints- 200-350 g. The length of the battle ax handle was 60-70 cm.
Russian warriors also used special throwing axes (European name Francisca), which had rounded shapes. Like swords, axes were often made of iron, with a narrow strip of carbon steel on the blade. Due to their low cost, versatility, ease of use and high pressure developed on a surface that resists impact, axes have actually become a Russian folk weapon.
A much rarer type of ax was ax- a larger and heavier, up to 3 kg, and sometimes more, battle axe.
Mace also a common percussion hand weapon, having a spherical or pear-shaped pommel (impact part), sometimes equipped with spikes, which was mounted on a wooden or metal handle or forged along with the handle. In the late Middle Ages, maces with sharp spikes were called "morgenstern" - morning star - one of the earliest examples of "black" humor. Some clubs had a pyramidal shape with four spikes. It is precisely these pommels that are found on the first Russian maces, made of iron (less often bronze). The mace, which had several sharp edges (4-12) in the warhead, was called in Rus' feathered. In the 11th-12th centuries, the standard weight of a Russian mace without a handle was 200-300 grams. In the 13th century, the mace was often transformed into a shestoper (pernach), when blades with sharp angles appeared in the striking part, allowing them to pierce more powerful armor. The handle of the mace reached 70 cm. A blow from such a mace, even delivered to a helmet or armor, can cause serious damage to health in the form of a concussion or, for example, injure a hand through a shield. In time immemorial, ceremonial maces appeared, and later marshal's batons, made using precious metals.
War Hammer, in fact, was the same mace, but by the 15th century it had developed into a real monster with a point, lead weighting and a long, up to one and a half meters, heavy handle. Such weapons, to the detriment of their fighting qualities, were terrifying. 
Flail was a striking part attached to the handle with a strong flexible connection.
Battle Flail in fact it was a flail with a long handle.
Klevets, in fact, was the same mace with a single spike, sometimes slightly curved towards the handle.
Murder weapon with a beautiful Italian name plummeya was a combat flail with several striking parts.
Berdysh It was a wide, long ax in the shape of a crescent (with a blade length from 10 to 50 cm), usually ending in a point on the back of the handle.
Halberd(from the Italian alabarda) - a piercing-cutting type weapon, structurally close to a reed, combining a long spear and a wide ax.
There are also dozens of other weapons that were certainly used by Russian soldiers. This and fighting pitchfork, And owls, and exotic guisarms.
The complexity and subtlety of its design amazes the medieval onion, sometimes assembled from dozens of parts. Note that the tension force of a combat bow reached 80 kg, while a modern men's sports bow has a tension force of only 35-40 kg.
Protective armor most often consisted of a helmet, cuirass-breastplate, handguards, leggings and some elements of less common defensive weapons. Helmets of the 9th-12th centuries were usually riveted from several (usually 4-5, less often 2-3) sector-shaped fragments, either with parts superimposed on each other, or with the use of overlapping plates. Helmets became visually monolithic (riveted together and polished in such a way that it looks like one piece of metal) only in the 13th century. Many helmets were complemented by aventail - a chain mail mesh covering the cheeks and neck. Sometimes, elements decorating the helmet were made from non-ferrous metals with gilding or silvering. One type of helmet becomes hemispherical, sits deeper on the head, covering the temple and ear, the other is very elongated and is also crowned with a high spire. The helmet is also being modernized into a shishak - a low, hemispherical helmet with a height less than the radius.
It seems that both the helmet and the armor of a Russian, and most likely a medieval warrior, were most often made of leather, made of specially treated leather. Only this can explain such a small number of finds of elements of protective armor by archaeologists (until 1985, the following were found throughout the USSR: 37 helmets, 112 chain mail, parts of 26 plate and scale armor, 23 fragments of a shield). Leather, with appropriate processing, was almost as good in strength characteristics as low-quality steel. Her weight was almost an order of magnitude less! The hardness of the surface layer of treated leather turns out to be higher than the hardness of “soft” steels, some types of brass and copper. The main disadvantage of leather armor was its low durability. Three or four thermal cycling cycles, sometimes just prolonged rain, were enough to reduce the strength of leather armor by 2-3 times. That is, after 4-5 “exits,” the leather armor, strictly speaking, became unusable and passed on to the youngest “by rank” or condition.
Those typesetting armor that we see in medieval drawings were primarily leather. Leather pieces were riveted into rings or tied with leather braid. A helmet was also assembled from four to six pieces of leather. One may object to this remark: why are the remains of ancient edged weapons so insignificant? But edged weapons were reforged - after all, steel in the Middle Ages was expensive, and most blacksmiths could reforge a sword into a saber, but only a few could make steel, even of very low quality.
Most medieval drawings present us with warriors in scaly armor made of leather. Thus, on the famous “Carpet from Bahia” there is not a single warrior in chain mail stockings; Angus McBride, the main artist of the Osprey series, “dressed” almost half of the warriors he drew in the book “The Normans” in such stockings. Out of one and a half hundred medieval drawings, I found only seven, where warriors were depicted presumably in chain mail stockings, the majority - in leather braids and boots. Of course, chain mail stockings, forged plate armor, and steel helmets with a visor or “mask” had their place. But only the highest nobility could order and dress them - kings and princes, wealthy knights and boyars. Even a militant, rich city dweller, who gladly and proudly joined the militia, could not always afford full metal armor - it was so expensive and slow to complete. Steel plate armor became more and more widespread, but more often as tournament armor, from the second quarter of the 14th century.
An amazing, actually composite construction in terms of material was medieval shield. Between the layers of thick, specially processed leather that made it up, there were placed strong thin woven shape-forming branches, and flat slates, and layers of horn, and the same flat, thin metal flash. Such a shield was extremely strong and light and, alas, completely short-lived. 
Artels of gunsmiths were respected and popular in the Middle Ages, but the lack of special literature that would consolidate the successes achieved for posterity made this delicate production unstable, when the final products, be it a shield or a sword, made by a crafty artisan, were many times inferior to the best samples. Hard-to-achieve, expensively purchased strength increasingly gave way to decorative decoration, which in Western Europe in part turned into a whole artificial science - heraldry.
Needless to say, the warriors dressed in metal armor made an exceptional impression on their contemporaries. Artists tried to capture the sparkle of graceful metal forms that amazed them on the elegant figures of the nobility. Armor, as an element of pictorial enhancement of the image, was used by almost all the great painters of the late Middle Ages: Durer, Raphael, Botticelli, Bruegel, Titian, Leonardo, and Velazquez. Surprisingly, nowhere, except for the muscular cuirass on the Medici tomb, did the great Michelangelo depict armor. Restrained by severe religious restrictions, Russian artists also depicted armor very carefully in icons and illustrations.
The elements of plate protective weapons, which once and forever found their place and went along with hoplites and centurions, knights and knights, cuirassiers and today's special forces, were and remain the helmet and cuirass. Although there is a “huge distance” between the “muscular” cuirass of the 4th century BC and today’s “composite” body armor.
Considering the weapons of a Russian warrior, we can assume a possible sequence of his actions in an offensive battle. On the side of the warrior hung a sword or saber in a leather or fabric sheath. A glancing blow from a saber with the center of gravity shifted to the tip, delivered forward and downward by a skillful hand, was more terrible than a blow from a sword.
At his belt, in a quiver made of birch bark covered with leather, the warrior kept up to two dozen arrows, and behind his back - a bow. The bow string was tightened immediately before use to avoid loss of the elastic properties of the bow. Onions required special careful preparation and care. They were often soaked in special brines and rubbed with compounds, the essence of which was kept secret.
The weapons of the Russian archer include a special bracer (protecting against a blow from a released bowstring), worn by a right-handed person on his left hand, as well as half-rings and ingenious mechanical devices that made it possible to tighten the bowstring.
Often Russian soldiers used crossbow, today better known as a crossbow.
Sometimes heavy, and sometimes light, long spears served at the very beginning of the battle. If in the first clash it was not possible to hit the enemy with an arrow from afar, the warrior took up the sulitsa - a short throwing spear, a melee weapon.
As the mounted warrior approached the enemy, one weapon could replace another: from afar he showered the enemy with arrows, when he got closer, he tried to hit him with a thrown arrow, then he used a spear and, finally, a saber or sword. Although, rather, specialization came first, when archers showered the enemy with arrows, spearmen “took spears,” and “swordsmen” worked tirelessly with a sword or saber.
The armament of Russian soldiers was not inferior to the best Western European and Asian models, and was distinguished by its versatility, reliability and the highest combat qualities.
Unfortunately, the constant modernization of the best models, carried out sometimes by not the best craftsmen, did not bring them to us, the distant descendants of the warriors who were once armed with them. On the other hand, the low preservation of the ancient book wealth of Rus' and the policies pursued by some influential layers of the Russian medieval state did not even bring to us any mention of the production of high-quality steels in Rus', the art of blacksmiths and shield makers, the design of throwing weapons...
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