Reforms carried out by Peter 1. Church reform of Peter. The significance of political changes

PETER'S REFORMS.
Financial reform. It was carried out throughout the reign of Peter. A new set of taxes, large sales of tar, salt, alcohol. The penny becomes the main one and is firmly strengthened.Results: increase in the treasury.
Reform government controlled. 1699 - 1721 Creation of the Near Chancellery (later the Governing Senate) Results: the public administration system has become more advanced.
Provincial reform. 1708 - 1715, 1719 - 1720 Russia is divided into 8 provinces: Moscow, Kyiv, Kazan, Ingria, Siberian, Azov, Smolensk, Arkhangelsk. Then the provinces will be divided into another 50 provinces. Result: there was a centralization of power.
Judicial reform. 1697, 1719, 1722 New judicial bodies were formed: the Senate, the Justice - Collegium, the Hofgerichts, the lower courts. The jury trial was cancelled. Results: permissiveness of the governors, the governors made changes to the testimony of the jury, which was not the best way out.
Military reform. from 1699 - until the death of Peter. Introduction conscription, creation of a fleet, tables of ranks, new military-industrial enterprises. Result: regular army, new regiments, divisions, squadrons were created.
Church reform. 1700 - 1701 1721 Restoration of the Monastic Order. In 1721 The Spiritual Regulations were adopted, which deprived the church of independence. Results: The church was completely subordinated to the state. Decline of the clergy.

North War.
War algorithm:
Cause: between the Swedish Empire and the coalition of northern European states for the possession of the Baltic lands. Initially, the Northern Alliance declared war on Sweden. The Northern Alliance included: Russia, Denmark (later dropped out), Saxony. Allied countries on the side of Russia: Hanover, Holland, Prussia. Allied countries on Sweden's side: Great Britain, the Ottoman Empire, Holstein. Commanders-in-Chief on the Russian side: Peter I, Sherementyev, Menshikov. Commanders-in-Chief on the Swedish side: Charles XII. Beginning of the war: 1700. Total number of Russian soldiers: 32 thousand. Total number of Swedish soldiers: 8 thousand. Lost weapons of the countries: Russia - 8 thousand people, 145 guns and all food supplies. Sweden - 3 thousand people. At the very beginning of the war, Russia was at a loss. And the first campaign against Sweden was a failure. Peter sought to reconquer the Russian lands previously taken by Sweden. And open access to the sea (respectively, opening a window to Europe). Another reason for Russia’s defeat is that most of the soldiers were hired and fled to the side of Sweden. There are only two regiments left - Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky. But the Russian army still managed to win. The young king of Sweden, after winning over Russia, went to war with Poland. Next came Battle of Poltava. For which RI was ready, Sweden was confused. Peter thoroughly prepared his troops for this battle. The Republic of Ingushetia finally defeated Sweden near the village of Lesnaya. A convoy from Riga with food for Sweden was destroyed. The lands and access to the sea were open. Victory remained with our troops.

All state activities of Peter I can be conditionally divided into two periods: 1695-1715 and 1715-1725.

The peculiarity of the first stage was haste and not always thought out, which was explained by the conduct of the Northern War. The reforms were aimed primarily at raising funds for the war, were carried out by force and often did not lead to the desired result. In addition to government reforms, at the first stage, extensive reforms were carried out with the aim of modernizing the way of life.

In the second period, the reforms were more lightning-fast and ill-conceived and aimed at the internal development of the state.

In general, Peter’s reforms were aimed at strengthening the Russian state and introducing the ruling stratum to Western European culture while simultaneously strengthening absolute monarchy. By the end of the reign of Peter the Great, a powerful Russian empire, headed by an emperor who had absolute power. During the reforms, the technical and economic lag of Russia from a number of other European states was overcome, access to the Baltic Sea was won, and transformations were carried out in all spheres of life of Russian society. At the same time, the popular forces were extremely exhausted, the bureaucratic apparatus grew, and the preconditions were created (Decree on Succession to the Throne) for a crisis of supreme power, which led to the era of “palace coups.”

Public Administration Reforms

At first, Peter I did not have a clear program of reforms in the field government. The emergence of a new government agency or a change in the administrative-territorial management of the country was dictated by the conduct of wars, which required significant financial resources and mobilization of the population. The system of power inherited by Peter I did not allow raising enough funds to reorganize and increase the army, build a fleet, build fortresses and St. Petersburg.

From the first years of Peter's reign, there was a tendency to reduce the role of the ineffective Boyar Duma in government. In 1699, under the king, the Near Chancellery, or Consilium (Council) of Ministers, consisting of 8 proxies who managed individual orders. This was the prototype of the future Governing Senate, formed on February 22, 1711. The last mention of the Boyar Duma dates back to 1704. A certain mode of work was established in the Consilium: each minister had special powers, reports and minutes of meetings appeared. In 1711, instead of the Boyar Duma and the Council that replaced it, the Senate was established. Peter formulated the main task of the Senate this way: “ Look at all state expenses, and set aside unnecessary, and especially wasteful ones. How can it be possible to collect money, since money is the artery of war.»

Created by Peter for the current administration of the state during the tsar’s absence (at that time the tsar was setting off on the Prut campaign), the Senate, consisting of 9 people, turned from a temporary to a permanent highest government institution, which was enshrined in the Decree of 1722. He controlled justice, was in charge of trade, fees and expenses of the state, monitored the orderly performance of military service by the nobles, and the functions of the Rank and Ambassadorial orders were transferred to him.

Decisions in the Senate were made collegially, on general meeting and were supported by the signatures of all members of the highest government body. If one of the 9 senators refused to sign the decision, the decision was considered invalid. Thus, Peter I delegated part of his powers to the Senate, but at the same time imposed personal responsibility on its members.

Simultaneously with the Senate, the position of fiscals appeared. The duty of the chief fiscal under the Senate and the fiscals in the provinces was to secretly supervise the activities of institutions: cases of violation of decrees and abuses were identified and reported to the Senate and the Tsar. Since 1715, the work of the Senate was supervised by the Auditor General, who in 1718 was renamed Chief Secretary. Since 1722, control over the Senate has been exercised by the Prosecutor General and Chief Prosecutor, to whom the prosecutors of all other institutions were subordinate. No decision of the Senate was valid without the consent and signature of the Prosecutor General. The Prosecutor General and his deputy Chief Prosecutor reported directly to the sovereign.

The Senate, as a government, could make decisions, but required an administrative apparatus to carry them out. In 1717-1721, a reform of the executive bodies of government was carried out, as a result of which the system of orders with their vague functions was replaced, according to the Swedish model, by 11 boards - the predecessors of future ministries. In contrast to orders, the functions and spheres of activity of each board were strictly demarcated, and relations within the board itself were built on the principle of collegiality of decisions. The following were introduced:

Collegium of foreign (foreign) affairs.
Military Collegium - recruitment, armament, equipment and training of the ground army.
Admiralty Collegium - naval affairs, fleet.
Kamor Collegium - collection of state revenues.
The State Board of Directors was in charge of state expenditures,
The Audit Board controls the collection and expenditure of government funds.
Commerce Board - issues of shipping, customs and foreign trade.
Berg College - mining and metallurgy.
Manufactory Collegium - light industry.
Justice Collegium - in charge of issues civil proceedings(the Serf Office operated under it: it registered various acts - bills of sale, the sale of estates, spiritual wills, debt obligations).
The Spiritual College - managed church affairs (later the Holy Governing Synod).

In 1721, the Patrimonial Collegium was formed - it was in charge of noble land ownership (land litigation, transactions for the purchase and sale of land and peasants, and the search for fugitives were considered).
In 1720, the Chief Magistrate was formed as a collegium to govern the city population.
In 1721, the Spiritual Collegium or Synod was established to consider the affairs of the church.
On February 28, 1720, the General Regulations introduced a uniform system of office work in the state apparatus for the entire country. According to the regulations, the board consisted of a president, 4-5 advisers and 4 assessors.
In addition, there were the Preobrazhensky Prikaz (political investigation), the Salt Office, the Copper Department, and the Land Survey Office.
The “first” collegiums were called the Military, Admiralty and Foreign Affairs.
There were two institutions with the rights of collegiums: the Synod and the Chief Magistrate.
The boards were subordinate to the Senate, and to them were the provincial, provincial and district administrations.

Regional reform

In 1708-1715, a regional reform was carried out with the aim of strengthening the vertical of power at the local level and better providing the army with supplies and recruits. In 1708, the country was divided into 8 provinces headed by governors vested with full judicial and administrative power: Moscow, Ingria (later St. Petersburg), Kiev, Smolensk, Azov, Kazan, Arkhangelsk and Siberian. The Moscow province provided more than a third of revenues to the treasury, followed by the Kazan province.

Governors were also in charge of the troops stationed on the territory of the province. In 1710 new ones appeared administrative units- shares uniting 5536 households. The first regional reform did not solve the set tasks, but only significantly increased the number of civil servants and the costs of their maintenance.

In 1719-1720, a second regional reform was carried out, eliminating shares. The provinces began to be divided into 50 provinces headed by governors, and the provinces into districts headed by zemstvo commissars appointed by the Chamber Board. Only military and judicial matters remained under the governor's jurisdiction.

As a result of public administration reforms, the establishment of an absolute monarchy, as well as the bureaucratic system on which the emperor relied, ended.

Control over the activities of civil servants

To monitor the implementation of local decisions and reduce endemic corruption, the position of fiscals was established in 1711, who were supposed to “secretly inspect, report and expose” all abuses of both high and low officials, pursue embezzlement, bribery, and accept denunciations from private individuals. . At the head of the fiscals was the chief fiscal, appointed by the king and subordinate to him. The chief fiscal was part of the Senate and maintained contact with subordinate fiscals through the fiscal desk of the Senate office. Denunciations were considered and reported monthly to the Senate by the Execution Chamber - a special judicial presence of four judges and two senators (existed in 1712-1719).

In 1719-1723 The fiscals were subordinate to the College of Justice, and with the establishment in January 1722, the positions of the Prosecutor General were supervised by him. Since 1723, the chief fiscal officer was the fiscal general, appointed by the sovereign, and his assistant was the chief fiscal, appointed by the Senate. In this regard, the fiscal service withdrew from the subordination of the Justice College and regained departmental independence. The vertical of fiscal control was brought to the city level.

Army and Navy reforms

Upon his accession to the kingdom, Peter received at his disposal a permanent Streltsy army, prone to anarchy and rebellion, unable to fight Western armies. The Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky regiments, which grew out of the childhood fun of the young tsar, became the first regiments of the new Russian army, built with the help of foreigners according to the European model. Reforming the army and creating a navy became necessary conditions for victory in the Northern War of 1700-1721.

In preparation for the war with Sweden, Peter ordered in 1699 to carry out a general recruitment and begin training soldiers according to the model established by the Preobrazhensky and Semyonovtsy. This first recruitment yielded 29 infantry regiments and two dragoons. In 1705, every 20 households had to put up one recruit, a single guy between 15 and 20 years old, for lifelong service. Subsequently, recruits began to be taken from a certain number of male souls among the peasants. Recruitment into the navy, as into the army, was carried out from recruits.

If at first among the officers there were mainly foreign specialists, then after the start of the work of the navigation, artillery, and engineering schools, the growth of the army was satisfied by Russian officers from the noble class. In 1715, the Maritime Academy was opened in St. Petersburg. In 1716, the Military Regulations were published, which strictly defined the service, rights and responsibilities of the military.

As a result of the transformations, a strong regular army and a powerful Navy, which Russia simply did not have before. By the end of Peter's reign, the number of regular ground forces reached 210 thousand (of which 2,600 were in the guard, 41,550 in cavalry, 75 thousand in infantry, 74 thousand in garrisons) and up to 110 thousand irregular troops. The fleet consisted of 48 battleships; galleys and other vessels 787; There were almost 30 thousand people on all ships.

Church reform

One of the transformations of Peter I was the reform of church administration that he carried out, aimed at eliminating the church jurisdiction autonomous from the state and subordinating the Russian hierarchy to the Emperor. In 1700, after the death of Patriarch Adrian, Peter I, instead of convening a council to elect a new patriarch, temporarily placed Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky of Ryazan at the head of the clergy, who received the new title of Guardian of the Patriarchal Throne or “Exarch”.

To manage the property of the patriarchal and bishop's houses, as well as monasteries, including the peasants belonging to them (approximately 795 thousand), the Monastic Order was restored, headed by I. A. Musin-Pushkin, who again began to be in charge of the trial of the monastic peasants and control income from church and monastic landholdings.

In 1701, a series of decrees were issued to reform the management of church and monastic estates and the organization of monastic life. The most important were the decrees of January 24 and 31, 1701.

In 1721, Peter approved the Spiritual Regulations, the drafting of which was entrusted to the Pskov bishop, the Tsar's close Little Russian Feofan Prokopovich. As a result, a radical reform of the church took place, eliminating the autonomy of the clergy and completely subordinating it to the state.

In Russia, the patriarchate was abolished and the Theological College was established, soon renamed the Holy Synod, which was recognized by the Eastern patriarchs as equal in honor to the patriarch. All members of the Synod were appointed by the Emperor and took an oath of allegiance to him upon taking office.

War time stimulated the removal of valuables from monastery storages. Peter did not go for the complete secularization of church and monastic properties, which was carried out much later, at the beginning of the reign of Catherine II.

Religious politics

The era of Peter was marked by a trend towards greater religious tolerance. Peter terminated the “12 Articles” adopted by Sophia, according to which Old Believers who refused to renounce the “schism” were subject to burning at the stake. The “schismatics” were allowed to profess their faith, subject to recognition of the existing public order and paying double taxes. Complete freedom of faith was granted to foreigners coming to Russia, and restrictions on communication between Orthodox Christians and Christians of other faiths were lifted (in particular, interfaith marriages were allowed).

Financial reform

The Azov campaigns, and then the Northern War of 1700-1721, required huge funds, the collection of which was aimed at collecting financial reforms.

At the first stage, it all came down to finding new sources of funds. To the traditional customs and tavern levies were added fees and benefits from the monopolization of the sale of certain goods (salt, alcohol, tar, bristles, etc.), indirect taxes (bath, fish, horse taxes, tax on oak coffins, etc.) , mandatory use of stamp paper, minting coins of lesser weight (damage).

In 1704, Peter carried out a monetary reform, as a result of which the main monetary unit became not money, but a penny. From now on it began to be equal not to ½ money, but to 2 money, and this word first appeared on coins. At the same time, the fiat ruble, which had been a conventional monetary unit since the 15th century, equated to 68 grams of pure silver and used as a standard in exchange transactions, was also abolished. The most important measure during the financial reform was the introduction of a poll tax instead of the previously existing household taxation. In 1710, a “household” census was carried out, which showed a decrease in the number of households. One of the reasons for this decrease was that, in order to reduce taxes, several households were surrounded by one fence and one gate was made (this was considered one yard during the census). Due to these shortcomings, it was decided to switch to the poll tax. In 1718-1724, a repeat census was carried out in parallel with the population audit (revision of the census), which began in 1722. According to this audit, there were 5,967,313 people in taxable status.

Based on the data obtained, the government divided the amount of money needed to maintain the army and navy by the population.

As a result, the size of the per capita tax was determined: the serfs of the landowners paid the state 74 kopecks, state peasants - 1 ruble 14 kopecks (since they did not pay quitrent), the urban population - 1 ruble 20 kopecks. Only men were subject to tax, regardless of age. The nobility, clergy, as well as soldiers and Cossacks were exempt from the poll tax. The soul was countable - between audits, the dead were not excluded from the tax lists, newborns were not included, as a result, the tax burden was distributed unevenly.

As a result of the tax reform, the size of the treasury was significantly increased by extending the tax burden not only to the peasantry, but also to their landowners. If in 1710 incomes extended to 3,134,000 rubles; then in 1725 there were 10,186,707 rubles. (according to foreign sources - up to 7,859,833 rubles).

Transformations in industry and trade

Having realized Russia's technical backwardness during the Grand Embassy, Peter could not ignore the problem of reforming Russian industry. One of the main problems was the lack of qualified craftsmen. The Tsar solved this problem by attracting foreigners to the Russian service on favorable terms and by sending Russian nobles to study in Western Europe. Manufacturers received great privileges: they were exempt from military service with their children and craftsmen, they were subject only to the court of the Manufacture Collegium, they were freed from taxes and internal duties, they could import the tools and materials they needed from abroad duty-free, their houses were freed from military billets.

The first silver smelter in Russia was built near Nerchinsk in Siberia in 1704. The following year he gave the first silver.

Significant measures have been taken for geological exploration of mineral resources in Russia. Previously, the Russian state was completely dependent on foreign countries for raw materials, primarily Sweden (iron was brought from there), but after the discovery of deposits of iron ore and other minerals in the Urals, the need for purchasing iron disappeared. In the Urals, in 1723, the largest ironworks in Russia was founded, from which the city of Yekaterinburg developed. Under Peter, Nevyansk, Kamensk-Uralsky, and Nizhny Tagil were founded. Weapons factories (cannon yards, arsenals) appeared in the Olonetsky region, Sestroretsk and Tula, gunpowder factories - in St. Petersburg and near Moscow, leather and textile industries developed - in Moscow, Yaroslavl, Kazan and on the Left Bank of Ukraine, which was determined by the need for the production of equipment and uniforms for Russian troops, silk spinning, paper production, cement production, a sugar factory and a trellis factory appeared.

In 1719, the “Berg Privilege” was issued, according to which everyone was given the right to search, smelt, cook and clean metals and minerals everywhere, subject to payment of a “mining tax” of 1/10 of the cost of production and 32 shares in favor of the owner of that land where ore deposits were found. For concealing ore and attempting to interfere with mining, the owner was threatened with confiscation of land, corporal punishment, and even the death penalty “depending on guilt.”

The main problem in Russian manufactories of that time was the shortage of labor. The problem was solved by violent measures: entire villages and villages were assigned to manufactories, whose peasants worked off their taxes to the state in manufactories (such peasants would be called assigned), criminals and beggars were sent to factories. In 1721, a decree followed, which allowed “merchant people” to buy villages, the peasants of which could be resettled in manufactories (such peasants would be called possessions).

Further development received trade. With the construction of St. Petersburg, the role of the country's main port passed from Arkhangelsk to the future capital. River canals were built.

In general, Peter's policy in trade can be characterized as a policy of protectionism, consisting of supporting domestic production and imposing increased duties on imported products (this was consistent with the idea of mercantilism). In 1724, a protective customs tariff was introduced - high duties on foreign goods, which could be produced or have already been produced by domestic enterprises.

Thus, under Peter, the foundation of Russian industry was laid, as a result of which in the middle of the 18th century Russia came out on top in the world in metal production. The number of factories and factories at the end of Peter's reign extended to 233.

Social politics

The main goal pursued by Peter I in social policy was the legal registration of class rights and obligations of each category of the population of Russia. As a result, a new structure of society emerged, in which the class character was more clearly formed. The rights of the nobility were expanded and the responsibilities of the nobility were defined, and, at the same time, the serfdom of the peasants was strengthened.

Nobility

Key milestones:

Decree on Education of 1706: boyar children must receive either primary school or home education.
Decree on estates of 1704: noble and boyar estates are not divided and are equated to each other.
Decree on sole inheritance of 1714: a landowner with sons could bequeath all his real estate to only one of them at his choice. The rest were obliged to serve. The decree marked the final merger of the noble estate and the boyar estate, thereby finally erasing the difference between the two classes of feudal lords.
“Table of Ranks” 1721 (1722): division of military, civil and court service into 14 ranks. Upon reaching the eighth grade, any official or military man could receive the status of hereditary nobility. Thus, a person’s career depended primarily not on his origin, but on his achievements in public service.
Decree on succession to the throne on February 5, 1722: due to the absence of an heir, Peter I decides to issue an order on succession to the throne, in which he reserves the right to appoint an heir for himself (coronation ceremony of Peter’s wife Ekaterina Alekseevna)

The place of the former boyars was taken by the “generals”, consisting of ranks of the first four classes of the “Table of Ranks”. Personal service mixed up representatives of the former family nobility with people raised by service.

Peter's legislative measures, without significantly expanding the class rights of the nobility, significantly changed its responsibilities. Military affairs, which in Moscow times was the duty of a narrow class of service people, is now becoming the duty of all segments of the population. The nobleman of Peter the Great's times still has the exclusive right of land ownership, but due to the decrees on single inheritance and audit, he is made responsible to the state for the tax service of his peasants. The nobility is obliged to study in preparation for service.

Peter destroyed the former isolation of the service class, opening access to the environment of the nobility to people of other classes through length of service through the Table of Ranks. On the other hand, with the law on single inheritance, he opened the way out of the nobility into merchants and clergy for those who wanted it. The nobility of Russia is becoming a military-bureaucratic class, whose rights are created and hereditarily determined by public service, and not by birth.

Peasantry

Peter's reforms changed the situation of the peasants. From different categories of peasants who were not in serfdom from the landowners or the church (black-growing peasants of the north, non-Russian nationalities, etc.), a new unified category of state peasants was formed - personally free, but paying rent to the state. The opinion that this measure “destroyed the remnants of the free peasantry” is incorrect, since the population groups that made up the state peasants were not considered free in the pre-Petrine period - they were attached to the land ( Cathedral Code 1649) and could be granted by the king to individuals and the church as serfs.

State peasants in the 18th century had the rights of personally free people (they could own property, act in court as one of the parties, elect representatives to class bodies, etc.), but were limited in movement and could be (until the beginning of the 19th century, when this category is finally approved as free people) transferred by the monarch to the category of serfs.

Legislative acts concerning the serf peasantry themselves were of a contradictory nature. Thus, the intervention of landowners in the marriage of serfs was limited (decree of 1724), it was forbidden to present serfs as defendants in court and to hold them on the right for the debts of the owner. The rule was also confirmed that the estates of landowners who had ruined their peasants should be transferred into the custody of the estates, and the peasants were given the opportunity to enroll as soldiers, which freed them from serfdom (by a decree of Emperor Elizabeth on July 2, 1742, the peasants were deprived of this opportunity).

At the same time, measures against runaway peasants were significantly tightened, large masses of palace peasants were distributed to private individuals, and landowners were allowed to recruit serfs. The imposition of a capitation tax on serfs (that is, personal servants without land) led to the merging of serfs with serfs. Church peasants were subordinated to the monastic order and removed from the authority of the monasteries.

Under Peter, a new category of dependent farmers was created - peasants assigned to manufactories. In the 18th century, these peasants were called possession farmers. A decree of 1721 allowed nobles and merchant manufacturers to buy peasants to manufactories to work for them. The peasants bought for the factory were not considered the property of its owners, but were attached to production, so that the owner of the factory could neither sell nor mortgage the peasants separately from the manufacture. Possession peasants received a fixed salary and performed a fixed amount of work.

An important measure taken by Peter for the peasantry was the decree of May 11, 1721, which introduced the Lithuanian scythe into the practice of grain harvesting, instead of the sickle traditionally used in Russia. To spread this innovation, samples of “Lithuanian women” were sent throughout the provinces, along with instructors from German and Latvian peasants. Since the scythe provided tenfold labor savings during harvesting, this innovation became widespread in a short time and became part of the usual peasant farm. Peter's other measures to develop agriculture included the distribution of new breeds of livestock among landowners - Dutch cows, merino sheep from Spain, and the creation of stud farms. On the southern outskirts of the country, measures were taken to plant vineyards and mulberry plantations.

Urban population

Social politics Peter the Great, which concerned the urban population, was aimed at ensuring the payment of the poll tax. For this purpose, the population was divided into two categories: regular (industrialists, merchants, craftsmen) and irregular citizens (all others). The difference between the urban regular citizen of the end of Peter's reign and the irregular one was that the regular citizen participated in city government by electing members of the magistrate, was enrolled in the guild and workshop, or bore a monetary obligation in the share that fell on him according to the social scheme.

In 1722, craft workshops based on Western European models appeared. The main purpose of their creation was to unite disparate craftsmen to produce products needed by the army. However, the guild structure did not take root in Rus'.

During the reign of Peter, the system of city management changed. The governors appointed by the king were replaced by elected City Magistrates, subordinate to the Chief Magistrate. These measures meant the emergence of city government.

Transformations in the sphere of culture

Peter I changed the beginning of the chronology from the so-called Byzantine era (“from the creation of Adam”) to “from the Nativity of Christ.” The year 7208 in the Byzantine era became 1700 AD. However, this reform did not affect the Julian calendar as such - only the year numbers changed.

After returning from the Great Embassy, Peter I waged a fight against external manifestations outdated way of life (the most famous is the ban on beards), but no less paid attention to the introduction of the nobility to education and secular Europeanized culture. Secular people began to appear educational establishments, the first Russian newspaper was founded, translations of many books into Russian appeared. Peter made success in service for the nobles dependent on education.

Under Peter the first book in Russian with Arabic numerals appeared in 1703. Before that, numbers were designated by letters with titles (wavy lines). In 1710, Peter approved a new alphabet with a simplified style of letters (the Church Slavonic font remained for printing church literature), two letters “xi” and “psi” were excluded. Peter created new printing houses, in which 1,312 book titles were printed between 1700 and 1725 (twice as many as in the entire previous history of Russian book printing). Thanks to the rise of printing, paper consumption increased from 4-8 thousand sheets at the end of the 17th century to 50 thousand sheets in 1719. There have been changes in the Russian language, which included 4.5 thousand new words borrowed from European languages.

In 1724, Peter approved the charter of the organized Academy of Sciences (opened in 1725 after his death).

Of particular importance was the construction of stone Petersburg, in which they took part foreign architects and which was carried out according to the plan developed by the king. He created a new urban environment with previously unfamiliar forms of life and pastime (theater, masquerades). The interior decoration of houses, lifestyle, food composition, etc. have changed.

By a special decree of the tsar in 1718, assemblies were introduced, representing a new form of communication between people in Russia. At the assemblies, the nobles danced and communicated freely, unlike previous feasts and feasts. Thus, noble women were able to join cultural leisure and public life for the first time.

The reforms carried out by Peter I affected not only politics, economics, but also art. Peter invited foreign artists to Russia and at the same time sent talented young people to study “art” abroad, mainly to Holland and Italy. In the second quarter of the 18th century. “Peter’s pensioners” began to return to Russia, bringing with them new artistic experience and acquired skills.

Gradually, a different system of values, worldview, and aesthetic ideas took shape in the ruling environment.

Education

Peter clearly recognized the need for enlightenment, and took a number of decisive measures to this end.

On January 14, 1700, a school of mathematical and navigational sciences was opened in Moscow. In 1701-1721, artillery, engineering and medical schools were opened in Moscow, an engineering school and a naval academy in St. Petersburg, mountain schools at Olonets and Ural factories. In 1705, the first gymnasium in Russia was opened. The digital schools created by the decree of 1714 were to serve the purposes of mass education. provincial cities, called " teach children of all ranks literacy, numbers and geometry" It was planned to create two such schools in each province, where education was to be free. Garrison schools were opened for soldiers' children, and a network of theological schools was created in 1721 to train priests.

According to the Hanoverian Weber, during the reign of Peter the Great, several thousand Russians were sent to study abroad.

Peter's decrees introduced compulsory education for nobles and clergy, but a similar measure for the urban population met fierce resistance and was cancelled. Peter's attempt to create an all-class primary school failed (the creation of a network of schools ceased after his death, most of the digital schools under his successors were repurposed as estate schools for training the clergy), but nevertheless, during his reign the foundations were laid for the spread of education in Russia.

The goals of the reforms of Peter I (1682-1725) were to maximize the power of the tsar, increase the military power of the country, territorial expansion of the state and access to the sea. The most prominent associates of Peter I are A. D. Menshikov, G. I. Golovkin, F. M. Apraksin, P. I. Yaguzhinsky.

Military reform. A regular army was created through conscription, new regulations were introduced, a fleet was built, and equipment was built in a Western manner.

Public administration reform. The Boyar Duma was replaced by the Senate (1711), orders - by collegiums. The “Table of Ranks” was introduced. The decree on succession to the throne allows the king to appoint anyone as heir. The capital was moved to St. Petersburg in 1712. In 1721 Peter accepted the imperial title.

Church reform. The patriarchate was abolished, the church began to be governed by the Holy Synod. The priests were transferred to government salaries.

Changes in the economy. A capitation tax was introduced. Up to 180 manufactories were created. State monopolies were introduced on various goods. Canals and roads are being built.

Social reforms. The Decree on Single Inheritance (1714) equated estates to estates and prohibited their splitting during inheritance. Passports are being introduced for peasants. Serfs and slaves are actually equated.

Reforms in the field of culture. Navigation, Engineering, Medical and other schools, the first public theater, the first Vedomosti newspaper, a museum (Kunstkamera), and the Academy of Sciences were created. Nobles are sent to study abroad. Western dress for nobles, beard shaving, smoking, and assemblies are introduced.

Results. Absolutism is finally formed. Russia's military power is growing. The antagonism between the top and bottom is intensifying. Serfdom begins to take on slave forms. The upper class merged into one noble class.

In 1698, the archers, dissatisfied with the worsening conditions of service, rebelled; in 1705-1706. There was an uprising in Astrakhan, on the Don and in the Volga region in 1707-1709. - uprising of K. A. Bulavin, in 1705-1711. - in Bashkiria.

The time of Peter the Great is the most important milestone in Russian history. There is an opinion that the reform program matured long before his reign, but if this is true, then Peter went much further than his predecessors. True, he began the reforms not when he formally became king (1682) and not when he displaced his sister, Queen Sophia, but much later. In 1698, returning from Europe, he began to introduce new rules: from now on everyone had to shave their beards or pay a tax. New clothes were introduced (according to the European model). Education was reformed - mathematics schools were opened (foreigners taught in them). In Russia, scientific books began to be printed in a new printing house. The army underwent reform; the Streletsky Regiment was disbanded, and the Streltsy were partly exiled to different cities, and partly they were transferred to soldiers. Local government bodies were created - the Town Hall in Moscow and Zemsky huts in other cities - then they were transformed into magistrates (they collected taxes and duties). The king decided important matters himself (received ambassadors, issued decrees). The orders continued to exist, as before, their unification continued (in 1711 they were replaced by collegiums). Peter tried to simplify and centralize power as much as possible. The church was reformed, its property went to the monastery order, the income went to the treasury. In 1700, the Northern War began for access to the Baltic. It went with varying degrees of success, it was possible to recapture the lands along the Neva River, the fortress of St. Petersburg, the future capital, was founded here, and another fortress, Krondstadt, was built to protect it in the north. The construction of a fleet in the Baltic was founded - at the mouth of the Neva, and the Admiralty Shipyard was founded. Production was reformed: artisans united into workshops and manufactories were created. Ore mining developed in the Urals. The nobility occupied a special position in society - it owned land and peasants; under Peter its composition changed; it included people from other classes. According to the new rank division - "Table of Ranks", a person who received the 8th rank became a nobleman (14 ranks in total), service was divided into military and civilian. The Boyar Duma was replaced by the Senate (judicial, administrative, managerial and judicial power). Since 1711, a fiscal service appeared (they exercised control over all administrations). A Synod was approved to manage church affairs. Peter divided the country into 8 provinces (power was exercised by the Governor) and 50 provinces. 10/22/1720 - at a meeting of the Senate, Peter I was officially named Emperor, and Russia - an empire. In the last years of his life, Peter changed the rule of inheritance of power; from now on, the ruler could himself appoint an heir. Peter died on January 28, 1725 from a long illness.

Peter I and his transformations in the first quarter of the 18th century.

Peter I ascended the throne in 1682 and began to rule independently in 1694. Historians, arguing about the significance of what Peter accomplished, are unanimous in the opinion that his reign was an era in Russian history. His activities cannot be explained only by his passion for European orders and hostility to the old Russian way of life. Of course, the tsar’s personal qualities were reflected in the transformations of the early 18th century: impulsiveness, cruelty, firmness, purposefulness, energy, openness, characteristic of his nature, are also characteristic of his activities. But the reforms had their own objective prerequisites, which by the end of the 17th century. were clearly determined.

Reforms were made possible by processes that gained momentum during the reign of Peter I’s father, Alexei Mikhailovich. In the socio-economic sphere: the beginning of the formation of a single Russian market, the success of foreign trade, the emergence of the first manufactories, elements of protectionism (protecting domestic production from foreign competition). In the sphere of government: the triumph of absolutist tendencies, the cessation of the activities of Zemsky Sobors, the improvement of the system of central authorities and management. In the military sphere: regiments of the “new system”, attempts to change the army recruitment system. In the field foreign policy: military and diplomatic activity in the Black Sea and Baltic directions. In the spiritual sphere: the secularization of culture, the strengthening of European influences, including as a result of Nikon’s church reforms. The noted changes, significant in themselves, nevertheless did not eliminate the main thing - Russia’s lag behind the Western European powers did not decrease. The intolerance of the situation began to be realized, and understanding of the need for reforms became increasingly broader. “We were getting ready to go on the road, but were waiting for someone, waiting for the leader, the leader appeared” (S. M. Solovyov).

The transformations covered all areas of public life - economics, social relations, system of power and management, military sphere, church, culture and life. Until the mid-1710s. they were carried out without a clear plan, under the pressure of circumstances, mainly military ones. Then the reforms became more holistic.

Radical changes have taken place in industry. The state in every possible way contributed to the growth of manufactories in metallurgy, shipbuilding, textiles, leather, rope, and glass production. The centers of the metallurgical industry were the Urals, Lipetsk, Karelia, shipbuilding - St. Petersburg and Voronezh, textile production - Moscow. For the first time in the history of the country, the state took on the role of an active and active participant economic processes. Large manufacturing enterprises were founded and maintained using treasury funds. Many of them were transferred to private owners on preferential terms. The problem of providing enterprises with labor, which was extremely acute under the conditions of the dominance of serfdom and the absence of a civilian labor market, was solved by the Petrine state by applying a recipe traditional for the serf economy. It assigned peasants or convicts, tramps, and beggars to manufactories and assigned them to them. The bizarre combination of the new (manufacturing production) with the old (serf labor) is a characteristic feature of Peter the Great's reforms as a whole. Another instrument of the state’s influence on economic development were measures consistent with the principles of mercantilism (the doctrine according to which the money imported into the country should be greater than the money exported from it): the establishment of high customs duties on goods produced in Russia, the promotion of exports, the provision of benefits owners of factories.

Peter I completely changed the system of public administration. The place of the Boyar Duma, which had not played a significant role since 1700, was taken in 1711 by the Governing Senate, which had legislative, administrative and judicial powers. Initially, the Senate consisted of nine people, and later the position of prosecutor general was established. In 1717-1718 orders were liquidated and collegiums were created (at first 10, then their number increased) - Foreign Affairs, Admiralty, Military, Chamber Collegium, Justice Collegium, Manufactory Collegium, etc. Their activities were determined by the General Regulations (1720). Unlike orders, collegiums were built on the principles of collegiality, delimitation of powers, and strict regulation of activities. Bureaucratic mechanisms were introduced into the public administration system (hierarchy, strict subordination, following instructions, reducing the personality of the manager to the level of the function he performs), which took precedence over the ancient principles of localism and gentility. With the adoption of the Table of Ranks (1722), which divided all civil servants - military, civilian and courtiers - into 14 classes and opened up brilliant prospects for advancement to the nobility for people from the lower social classes (an official who received the VIII class in civilian service became a hereditary nobleman), bureaucratic the car was completely destroyed. The introduction of nobles to public service was to be facilitated by the “Decree on Single Inheritance” (1714), according to which all lands were inherited by only one of the sons. Reforms of the central government were combined with the introduction of a new territorial division of the country into eight provinces, headed by governors subordinate to the monarch and possessing full powers in relation to the population entrusted to them. Later, the provincial division was supplemented by the division into 50 provinces headed by governors. The spirit and logic of the changes corresponded to the transformation of the church into an element of the state apparatus. In 1721, Peter created the Holy Synod, headed by a secular chief prosecutor, to manage church affairs.

The most important element of the transformation was the introduction of a recruiting system for the army. The recruit was sent for lifelong military service from a certain number of peasants and other tax-paying classes. In 1699-1725. 53 recruitments were carried out into the army and navy, which was created by Peter - in total more than 200 thousand people. The regular army was subject to uniform military regulations and instructions.

Maintaining an army, building factories, and an active foreign policy required huge amounts of money. Until 1724, more and more new taxes were introduced: on beards, smoke, baths, honey, stamp paper, etc. In 1724, after the census, the male population of the tax-paying classes was subject to a shower tax. Its size was determined simply: the amount of expenses for maintaining the army and navy was divided by the number of adult men and the required figure was derived.

The transformations are not limited to the above (on culture and life, see ticket No. 10, on foreign policy - ticket No. 11). Their main goals are clear: Peter sought to Europeanize Russia, overcome the lag, create a regular, effective state, and make the country a great power. These goals have been largely achieved. The proclamation of Russia as an empire (1721) can be considered a symbol of success. But behind the brilliant imperial facade, serious contradictions were hidden: reforms were carried out by force, relying on the punitive power of the state apparatus, at the expense of the cruelest exploitation of the population. Absolutism took hold, and its main support was the expanded bureaucratic apparatus. The lack of freedom of all classes has increased - the nobility, subject to the strict tutelage of the state, including. The cultural split of Russian society into a Europeanized elite and a mass of population alien to new values has become a reality. Violence was recognized as the main engine of the country's historical development.

The era of Ivan the Terrible: reforms of the elected council, oprichnina.

Palace coups, their socio-political essence and consequences.
Culture and life of the peoples of Russia in the 18th century (enlightenment and science, architecture, sculpture, painting, theater).

Social (class) reforms of Peter I - briefly

As a result of the social reforms of Peter I, the position of the three main Russian classes - nobles, peasants and urban residents - changed greatly.

The service class nobles , after the reforms of Peter I, they began to perform military service not with the local militias they themselves recruited, but in regular regiments. The nobles now (in theory) began their service from the same lower ranks as the common people. People from non-noble classes, along with nobles, could rise to the highest ranks. The procedure for obtaining service degrees has been determined since the time of the reforms of Peter I, no longer by birth and not by customs such as localism, but by the law published in 1722. Table of ranks" She established 14 ranks of army and civilian service.

To prepare for service, Peter I also obliged the nobles to undergo initial training in literacy, numbers and geometry. A nobleman who failed the established examination was deprived of the right to marry and receive an officer rank.

It should be noted that the landowner class, even after the reforms of Peter I, still had quite important service advantages over ordinary people. Nobles who entered military service, as a rule, were assigned not to ordinary army regiments, but to privileged guards regiments - Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky, stationed in St. Petersburg.

Major change in social status peasants was associated with the tax reform of Peter I. It was carried out in 1718 and replaced the previous household(from each peasant household) method of taxation per capita(from the heart). According to the results of the 1718 census, capitation tax.

This purely financial, at first glance, reform had, however, important social content. The new poll tax was ordered to be collected equally not only from peasants, but also from privately owned serfs who had not previously paid state taxes. This order of Peter I brought the social position of the peasantry closer to that of the powerless serfs. It predetermined the evolution of the view of serfs by the end of the 18th century not as sovereign tax people(as they were considered before), but how on complete master slaves.

Cities : the reforms of Peter I were aimed at organizing city government according to European models. In 1699, Peter I granted Russian cities the right of self-government through elected representatives burgomasters, which should have been town hall. The townspeople were now divided into “regular” and “irregular”, as well as into guilds and workshops according to their occupation. By the end of the reign of Peter I, the town halls were transformed into magistrates, which had more rights than town halls, but were elected in a less democratic way - only from “first-class” citizens. At the head of all magistrates was (from 1720) the capital's Chief Magistrate, who was considered a special collegium.

Peter I. Portrait by P. Delaroche, 1838

Military reform of Peter I - briefly

Administrative and government reforms of Peter I - briefly

Financial reforms of Peter I - briefly

Economic reforms of Peter I - briefly

Like most European figures of the second half of the 17th - early 18th centuries, Peter I followed the principles of mercantilism in economic policy. Applying them to life, he tried in every possible way to develop industry, built factories with state funds, encouraged such construction by private entrepreneurs through broad benefits, and assigned serfs to factories and manufactories. By the end of the reign of Peter I, there were already 233 factories in Russia.

In foreign trade, the mercantilist policy of Peter I led to strict protectionism (high duties were introduced on imported products to prevent them from competing with Russian products). Widely used government regulation economy. Peter I contributed to the construction of canals, roads and other means of communication, and the exploration of mineral resources. The development of the mineral wealth of the Urals gave a powerful impetus to the Russian economy.

Church reform of Peter I - briefly

As a result of the church reform of Peter I, the Russian church, previously quite independent, became completely dependent on the state. After the death of Patriarch Adrian (1700), the king ordered don't elect a new patriarch, and the Russian clergy then did not have one until the council of 1917. Instead was appointed king“Locum Tenens of the Patriarchal Throne” - Ukrainian Stefan Yavorsky.

This “uncertain” state of affairs persisted until the final reform of church government, developed with the active participation of Feofan Prokopovich, was carried out in 1721. According to this church reform of Peter I, the patriarchate was finally abolished and replaced by a “spiritual college” - Holy Synod. Its members were not elected by the clergy, but appointed by the tsar - the church had now legally become completely dependent on secular power.

In 1701, the church's land holdings were transferred to the management of the secular Monastery Prikaz. After the synodal reform of 1721 they were formally returned to the clergy, but since the latter was now completely subordinate to the state, this return did not have of great importance. Peter I also placed monasteries under strict state control.

Peter the Great is a controversial figure in world history. Assessing the reforms of Peter I briefly, some historians consider him the Great Reformer, who managed to turn the development of Russia along a different course. Others are almost the Antichrist, who went backwards against the previous orders and church foundations, destroying the usual way of life of the Russian people.

Coming to power and prerequisites

Pyotr Alekseevich Romanov (1672-1725) was the son of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich from his second marriage. He was proclaimed tsar together with his half-brother Ivan in 1682. Due to the young age of both, the country was actually ruled by their older sister Sophia.

In 1689, Sophia was removed from the throne. Power completely passed into the hands of Peter. Although formally Ivan continued to be considered a co-ruler, he was too weak and ill to participate in the affairs of the state.

The state was in a difficult position: the Moscow kingdom was in a state of another war with Ottoman Empire. In search of allies, Peter 1 went on a trip to Europe with the aim of concluding political alliances. Getting to know the culture and structure European countries, he saw firsthand how far behind Russia was in development compared to the Western powers. Peter 1 realized that the time had come for change. Returning to his homeland, he decisively began to “cut a window to Europe”.

The reforms of Peter the Great are shown in the table.

Foreign policy and military reform of Peter I

The young tsar planned to pursue a rather aggressive foreign policy. Peter intended to strengthen Russia's influence in the international arena, expand its borders and gain access to the ice-free seas - the Azov, Black and Caspian seas. To achieve such ambitious goals, it was necessary to build a combat-ready army.

Peter has been interested in military affairs since childhood. For the young prince, amusing (Petrine) regiments were created - special military formations for studying battle tactics and weapons handling techniques. It was then that Peter developed his views on what the Russian army should look like in the future. After coming to power, these views formed the basis of the military reform of Peter I.

Military reform had five main directions:

Thanks to these changes, the Russian army was able to become one of the strongest at that time. This was especially evident during the Northern War, where the troops of Peter 1 defeated the exemplary Swedish army.

Administrative-territorial changes

The domestic policy of Peter 1 was aimed at creating an absolute monarchy by strengthening the vertical of power based on local government, as well as increased police surveillance to prevent and quickly suppress riots.

Administrative reforms can be divided into 2 categories:

central management;
local government.

The reason for the transformation of central government bodies was Peter's desire to replace the old bureaucratic machine and build a new model of power.

The result of the reform was the creation of:

Consultation of Ministers (Senate)- an authority to govern the state during the absence of the king. Senators were appointed personally by Peter 1;
Synod- was created instead of the abolished position of patriarch to manage church affairs. The church became subordinate to the state;
Collegiums- government bodies, which were clearly divided into departments and replaced the outdated system of orders;
Secret Chancery- an organization whose activities consisted of persecuting opponents of the tsar’s policies.

The prerequisite for local government reforms was the war with Sweden and the need for a more efficient state apparatus.

According to the provincial (regional) reform, the country was divided into provinces, districts and provinces. This structure made it possible to more efficiently collect taxes from tax-paying classes in each region. A separate military unit was attached to the province, which the inhabitants of the province had to support, provide food and housing. In case of war, recruits from local residents joined the same military unit and could be instantly transferred to places of hostilities. Governors were appointed personally by Peter.

Urban reform was rather unsystematic and took place in several stages. The main goal was to collect as much taxes as possible from the population.

In 1699, the Burmist Chamber was created, which was popularly dubbed the Town Hall. The main functions of the Town Hall were collecting taxes and providing housing for the army. It was an elected body; elections were possible only if the city paid double taxes. Naturally, most of cities did not appreciate the reform.

After the end of the Northern War, the second stage of urban reform began. Cities were divided into categories (depending on the number of households), and citizens were divided into categories (taxable and non-taxable).

During administrative reforms, Peter also undertook judicial reform. The purpose of the reform was to separate the branches of government and create courts independent from the city or provincial administration. Peter himself became the supreme judge. He conducted trials of the most important state affairs. Hearings on political cases were handled by the Secret Chancellery. The Senate and the Collegium (with the exception of the Collegium of Foreign Affairs) also had judicial functions. Court and lower courts were created in the provinces.

Economic transformation

The socio-economic situation in Russia was unenviable. In conditions of an aggressive foreign policy and constant wars, the country needed a lot of resources and money. Peter's reformist mind persistently searched for ways to obtain new financial sources.

Tax reform was carried out. Its main feature was the introduction of a poll tax - funds were collected from each person, whereas previously the tax was collected from the yard. This made it possible to fill the budget, but increased social tension, and the number of peasant uprisings and riots increased.

To develop the backward Russian industry, Peter 1 actively used the help of foreign specialists and invited the best European engineers to his court. But there was a catastrophic shortage of workers. Therefore, with the growth of production and the opening of new factories, instead of a capitation payment, a serf could be assigned to a factory and undertake to work there for a certain amount of time.

Peter encouraged the construction of factories and provided merchants with a wide range of benefits. Enterprises were also built with public money, and later transferred to private hands. If the chosen owner of the factory could not cope with production and was at a loss, Peter took the enterprise back into state ownership, and the careless industrialist could be executed.

But clumsy Russian products could not adequately compete with advanced European ones. To support domestic production, Peter began to use a policy of protectionism - high duties were introduced on the import of foreign goods.

Peter actively promoted trade. He understood that for this it was necessary to develop a convenient transport system. New water canals were laid (Ivanovsky, Staroladozhsky, Tveretsky), and overland communication routes were built.

During the reign of Peter 1, a monetary reform was also carried out. The ruble began to be equal to 100 kopecks, or 200 money. Lighter ones were minted silver coins. For trade needs, round copper coins were introduced into use. For the needs of the state, 5 mints were established.

Innovations in the field of culture

Peter the Great sought to introduce Russia to European cultural traditions. He perceived the norms of appearance and behavior established in the era of the 18th century in Russian society extremely negatively, considering them barbaric and outdated.

The tsar began his transformative activities with the creation of the Council - an entertainment and debauchery event. The cathedral ridiculed the rituals carried out in the Catholic and Orthodox churches, parodied them, accompanied by libelous language and the use of alcohol. It was created with the aim of reducing the importance of the church and the influence of the clergy on the common people.

While traveling around Europe, Peter became addicted to this bad habit like smoking. In Russia, according to the decree of 1634, the use of tobacco and its sale were prohibited. According to this decree, smokers had to have their noses cut off. Naturally, the tsar became more loyal in this matter, lifted the previous ban, and as a result, soon their own tobacco plantations began to be created on Russian territory.

Under Peter 1, the state began to live according to the new, Julian calendar. Previously, the countdown started from the day of the creation of the world, and the New Year began on September 1. The decree was issued in December, so since then January has become the beginning not only of a new calendar, but also of the year.

Affected the reforms of Peter and appearance subjects. From his youth, he ridiculed baggy, long and uncomfortable court clothes. Therefore, with a new decree, he ordered that class nobles wear European-style clothing - German or French clothing was used as an example. People who did not follow the new fashion could simply be grabbed in the middle of the street and “cut off the excess” - reshaping their clothes in a new way.

Beards also fell out of favor with Peter. He himself did not wear a beard, and did not accept all the talk that it was a symbol of the honor and dignity of the Russian person. All boyars, merchants and military men were required by law to cut their beards. For some disobedient ones, Peter cut them down personally. The clergy and village residents were allowed to keep beards, but upon entering the city, bearded men had to pay a tax for it.

A public theater was created to ridicule Russian traditions and customs, as well as to promote Western culture. Admission was free, but the theater did not gain success with the public and did not last long. Therefore, Peter issued a new decree on entertainment for the nobility - Assemblies. Thus, the king wanted to introduce his subjects to the life of the average European.

Not only nobles, but also their wives had to attend the Assemblies. Unbridled fun was expected - conversations, dancing, playing cards and chess. Smoking and drinking alcoholic beverages were encouraged. Among the nobility, the Assemblies caused negativity and were considered indecent - due to the participation of women in them, and having fun under duress was not a pleasure.