- more than 450 thousand words. Of these, almost 700 are German, and more than 15 thousand are French. This is how the writer conveyed the linguistic atmosphere of Russian high society during the era of the Napoleonic Wars, when aristocrats practically did not use their native language in their living rooms and at court.

Foreign languages in pre-Petrine Russia were not widespread even among educated Russians. Soviet philologist Lev Yakubinsky wrote: “They looked at foreign language classes with suspicion, fearing that along with them the Catholic or Lutheran “heresy” would penetrate into the minds of Muscovites.. He himself was taught German from childhood, and as an adult the tsar mastered Dutch, English and French. After reforms at the beginning of the 18th century, foreigners poured into Russia, and noble children began to be sent to study in Europe. Appeared in Russian great amount borrowed words that denoted phenomena new to Russia: assembly, ammunition, globe, optics, varnish, fleet, ballast and others.

The future Empress Elizaveta Petrovna was taught French - not because it was fashionable (Gallomania reached Russia only 50 years later), but because Peter hoped to marry his daughter to a representative of the Bourbon dynasty. Otherwise, Elizabeth differed little from other titled ladies: it was believed that the ability to write and read was more than enough for them.

In the 1730s and 40s, works on Russian philology were published in Latin and German - this was customary in scientific circles. He wrote “Russian Grammar” in Russian only in 1755. The first detailed textbooks on the literary Russian language were published in the 1820s by writer and publicist Nikolai Grech.

Foreign brides of sovereigns learned the language of their new homeland in mandatory. Sophia Augusta Frederica of Anhalt-Zerbst, the future Empress Catherine II, showed great diligence in this matter. Describing her life as the bride of the heir to the throne, Peter Fedorovich, she recalled: “They have already given me three teachers: one, Simeon of Theodore, to instruct me in the Orthodox faith; another, Vasily Adadurov, for the Russian language, and Lange, the choreographer, for the dances. To make faster progress in the Russian language, I got out of bed at night and, while everyone was sleeping, memorized the notebooks that Adadurov left me.”.

Count Fyodor Golovkin wrote about another German-born woman, Elizaveta Alekseevna, wife of Alexander I: “She knows the language, religion, history and customs of Russia better than all Russian women.”. Wife Alexandra Feodorovna, on the contrary, was embarrassed to speak Russian because grammatical errors. Her teacher in the first years of her life in Russia was a poet. He discussed lofty subjects with his student and did not pay due attention to such prosaic topics as declension and conjugation.

However, French became the main language of living rooms at the beginning of the 19th century. Aristocrats knew Russian only at the everyday level or did not speak their native language at all. Even a provincial young lady, as Tatyana Larina is described by Pushkin, “...I didn’t know Russian well / I didn’t read our magazines / And I had difficulty expressing myself / In my native language”.

Boys in noble families were taught the Russian language purposefully, because they had to serve in the army and command commoner soldiers. But if English misses and French monsieurs were invited to teach European languages, children often learned Russian from servants. As a result, in the speech of the aristocrats, words borrowed from the courtyard people slipped in every now and then. "hope up" or "entot". This was not considered ignorance; society ridiculed mistakes in French much more strongly.

The family of Sergei Pushkin, the father of Alexander Pushkin, was French-speaking. In their house, French teachers changed, and the younger Pushkins spoke Russian only with their nanny Arina Rodionovna and their maternal grandmother, Maria Hannibal. Later teachers were assigned to native language- clerk Alexei Bogdanov and priest Alexander Belikov. Upon entering the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum in 1811, 12-year-old Pushkin discovered knowledge “in Russian - very good”. At the lyceum, children were taught in Russian - this was one of the main principles of the educational institution.

By the 1820s, a situation had developed where speaking Russian at court was almost indecent, especially in the presence of ladies. But the golden age of Russian literature began. In 1830, a costume ball was held at the Anichkov Palace, at which the maid of honor Ekaterina Tizenhausen read the poem “Cyclops,” which Pushkin wrote especially for the celebration. It was one of three that sounded that evening in Russian. The remaining 14 verses were read in French.

Emperor Nicholas I acted as a defender of the native language. Under him, all office work (except for diplomatic correspondence) began to be conducted again in Russian, and foreigners entering the Russian service from now on had to pass a language proficiency exam. Moreover, the emperor demanded that both men and women speak Russian at court.

He demanded that they address him in Russian and, in his presence, only Empress Maria Feodorovna, a Danish by nationality, spoke French in his presence, although she also knew Russian well.

However, foreign bonnes and governesses were still invited to the children of aristocrats. At the end of the 19th century, English became the language of the highest aristocracy. Academician Dmitry Likhachev wrote about the Anglophilia of that time: “It was considered particularly sophisticated to speak French with an English accent.”. English was the home language in the family of Nicholas II and Alexandra Feodorovna. Contemporaries noted the emperor's impeccable British pronunciation and the noticeable foreign accent with which he spoke Russian.

And yet, at the beginning of the 20th century, the situation of 100 years ago, when a noblewoman could not understand the speech of the common people at all, was already unthinkable. Literary Russian language, which evolved into XVIII-XIX centuries, turned out to be in demand in all spheres of life.

Preserving the language, caring for its further development and enrichment is a guarantee of the preservation and development of Russian culture.

The position of the Russian language in the 18th century. M.V. Lomonosov played a special role in strengthening the spread of the Russian language during this period.

The most important works of this family of Lomonosov were: “Russian Grammar” (1755 - 1757), “Discourse on the usefulness of church books in the Russian language” (1757) and “Letter on the rules of Russian poetry”, or “Discourse on our versification” (1739 .).

Lomonosov’s work “on the usefulness of church books in the Russian language” is mainly devoted to the question of the mutual relations of elements of Church Slavonic and Russian in the literary language, the well-known doctrine of “calms”. On the degree of influence on Russian literary language element of Church Slavonic, in Lomonosov’s opinion, results in one or another shade in the language, the so-called “syllable” or “calm”. Lomonosov outlines three such shades or “calms”: “high”, “medium” and “low”.

The division into three styles in the old rhetoric of the Dolomonosov period was focused on mastering the features of literary genres, on preventing violations of the tradition of using linguistic means in different genres. Some echo of this main purpose of the scheme was also preserved by Lomonosov. He points out that solemn odes, heroic poems, prosaic speeches about important matters should be written in a “high” style (he establishes the Russian language with an admixture of Slavic as the basis); that theatrical works, poetic friendly letters, eclogues, and elegies are written in the “middle” style (almost exclusively Slavic languages); and in a “low” style it is necessary to present comedies, entertaining epigrams, songs, prosaic friendly letters, and describe ordinary affairs.

That is, the essence of this teaching comes down to the affirmation of Church Slavonic elements and elements of living folk speech in the norms of the literary language.

Church Slavonic elements were extracted from sources that had a wide, widespread distribution and were therefore known and generally understood by everyone. Lomonosov used elements of the Russian colloquial language, the language of the upper crust of the society of that time, and, where necessary, raised it, combining it with elements of the Church Slavonic language.

Lomonosov declares that in literature there is and cannot be competition between the Slavic and Russian languages. The Slavic language gave a lot of valuable things to the Russian language, entered it organically, but still the only possible, acceptable language of literature is the Russian language, and not the Slavic. Therefore, in defining the three styles, we are talking only about the dose to which the Slavic language can be allowed in works of one kind or another. Even when defining high style, he says that in it one cannot use very dilapidated Slavic words: “byubyu”, “ryasny”, “ovogda”; also insists on the need to exclude swearing, rude words and expressions from literature, which is quite understandable.

The definition of the middle style, the most detailed and thorough, shows quite clearly that it was the middle style that Lomonosov considered the main, if not the only, type of Russian literary language that has a future.

Thus, Lomonosov created a strict and harmonious stylistic theory, which played an outstanding role in the formation and formation of a new system of the Russian national literary language.

Lomonosov's stylistic theory is organically connected with the most important cultural and historical needs of Russian society of the 18th century and has a deeply national character.

Let us consider Lomonosov’s most important work on “Russian Grammar”.

M.V. Lomonosov was the first to apply strict scientific techniques to the study of Russian grammar, for the first time definitely and accurately outlining the relationship of the Russian literary language to the Church Slavonic language. With this he marked the beginning of the transformation of the Russian literary language, which turned it sharply onto a new path and ensured its further development.

We have information about the beginning of Lomonosov’s work on Russian grammar since 1751; before that, Lomonosov collected a wealth of material to create the “Russian Grammar”. His “Russian Grammar” for the first time draws a sharp line between the Russian and Church Slavonic languages, between colloquial speech and “Slavic”; For the first time, the Church Slavonic language, the language of “church books” is contrasted with the Russian language, “civil”, the living dialect of the people, or, as Lomonosov puts it, “simple Russian language”, “common words”, “ordinary Russian”.

Recognizing the close mutual connection of both languages, Lomonosov establishes the complete independence of each of them and for the first time subjects the laws and forms of the Russian language itself to a special strictly scientific study. This is the greatest significance of Lomonosov's philological works.

In the preface to “Grammar” M.V. Lomonosov says that from the general philosophical positions on the question of language it follows a certain attitude to the Russian language: “Whoever goes deeper into it from time to time, using as a leader the general philosophical concept of the human word, he will see an immensely wide field or, better to say, a sea that barely has limits.”

Language must express the concepts of reality and, in particular, serve the correct scientific understanding of nature. The Russian language, which has consolidated the vast practical experience of the people, is capable of conveying the most complex scientific constructions, if these constructions correspond to reality.

“Russian Grammar” consists of six chapters or “instructions”. The first instruction, “On human speech in general,” provides the basics of phonetics of the Russian language.

Lomonosov is fully aware of the importance of so-called phonetics, that is, the need to start learning a language from living speech.

Techniques scientific research which Lomonosov follows in his philosophical studies of the Russian language are the techniques of a natural scientist. He bases his conclusions on a close, direct examination of the facts of the language themselves: he gives long lists of words and individual expressions of the Russian language, compares, contrasts groups of facts with each other, and only on the basis of such comparisons makes conclusions.

In general, in principle, Lomonosov’s linguistic techniques are the same as those that science still uses today. Studying the living Russian language, Lomonosov reduces the entire variety of Russian dialects and dialects to three groups or “dialects”:

1. Moscow
2. northern or Pomeranian (native for Lomonosov)
3. Ukrainian or Little Russian

Lomonosov gives a strong preference to Moscow, “not only for the importance of the capital’s dialect, but also for its excellent beauty.”

He even sang in verse the Moscow euphonious akanye:

Great Moscow is so tender in language,

What A to pronounce as O she orders... .

But it was not only the beauty of the Moscow dialect that Lomonosov fell in love with.

He understood that the “Moscow dialect” links together the features of the northern and southern dialects, which is happening in Moscow natural process merging Russian dialects into a single national language.

Lomonosov sees the beginning that should unite various Russian dialects in the Church Slavonic language. The language of church books should serve as the main means of cleansing the Russian literary language from the influx of foreign words, foreign terms and expressions alien to the Russian language, these “wild and strange words of absurdities coming to us from foreign languages.” The question of foreign words rightly seems especially important to Lomonosov in view of the terrible influx of foreign words into the Russian language during the period of Peter’s reforms. This causes special study Lomonosov: “On the benefits of church books in the Russian language.”

The second instruction in the “Russian Grammar” is entitled “On Russian Reading and Spelling” and contains the norms of Russian spelling, which remained in their main features in practice until the second half of the 19th century.

Spelling, first of all, should serve “to facilitate easy reading for everyone who knows Russian literacy.”

Spelling should serve spelling, adhere to “pure pronunciation,” indicate and consolidate it in spelling, but also not cover the “production of words,” that is, the morphological basis.

Concerned about the accessibility of spelling, Lomonosov pointed out the uselessness of the “hard sign” - Kommersant - saying “the dumb took its place, like a fifth wheel.” He pointed out that this sign, used when writing only a few words, cluttered the Russian alphabet.

Lomonosov was also dissatisfied with the “newly fictional” E, proving that the letter E still has several different pronunciations, and, therefore, in his opinion, can “serve both in the pronoun this and in the interjection of her,” and “for foreign pronunciations, inventing new letters is a very unprofitable thing, when for our different pronunciations we often get by with the same one.” This, in his opinion, is as funny as if the letter “Y” was introduced into some foreign language for better pronunciation of words borrowed from the Russian language. And Lomonosov stubbornly wrote: ether, electricity, poetry, etc.

The third instruction says “About the name.” It tells the rules of word formation and declension of nouns, adjectives and numerals.

The fourth instruction - “About the verb” contains the classification and rules for conjugating verbs. However, M.V. Lomonosov is often reproached for the fact that he did a very poor job of classifying verbs and verb tenses. It counts ten tenses of Russian verbs - eight from simple verbs and two from complex ones. Its species categories are not opposed to strictly temporal categories. Lomonosov in his “Grammar” correctly reflected that transitional state when the forms of time and the forms of species were not yet fully differentiated. In the initial chapters of “Grammar” it is said that Russian verbs have three tenses: present, past and future, and not ten. Consequently, Lomonosov does not confuse the categories of type and time.

The fifth instruction is devoted to the “functional parts of the word” - pronouns, participles, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and “interjections”.

And finally, the sixth instruction says “On composing parts of a word,” which sets out the basic rules of syntax.

A distinctive feature of “Russian Grammar” is its normative and stylistic nature. It associates the use of various grammatical forms with different styles of the Russian literary language. Lomonosov sought in his “Grammar” to give the basic rules and norms of the literary language and to clear it of the “bad examples” that were so often encountered in literary practice.

The great advantages of “Russian Grammar” are its complete clarity and accessibility of presentation.

"Russian Grammar" is a wonderful treatise mid-18th century century, which, undoubtedly, was in many ways ahead of the contemporary grammars of Western European languages and determined the development of Russian linguistics for almost a hundred years.

Wanting to raise the prestige of the Russian language and make lectures understandable to most students, M. V. Lomonosov argued that at the first Russian university Russian professors should teach in Russian. There were only two Russian professors: N.N. Popovsky and A.A. Barsov. N.N. Popovsky began to give lectures in Russian. The Slavic-Russian language was widely used in fiction, official business documents, and scientific treatises. In the 18th century, the Russian language was updated and enriched at the expense of Western European languages: Polish, French, Dutch, Italian, German. This was especially evident in the formation of the scientific language and its terminology: philosophical, scientific-political, legal, technical.

In 1771, the Free Russian Assembly was established in Moscow. Its members include professors, students, writers and poets. The main task of the society is to compile a dictionary of the Russian language. It sought to draw attention to the Russian language, promote its dissemination and enrichment.

By the end of the 18th century, the preferred use of the Russian language in oral and written speech became a sign of patriotism, respect for one’s nation, one’s culture.

In the 19th century, throughout the century, debates continued about what should be considered the basis of the Russian national language. N.M. Karamzin believed that the Russian language is too difficult to express thoughts and needs to be processed. The transformation of the language, according to Karamzinists, requires its liberation from the consequences of the Church Slavonic language. You should focus on modern European languages, especially French. It is necessary to make the Russian language lighter, to make it simple and understandable to a wide range of readers. On the other hand, the language needs to create new words, to expand the semantics of old words to designate concepts introduced into use, mainly by secular society. The Slavophiles, their inspirer A. S. Shishkov, considered Old Church Slavonic as the primitive language of all mankind and believed that it should become the basis of Russian literary speech. According to him, there are only stylistic differences between the Church Slavonic Russian languages.

The work of the great writers of the first half of the 19th century, Griboyedov and Krylov, is indicative, who proved what inexhaustible possibilities living folk speech has, how original, original, and rich the language of folklore is.

A. S. Pushkin is rightfully considered the creator of the modern Russian language. His contemporaries wrote about the reformist nature of Pushkin’s work: N.V. Gogol, V.G. Belinsky and I.S. Turgenev. A.S. Pushkin, in his poetic work and in relation to language, was guided by the principle of proportionality and conformity. The 19th century is the silver age of Russian literature and the Russian language. At this time, there was an unprecedented flowering of Russian literature. The work of Gogol, Lermontov, Goncharov, Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy, Saltykov-Shchedrin, Ostrovsky, Chekhov and others gains universal appreciation. Russian journalism reaches extraordinary heights: articles by Belinsky, Pisarev, Dobrolyubov, Chernyshevsky. The achievements of Russian scientists Dokuchaev, Mendeleev, Pirogov, Lobachevsky, Mozhaisky, Kovalevsky, Klyuchevsky and others are receiving worldwide recognition. The development of literature, journalism, and science contributes to the further formation and enrichment of the Russian national language. Scientific and journalistic literature increases the stock of international terminology. Fiction serves as a basis for replenishing Russian phraseology and the formation of new words. One of the most important features of a literary language is highest form national language is its normativity. Throughout the 19th century, the process of processing the national language was underway in order to create uniform grammatical, lexical, orthographic, and orthoepic norms. The richness and diversity of the vocabulary of the Russian language is reflected in dictionaries (historical, etymological, synonymous, foreign words) that appear in the 19th century. The largest event was the publication in 1863-1866. four-volume " Explanatory dictionary living Great Russian language" V.I. Dalia. The dictionary was highly appreciated by contemporaries. Its author in 1863

Received the Lomonosov Prize of the Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences and the title of honorary academician.

Many words that could be heard in the ordinary speech of a Russian person in the 19th century have now ceased to be used and have turned out to be completely forgotten. We will get acquainted with the 30 most interesting of these words below.

1. Vui
Vui or uy – maternal uncle, mother’s brother.

2. Deribate
To scratch - to tear with claws or nails, to itch or scratch. From this word comes the word tug.

3. Endovnik
An endova was a wide vessel with a sill or a toe, for pouring drinks, or a copper vessel in the form of cast iron, with a stigma. The word “endovnik” comes from it and means a person who is hungry for beer, home brew and drinking bouts.

4. Blow it out
In the old days we called working day, weekday, work time or period in days, working hours.

5. Khukhrya
Khukhrya means unkempt, disheveled, dirty. It comes from the word khukhrit - to dishevel, to shred.

6. Mimozyrya
In the old days, careless and slow people, gapers or onlookers were called mimozyrs.

7. Country
Strangers in Rus' were called strangers, wandering and simply strange people, wonderful and incomprehensible.

8. Klob
In the 19th century, instead of the familiar “club”, the word “klob” was used. The word was distorted in the process of borrowing.

9. Ryuma
Ryuma is a word of onomatopoeic origin. It means a crybaby, a sobbing person.

10. Babayka
The word “babayka” has two meanings. Firstly, there is a baroque rudder, an oar made from a whole log, for steering the raft. The second meaning is a chock or a dummy (similar to chocks for playing grandma).

11. Kayak
A canoe was a small river boat, about 15-25 cubits in length. A baydak was also called a large cup, a stand for brick tea.

12. Balagta
Balagta was the name given to a swamp or someone living in a swamp.

13. Bosoviki
Bosoviks were shoes without tops, worn on bare feet or slippers.

14. Vacation
Vacation was called a riotous time, and during plural Vacations meant holidays or the winter holidays of Christmas. Close in word and origin to the word vacancy.

15. Rowing
Rowing is not only a sport. It is also an embankment on a muddy road, or a small dam on a river. This word comes, in this case, from the method of erecting a structure that was raked.

16. Ten
Ten is a measure or count of writing paper, which is 24 sheets. The word “ten” comes from the Persian deste - pack.

17. Namale
Namale comes from the word little. It was used to mean “little, meager, insufficient.” It was also applied to people who were faint-hearted in any matter.

18. Yell
To yell means to plow or break up the ground for sowing. The root is preserved in the word “meliorator”.

19. Rosstani
Rosstani is a crossroads of two roads, a place where paths diverge, a place of parting. Also, the word rosstani is used to describe a situation where a choice must be made.

20. Kavyglaz
Kavyglaz in Rus' was called a brawler, a bully, an offender, an insolent person, an attacker.

21. Shandal
Chandal was the name of a heavy candlestick, the origin of the word is French, from chandelier - chandelier, candlestick.

22. Yushka
Yushka or yukha is the old name for a broth made from fish, meat, as well as any stew.

23. Fly
A fly was a short piece of fabric, a towel or a scarf.

24. Bozhedom
A cemetery watchman or a poor woman was called a godman. Over time, it became synonymous with a lonely person.

25. Golomya
In Rus', golomei was the name for the open sea far from the shores. The word was also used to mean “long ago.”

26. Zrelki
Ripe forest berries were called ripe.

27. Mizgir
Mizgir was the name of a spider, flycatcher or tarantula. A weak person, a brainiac or a crybaby was also called a misgir.

28. Tarasun
Tarasun – peeled kumyshka, i.e. re-distilled milk vodka.

29. Hut
The hut was the name given to frail wet weather, autumn slush, rubbish, rain and snow.

30. Screen
In the 19th century, a screen was called a chest, packing, box, box or casket.

Russian language and culture of speech: textbook for universities / L. A. Vvedenskaya, L. G. Pavlova, E. Yu. Kashaeva. –Rostov n/D: Phoenix, 2007. -539 p. (299 pp.)

The manual describes the basic properties of the modern Russian literary language, examines various aspects of speech culture (normative, communicative, ethical), talks about the organization of effective speech communication, outlines the basics of oratory, and characterizes the features of official business writing.

A significant place in the manual is occupied by the Workshop, which contains tasks for independent work. The Appendix provides accentological, spelling, vocabulary minimums, an annotated list of linguistic dictionaries and reference books, and materials on business writing.

Preface

An indispensable component of a person’s national identity is a sense of pride in their native language, which embodies the cultural and historical traditions of the people.

The Russian language is rich, great and powerful. This statement has become textbook and is accepted without objection.

The state of the modern Russian language has long been a source of concern. The decline in the level of speech culture of different layers of Russian society is so obvious and large-scale that there is a need to revive continuous language training at all levels of education.

Today, interest in the native Russian language is becoming a conscious necessity for millions of young people striving to achieve success in life with the help of professional knowledge and skills.

Language training of students is designed to solve not only teaching, but also educational problems.

Knowledge of language, its laws, the possibilities inherent in it, knowledge of rhetoric - the art of speaking.

All of the above determines the purpose of this textbook - to provide the necessary knowledge about the Russian language, its wealth, resources, structure, forms of implementation; introduce the basics of speech culture, various norms of the literary language, its variants; outline the basics of oratory, give an idea of speech as a tool for effective communication; develop business communication skills.

Chapter 1. From the history of the Russian language

1.1 Origin of the Russian language

The modern Russian language is related in origin to Common Slavic. On the basis of the common Slavic language, the East Slavic (Old Russian) language was formed, as well as the languages of the South Slavic group (Bulgarian, Serbian, etc.) and West Slavic (Polish, Slovak, Czech, etc.).

On the basis of the East Slavic single language of the Old Russian people, three independent languages arose: Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian, which with the formation of the nation took shape into national languages.

1.2 Russian national language of the 18th-19th centuries

Preserving the language, caring for its further development and enrichment is a guarantee of the preservation and development of Russian culture.

The position of the Russian language in the 18th century. M.V. Lomonosov played a special role in strengthening the spread of the Russian language during this period. He creates the first “Russian grammar” in the Russian language and a set of grammatical rules.

Wanting to raise the prestige of the Russian language and make lectures understandable to most students, M. V. Lomonosov argued that at the first Russian university Russian professors should teach in Russian. There were only two Russian professors: N.N. Popovsky and A.A. Barsov. N.N. Popovsky began to give lectures in Russian. The so-called Slavic-Russian language was widely used in fiction, official business documents, and scientific treatises. It was the Russian language, which absorbed the culture of the Old Church Slavonic language. Therefore, the primary task was to create a unified national Russian language.

The concentration of national elements is planned due to the selection of the most common features of the South Russian Northern Russian dialects.

In the 18th century, the Russian language was updated and enriched at the expense of Western European languages: Polish, French, Dutch, Italian, German. This was especially evident in the formation of the scientific language and its terminology: philosophical, scientific-political, legal, technical.

By the end of the 18th century, the preferred use of the Russian language in oral and written speech became a sign of patriotism, respect for one’s nation, one’s culture.

The Slavophiles, their inspirer A. S. Shishkov, considered Old Church Slavonic as the primitive language of all mankind and believed that it should become the basis of Russian literary speech. According to him, there are only stylistic differences between the Church Slavonic Russian languages.

The 19th century is the silver age of Russian literature and the Russian language. At this time, there was an unprecedented flowering of Russian literature. The work of Gogol, Lermontov, Goncharov, Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy, Saltykov-Shchedrin, Ostrovsky, Chekhov and others gains universal appreciation. Russian journalism reaches extraordinary heights: articles by Belinsky, Pisarev, Dobrolyubov, Chernyshevsky. The achievements of Russian scientists Dokuchaev Mendeleev, Pirogov, Lobachevsky, Mozhaisky, Kovalevsky, Klyuchevsky and others are receiving worldwide recognition. The development of literature, journalism, and science contributes to the further formation and enrichment of the Russian national language. Scientific and journalistic literature increases the stock of international terminology. Fiction serves as the basis for replenishing Russian phraseology and the formation of new words. One of the most important features of a literary language as the highest form of a national language is its normativity. Throughout the 19th century, the process of processing the national language was underway in order to create uniform grammatical, lexical, orthographic, and orthoepic norms. The richness and diversity of the vocabulary of the Russian language is reflected in dictionaries (historical, etymological, synonymous, foreign words) that appear in the 19th century. The largest event was the publication in 1863-1866. four-volume “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” by V.I. Dalia. The dictionary was highly appreciated by contemporaries. Its author in 1863 received the Lomonosov Prize of the Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences and the title of honorary academician.

Modern so-called nation-states are formed for the most part in the 19th century, due to the rapid development of terrestrial means of communication, primarily railway transport. Accordingly, the need arose to unify writing, as the most important means communications for managing large territories.

]]> When the German language was created. Hochdeutsch ]]> . The written form of standard German (Hochdeutsch) was created at the Second Orthographic Conference held in Berlin from July 17 to July 19, 1901. The desire to create a unified German language became especially clear after the creation of the German Empire in 1871. In 1876, on the initiative of the Prussian Minister of Culture Aldaberk Falk, the First Spelling Conference was convened, at which “negotiations were conducted towards greater agreement in spelling.” However, it was not possible to agree on a unified spelling of the Reich.

]]> Low German ]]> . Low German ( Plattdeutsch or Niederdeutsch) the language is now widespread only in some areas of Northern Germany and north-eastern Holland. It differs significantly from Hochdeutsch (the official language of Germany) and the High German dialects. This is essentially different languages. But Lower German still shows great resemblance with English and Dutch, which indicates their common origin.

TO today Low German has lost its meaning. In the Middle Ages, it dominated the Baltic Sea region, where it served as a language interethnic communication. Was an important literary language. It, along with Latin, was used to compose trade and legal documents. Theological books were written on it. Several ancient translations of the Bible into this language are known.

]]> When the Dutch language was created ]]> . Linguistic diversity reigned in the medieval Netherlands. In every city, or even village spoke their own language. The dialects can be divided into five large groups: Flemish, Brabandian, Dutch, Limburgish and Low Saxon. Attempts to standardize the language were made in the 16th century in Brabant. However, according to various reasons, they were unsuccessful. Managed to create a unified language in the 17th century. Subsequently, the Dutch and Belgian versions of standard Dutch themselves diverged significantly. This happened because Dutch did not have official status in Belgium until the 20th century. The language of administration there was French.

]]> When the Swedish language was created ]]> . Until recently in the Kingdom of Sweden there was no official language. Only in 2008 In 2010, parliament passed a law giving the Swedish language official status. True, by that time Swedish had been the main language in the kingdom for quite some time. The Swedish language began to assume a leading role in Sweden at the end of the 19th century. Previously, other languages dominated the country. So in the 18th century, French became the language of the upper classes. King Gustav III (1771-1792) was a true Francophile, and French was the main language spoken at his court. And in 1818, the French Marshal Bernadotte ascended the throne under the name Charles IV John. Previously, in the 17th century, Low German, which was the commercial language and lingua franca of the Hanseatic Trade League, was popular. Tongue catholic church was Latin. Scientists also wrote their works on it. In particular, Carl Linnaeus published his most famous works in Latin. Apparently, the Russian language also played an important role in medieval Sweden.

]]> When the Norwegian language was created ]]> . In the middle 19th century The young self-taught linguist Ivar Aasen began to create the Norwegian language itself. He traveled all over the country, compared local dialects, and studied the Icelandic language. As a result, in 1848 year he introduced a new written language - "landsmol"(“rural language”). Main feature This language resulted from the fact that, as far as possible, words from Danish and Low German were excluded from it. They are replaced by synonyms, supposedly inherited from “Old Norse”. IN 1885 In 2010, Landsmål was adopted as the official written language, along with the Norwegian version of Danish.

At the same time, Knud Knudsen proposed bringing the Norwegian-Danish spelling closer to the folk pronunciation. For example, replace the letters “c” and “q” with “f”. (Later the letters “r”, “t” and “k” were proposed to be replaced with “b”, “d” and “g”). Thus a new written language was born, with light hand Bjornstjerne Bjornson, named "riksmol". In 1892, spelling reforms were officially enshrined in law.

]]> When the English language was created ]]> . Basically, English language not much different from most other Western European languages. In the sense that it is the same remake, just like them. It should be said right away: until 1733 official language om of the English state was Latin. In the 17th and 18th centuries there was an intensive growth of vocabulary. Borrowed from many languages. Mostly from Latin. The creation of the English language was completed in 1755 year when Samuel Johnson published his Dictionary. The greatest contribution to the creation of the English language, introducing over three thousand new words into it, was made by W. Shakespeare.

]]> When the English language was created. Part 2 (Samuel Johnson's Dictionary) ]]>

]]> When the Polish language was created ]]> . There is no evidence of the existence of the Polish language before the 16th century. Apart from a couple of books with prayers of dubious origin and even more dubious date. This period is spoken of in academic circles only as “the period of the origins of the formation of the literary language.” Polish language suddenly appears in 16th century, exactly after the merger of Poland with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. And then his “golden age” begins. Moreover that Polish is indistinguishable from Russian the same time. It is believed that Latin was the official language in Poland, according to some sources, until the end of the so-called “Saxon period” - 1783, and, according to other sources, until 1795.

]]> The first attempt to create a Bulgarian language ]]> . “Since the mid-30s of the XIX century. Bulgarian society is seized by the idea of creating a single standardized literary language for the nation, developing a “common grammar for the whole of Bulgaria, “which everyone should follow in their writings.” This idea was first clearly formulated neophyte Rylsky in the “Philological Pre-Notification” to his “ Bulgarian grammar"(1835), containing a theoretical justification for the practical solutions proposed by the author to create norms for the literary language of modern times.

“The famous journey to the Transdanubian lands, undertaken in 1830-1831. Yu.I. Venelin on instructions Russian Academy, with the aim, in particular, of in-depth study Bulgarian language and the creation of its grammar, occurred at a time of serious shifts in the historical, cultural, literary and linguistic situation in Bulgaria, associated with the progressive development of social thought during the Bulgarian Renaissance.” ]]> E.I. Demina “On the first experience of codification of the Bulgarian literary language of the Renaissance. Concept by Yu.I. Venelina ]]> )

]]> The first Bulgarian awakeners ]]> . The first cry in the spirit of new European trends is heard from the monastery cell - a cry for national awakening and enlightenment, for the protection of the native language, native way of life. It was a call Hieromonk Paisius, Progumen of Hilandar. “You do not like Bulgarians, know your family and their language and everyone in their own language”, he convinced in his “Slavic-Bulgarian History,” which he completed in the Zograf Monastery in 1762. He intended it for those scolders, “who do not love their kind and language”, and also “You, who are jealous of the nobility and have heard for your family, let you know”.

]]> When the Serbian language was created ]]> . Still at the beginning 19th century The official language in Serbia was Church Slavonic. Moreover, Russian his option. The literary language in the 18th and first half of the 19th centuries was the so-called Slavic-Serbian language. Sometimes it is called Slovenian. Not to be confused with other Slovenian language, now the official language of the Republic of Slovenia.

]]> About Romanians and the Romanian language. ]]> In the 19th century, for the sake of prestige, the self-name was slightly adjusted to “Roman” (român). So the “serfs” turned into "Romans". At the same time, writing was translated into the Latin alphabet. And in the second half of the 19th century, after the declaration of independence, when Romania and Moldova formed a single state, a major language reform was carried out. All Slavic, German, Turkish and other words have been replaced Italian. It would be more accurate to say that the Romanians completely ruined it for themselves Italian language, which in Italy was just beginning to take center stage, with all its rules. As a result, Romanians can now understand Italians without a translator...

]]> When the Bashkir language was created ]]> . The modern literary Bashkir language arose after October revolution, based on the concentration of the Kuvakan and Yurmatin dialects. Before this, the Bashkirs used the Tatar literary language, in which Bashkir literature initially developed. The Bashkirs used the Arabic alphabet, from 1928-29 - Latin and from 1939 - Russian ... "

]]> When the Lithuanian language was created (Part 1) ]]> . For a long time Lithuanian was considered insufficiently prestigious for written use. There was no single language. Linguistic differences were significant between regions. There were Aushtait and Samogit dialects (or separate languages) and their numerous dialects. There were expectations that the Lithuanian language was about to die out in the territory of modern Lithuania. Many people used Polish and Belarusian languages in Everyday life. At the beginning of the 19th century, the use of the Lithuanian language was largely limited to Lithuanian rural areas.

]]> When the Lithuanian language was created (Part 2) ]]>

]]> When the Lithuanian language was created. Part 3 (beginning) ]]>

]]> When the Lithuanian language was created. Part 3 (continued) ]]>

]]> When the Lithuanian language was created. Part 3 (end) ]]>

]]> When the Turkish language was created ]]> , ]]> How the Turkish language was created ]]> . Before 1839 year in Ottoman Empire, predecessor of modern Turkey, there was no official language. The Sublime Porte was a multinational and multilingual state. A mixture of Turkish folk dialects, Arabic and Persian languages, the so-called Ottoman language was declared the state language in 1839, during the period of transit (political reforms). In 1851, the historian Ahmed Cevlet Pasha and the future Grand Vizier Mehmed Fuat Pasha published the first grammar of the Ottoman language.

Throughout the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries, passions boiled over the improvement of the language in the Ottoman Empire. (Let me remind you that from the mid-19th century the official language of the empire was the Ottoman language, which consisted of 70-80, and according to some estimates, 90 percent, borrowings from Arabic and Persian.) The disputes ended in republican Turkey with language reform 1928 year after which it was created, in fact, completely new Turkish language.

]]> When was the Greek language created? ]]> There is a state in Europe Greece. It appeared on the political map in the first half of the 19th century after breaking away from the Ottoman Empire. Greece was created with military assistance Great Britain and France with the connivance Russian Emperor Nicholas I.

The separatist-minded Greek intelligentsia, based, as happens in such cases, abroad, had long dreamed of their own independent country. The basis of the new state, according to their plan, was to be Orthodox faith and Greek. If everything seemed to be in order with faith, then the language had yet to be invented.

Believe it or not, but at the turn 18th-19th centuries The Greeks did not have their own single national language in which to write the Constitution and other laws and conduct office work. The Turkish language, which all Greeks understood, did not seem respectable to use for these purposes. Many common Greeks never knew Greek at all.

]]> How the Greek language was created (Part 1) ]]> . The dispute over what language should be in the independent Greek state (not yet created) first flared up at the end of the 18th century. At that time, complete chaos reigned in the language issue in Greece. There were many languages. They were divided into “folk colloquial”, which differed from region to region, and “archaic”, that is, old. Moreover, which of the old languages is “ancient Greek” and which is “Middle Greek” (Byzantine), and which language comes from which, the Greeks themselves did not know then. This will tell them later "father of Greek linguistics" Georgios Hatzidakis (1843-1941). All these languages existed at the same time. They were cultivated in different circles and schools, and were not “scientifically studied.”

A compromise solution was proposed by Adamantios Korais, who created new language, with the light hand of Nikephoros Theotokis, called “kafaverusa” (purified). Theotokis first mentioned the term in one of his works in 1796. The name became generally accepted in the mid-19th century. Modern linguists politically correctly call it "semi-artificial".

]]> How the Greek language was created (Part 2) ]]>

]]> How the Greek language was created (Part 3) ]]>

]]> How the Greek language was created. Part 4 (Adamantios Korais and Kafaverousa) ]]>

]]> How the Greek language was created. Part 5 (Hopes for the resurrection of ancient Greek) ]]>

]]> How the Greek language was created. Part 6 (Drift to the Archaic and the Olympic Games) ]]>

]]> When Hebrew was created. ]]> Itzhak Perlman Eliezer (real name Ben Yehuda) was born in Russian Empire, on the territory of the modern Vitebsk region of Belarus. Ben-Yehuda's parents dreamed that he would become a rabbi and therefore helped him get a good education. Even in his youth, Eliezer was imbued with the ideas of Zionism and in 1881 emigrated to Palestine. Here Ben-Yehuda came to the conclusion that only Hebrew can revive and return it to its “historical homeland”. Influenced by his ideals, he decided to develop a new language that could replace Yiddish and other regional dialects as the means of everyday communication among Jews.

Simultaneously with the implementation Hebrew, there was a campaign to discredit the Yiddish language. Yiddish was declared "jargon" and "not kosher". In 1913, one writer declared: “speaking Yiddish is even less kosher than eating pork.” The peak of the confrontation between Hebrew and Yiddish was 1913, when the so-called “war of languages” broke out.

]]> When the Hungarian language was created ]]> . At the end 18th century The Hungarian intelligentsia suddenly awakened. Georg Bessenei awakened her (Bessenyei György). In 1765, he found himself at the court of Empress Maria Theresa as part of a newly created detachment of Hungarian bodyguards. Here he became interested in reading masterpieces of French literature. He unwittingly drew a parallel between Western and Hungarian culture. And I experienced pain and shame. After all, the Hungarians did not have any national culture at that time. In fact, they did not have their own language. The aristocracy spoke and wrote in French and German languages. Middle class - in Latin. Latin was the official language of Hungary and the Holy Roman Empire, of which it was a part. Hungarian used rarely and mainly in villages.

]]> The East is a dark matter or when the Azerbaijani language was created ]]> . Can someone explain why 1956 years, the Azerbaijani language was not used in Azerbaijan in government institutions and was little known even to the Azerbaijanis themselves?

]]> The East is a dark matter or when the Hindi and Urdu languages were created ]]> . After the fall of the Mughal Empire in 1837 The year the British East India Campaign took over. Along with English, the British proclaimed the official language "Urdu". This is the same Persian language with a large number borrowings from numerous local languages and dialects. Separation of "Urdu" (Horde) and "Hindi"(Indian) began in 1867.

When the British government, to please the Hindu communities, in some northwestern provinces (now the states of Uttar Pradezh and Bihar) changed the writing of the Urdu language from Persian to the local Devanagari. Soon Hindus demanded that "Hindi" replace "Urdu" as the official language throughout the country.

In 1900, the British government issued an order formally equalizing the rights of “Hindi” and “Urdu”. After this, language disputes arose with new strength. The languages began to diverge linguistically. Until that moment, they were essentially one language, differing only in writing. Hindus began to diligently cleanse the “Hindi” from Persian words, replacing them with analogues from Sanskrit.

]]> A Brief History of Sanskrit ]]> . By 1773, the British finally captured India, removing all competitors from the road. India received the official status of a colony and the British prepared well for this event - ten years later, in 1783, the grand discovery of the ancient and mysterious Indian culture took place, Sanskrit was discovered and all the main literary works Hindus. All these pleasant discoveries were made by one person - the founder of modern philology, Sir William Jones... And off we go, after the discovery of unknown Sanskrit, an avalanche of amazing discoveries began, masses of ancient texts were discovered, passed on by Hindus from mouth to mouth for thousands of years and only among a select few - they were unknown to anyone else either in India or more, in Europe. Worked in an office Jones a huge team of leading philologists and writers in England under the personal leadership of the Governor-General, so they managed to translate a lot of amazing texts.

]]> About Sanskrit and its predecessor ]]> . What is now in use and is considered Sanskrit was actually “brought” to Europe by the so-called Indologists only in the 19th century. But how did this so-called Sanskrit “travel” throughout Europe? Who discovered it? Where? When? Finding answers to these questions in historical facts sheds light on this problem. For the first time February 2 1786 year, the founder and leader of the Orientalist Society in Calcutta announced his discovery, speaking of himself as a discoverer.

]]> About Sanskrit and its predecessor (continued) ]]> . But the interesting thing is that in the circles serving the East India Company, no one taught Sanskrit. At the same time, interest in this language was growing rapidly in Europe. Why is this so? The results of a psychosocial analysis of this problem would probably be explosive.

The 19th century produced many Sanskrit scholars. If only these people were interested in studying authentic Sanskrit. According to the documents, new scientists grew like mushrooms after rain. They were mostly Europeans. Mostly Germans, but the soil for their “growth” was in both London and Paris. Why? Yes, because in the museums there there was an unsorted dump of ancient books and manuscripts. These new scholars of Sanskrit studied the language in a very unique way...

]]> About Sanskrit and its predecessor (end) ]]> . And in 1823 another “William Jones” appeared. It was Friedrich Maximilian Muller, originally from Dessau...

]]> When was the French language created? ]]> Work on the invention of a single French started in the first half 17th century. IN 1635 year the French Academy was founded (not to be confused with the Paris Academy of Sciences). According to the official website of the academy www.academie-francaise.fr, from the first days of its existence it was entrusted with the mission, I quote: « create french language, give it rules, make it clean and understandable for everyone".

The French language was introduced in France by administrative measures, first under the influence of the Parisian royal family. After the French Revolution, severe oppression began vernacular languages. Their study was prohibited by law. Common French was seen as a key factor in the formation of a unified French nation. The ban, and even then formally, was lifted only in 1982 the year when it was allowed to teach indigenous languages in schools as electives.

]]> The language of the troubadours and Albigensians. ]]> In the Middle Ages, people living on the territory of modern France did not know French. The regions spoke their own languages. Thus, in the south, the language now called Occitan dominated. However, this is a rather late term. Introduced, apparently, in the 19th century by the literary group "Felibre" and its leader Frederick Mistralem who tried to revive the literary tradition of this language.

]]> When the Italian language was created ]]> . Actually, no such thing There was no Italy in the Middle Ages. There were many independent states on the Apennine Peninsula. The linguistic palette of the peninsula was very diverse. In fact, every city, and even village, had its own language... Most spoken languages originated from Latin. Latin itself was also widely used. It was used for office work in state offices and church services. In addition, some languages were of Germanic and Slavic origin. In some places the dialects of the Byzantine Empire were preserved.

]]> When the Spanish language was created ]]> . Spanish, also known as the Castilian language, was created during the reign of King Alfonso X of Castile and Leon. Initially, the sphere of influence of the Castilian language was limited to the Kingdom of Castile and Leonese, which occupied a small territory in the north of the Iberian Peninsula. Other Catholic kingdoms of the peninsula had their own languages: Galician-Portuguese, Aragonese, Catalan and others. The Basques spoke their ancient language. In most of the Iberian Peninsula, in the country of Al-Andalus, the Moors ruled. The Mozarabic language was dominant here.

]]> Mozarabic language ]]> . Mozarabic was a language spoken by Christians in Muslim lands in Spain during the Middle Ages. It was mainly used by urban residents who adhered to Christianity. Although at the same time they perceived Arab customs and culture. Peasants more often converted to Islam. It seems that the Arabs also used it.

It is curious that Spanish scientists began to call the language “Mozarabic”. in the 19th century. The word comes from the Arabic “mustarab”, which means Arabized. Another, Arabic, name of the language - al-ajamiya(stranger, unknown). The native speakers themselves called it... Latin. Now Mozarabic is classified as a Romance language. Meanwhile, he was an explosive mixture of Arabic and Latin languages. About 40% of his vocabulary consisted of Arabic words, and 60% of Latin ones. The writing, unlike most other Romance languages, was based on the Arabic alphabet. Jewish script was also occasionally used.

]]> When the Khmer language was created ]]> . The "ancient" Khmer language was created at the beginning 20th century Buddhist monk Chuon Nath (Chuon Nath).

]]> ]]>