PSYCHOLOGY OF COMMUNICATION 10.1
Communication as the implementation of public and interpersonal relationships. The importance of communication for the development of the individual and society
Many sociologists and psychologists determine the degree of significance the bridge of communication in the system of interpersonal relationships in different ways nomu, taking into account the specifics. Some prefer to consider communication as the basis of social relations, others - as the consequences of relations. There is an opinion that communication is a reflection of social relations in the minds of people and society itself. Communication can be represented as a system invisible connecting threads crossing all spheres of action humanity, it contributes to the realization of impersonality constant, constant and variable relationships.
The process of communication depends on the conscious and unconscious of the individual's instincts. If conscious communication is expressed in specific and pre-planned acts, then demon consciousness happens naturally. Psychologists tend to consider communication as a combination of social and psi chological instincts. For social psychologists it is common education is a fundamental component of individual development. Participate The rules of communication often unconsciously determine its place in between personal relationships.
In the process of communication, a person takes upon himself the fulfillment of what interpersonal role is possible in the system of group communications Zey. This role depends on the influence of his individual psycho logical features. If a person has strong psychological qualities, then its role in interpersonal relationships will correspond to the concept of “leader”, and vice versa - psychologically weak person becomes the scapegoat. The expression of personal qualities in the process of role communication necessarily evokes responses reactions of other participants.
Interpersonal relationships are expressed through emo tions. Domestic social psychologists distinguish three types
emotional manifestations of an individual: affects, emotions and feelings. These manifestations are multifaceted and vary in the strength of expression, which depends on the situation. Feelings are usually divided into two groups. First group - conjunctive feelings, that bring people together, unite their goals and desires. Second group - disjunctive feelings having destructive power and negatively affecting relationships.
Social relations are made up of interpersonal relationships. If interpersonal relationships are built on mutual trust and attraction, then social relationships are based on the unity of professional and social goals, without Depends on feelings and personal opinions.
Modern life forces us to look for new methods of assessing communication. The significance of the research carried out for this purpose is great, since the analysis of the connection between social and interpersonal relationships makes it possible to understand the essence of a person, his guidelines in interaction with the outside world, as well as the same state of his inner world. Unlike domestic Western researchers prefer their colleagues to the concept "communication" term "communication". However, the difference in the name does not mean a difference in essence, therefore speech and communication are identical.
Structure of communication. Communicative communication component
Researchers have identified many varieties of pods communication tours. A fairly common structure includes communicative, interactive and perceptual parts. The communicative part of the communication structure involves a simple exchange of information. Interactive part in general niya is based on the interaction of individuals. Perceptual part is expressed in the perception and knowledge of each other as individuals ladies in order to maintain the interactive part of communication.
The communicative part of communication is a mutual personal exchange of coded information between individuals and I look forward to its further use, which is only possible in case both participants recognize the encoding system information. Obstacles encountered during encoding and de-
coding, often have a social or psychological new The information that communicators operate on can be may be different in nature and essence: request, order, desire, message, hint.
The simplest communication models are verbal And untrue ballroom Verbal communication uses speech as encoding. Nonverbal - four groups of means in general knowledge: paralinguistic and extralinguistic, optical-kinetic, as well as proxemics and visual contact.
Paralinguistic and extralinguistic means communication are various near-speech additions ki, with the help of which a person can convey semantic coloring of your speech (pauses, coughing, drawling, etc.). Optical-kinetic communication is expressed by gestures and facial expressions. Proxemics organizes communication in space and time. Visual communication involves visual perception acceptance of each other by those communicating.
G. D. Lasswell proposed a model of the communication process sa, consisting of five questions.
1. Who's speaking?
2. What does it report?
3. To whom?
4. On what channel?
5. With what effect?
The first question involves analyzing the management of the community catative process, the second is the analysis of the content of the community ny. The essence of the third question is to analyze the audience to which the messages are addressed, the fourth question is aimed at analyzing the means of communication, and the fifth question allows you to analyze the result of communication. This model is demon Strategies the formation of the communication process.
The structure of communication includes the concept of “communication distance”. ! The distance between communicating can be public, official social-business, interpersonal and intimate. Each of them determines the distance that will be comfortable for communication. Public distance (more than 3.7 m) allows you to speak in front of large audiences. Official business or social distance (from 1.2 to 3.7 m) is suitable for communication between strangers or superficially familiar people.
Interpersonal distance (from 0.5 to 1.2 m) suggests other female, friendly communication. Intimate distance (from 0 to 0.5 m) is intended for communication between loved ones and relatives.
Interactive part of communication implies communication action in the field professional activity and maybe to operational and competitive. Cooperative communication subdra implies joint coordination of actions. Any joint This activity is based on voluntary cooperation of participants. Competition is the opposite of cooperation and is a form of conflict.
Perceptual part of communication based on understanding and mutual mutual perception of each other. Perception is the knower nal process during which analysis and comprehension take place sharing information about the environment received through the senses this world..
Communicative component of communication is considered a total the number of skills, knowledge, skills that begin with age ut to regress. Communication in any field of activity under implies not only the exchange of information, but also parallel training and experience"" Communication components develop the ability to perceive another person as an equal communication partner, the ability to instill trust, to form joint thinking, as well as to anticipate the emergence of conflict situations. Communication components also involve constructive criticism.
At the same time, any communication is associated with the emergence of communication barriers that prevent interaction between dividends Barriers to interaction include motivational nal, ethical barriers and communication styles barrier. In addition, barriers of perception and understanding are identified: aesthetic, social social situation, negative emotions, health status rovya, psychological protection, installation, double, gentle desire to communicate. Human communication is so multifaceted that it is quite difficult to define clear boundaries of barriers.
Modern life contributes to an increase in the number of communication barriers. To overcome them you should listen to yourself, cont. role your emotions and behavior, more often “put yourself on the line” place the partner and consider the situation from an objective point of view ki vision.
The phenomenon of causal attribution. The phenomenon of interpersonal attraction
The theory of causal attribution about the interpretation of causality in the process of social perception defines of individual behavior as a result of psychic projection. A certain image of a person is superimposed on his own, as a result of which this image is perceived as authentic ny. The main element of causal attribution is considered to be the totality of a person’s appearance and the image that he is endowed by those around him. Attribution itself presupposes at writing an image. The author of the theory of causal attribution lies F. Haider.
To study the phenomenon of causal attribution, it means mine became a theory E. Jones And K. Davis, who found out and ordered the reasons for the emergence of interpersonal attribution. Also included in the theory of causal attribution are the theories D. Boehm (self-perception), T. Kelly(search for reasons for behavior).
The theory of causal attribution is based on three theses.
1. Any person tries, consciously or unconsciously, to explain his or others’ actions.
2. All human actions are natural.
3. Causal explanations always have a significant impact influence on people's consciousness.
Causal attribution is used as identification or categorization as the main evaluation criteria. Psychologists and psychotherapists advise when conducting causal attribution tions not only rely on personal experience and knowledge, but also try to put yourself in the place of the identified person. Observing human behavior in natural conditions, you can identify what emotions predominate in him, what actions a person can take in the next moment. When the environment changes, people can change their behavior. In the same situations, many people use behavioral patterns us, acquired through upbringing or environmental influence yushchikh.
Distinguish between behavior installation And situational. Tired real behavior is regulated on the basis of technical psychological cultural attitudes that were used in the upbringing
Interpersonal attraction T. Newcomb. D. Carnegie "How to Win Friends and Influence People." Laterspheres of modern life.
Many scientists who conducted research in the field of interpersonal relationships became supporters of the theory of determinism. nant attraction factors that act as incentives communication. In 1970 A. And B. Lott
J. Homans achievements they are ready for certain costs. Looked like this dits the theoretical construction of interpersonal attraction. But this theory does not correct for behavioral instinct wearing.
individual by his parents, guardians, society, to which he belongs. Installation barriers help or hinder a person to achieve personal goals and fulfill promises. Many settings become obsolete in given time and there may be dangerous to humans. Therefore, psychologists recommend that parents take the upbringing of their children more seriously. Situational behavior is mainly regulated by situational This is a significant factor and depends on the participants themselves.
Interpersonal attraction "formed from the positive emotional attitude of people towards each other. The main investigative work on the study of interpersonal attraction began to be carried out in the 1930s. researchers Ya. Moreno and T. Newcomb. At the same time, a book was published in the USA D. Carnegie "How to Win Friends and Influence People." Later based on the theses of this book and the theory of Moreno and Newcomb, the study of between personal communication in different spheres of modern life.
Many scientists who conducted research in the field of interpersonal relationships became supporters of the theory of determinant factors of attraction, which act as incentives communication. In 1970 A. And B. Lott developed the theory of "chain under" fastenings,” the essence of which is the exchange of balance information, which forms the basis of the attraction. In the process of communication, individuals exchange various data and, having achieved understanding, create the preconditions for interpersonal attraction. Later, the learning theory of interpersonal attraction was developed - a model of reinforcement of emotions. I.P. Pavlov introduced logic and conditionality into the theory of interpersonal relationships. He suggested an associative basis for the emergence of attraction using examples of the development of reflexes in dogs.
J. Homans revealed that social exchange can be structured edit with economic factors. He explained human relationships based on the coefficient for spending and acquisitions: people tend to seek benefits, and for it achievements they are ready for certain costs. This is what the theoretical construction of interpersonal attraction looks like. But this theory does not correct for behavioral instinct as the oldest and most reliable method of establishing wearing.
The problem of conflict in social psychology
Communication as a communication process begins with a joint positive decision to exchange information with the further continuation of the communication process itself. An unlimited number of people can take part in it, each of whom must contribute to the organization of full and effective communication. Exchange of information with a large number participants in this process should end with planning joint activities. In this case, communication can be considered successful.
The interaction of two participants is considered simple communication, while the involvement of more than three participants is considered complex. Participation in the communication process of several groups can be based both on mutual understanding and on confrontation of these groups. Confrontation can be expressed in the form of competition. The most striking way to express competition is conflict. Social psychology in the study of conflicts involves the analysis of secondary socio-psychological aspects (awareness of the conflict by each participant) and the identification of a particular class of conflict. In order to accomplish both tasks, it is necessary to have an adequate conceptual framework for the study, which should cover the main characteristics of the conflict. Conflict situations can be characterized by structure, dynamics, function, typology.
The concept of conflict can be defined as a confrontation between opposite points of view and views on a specific situation. Any conflict implies a negative emotional experience and painful consequences. Most often, conflict can be represented as a combination of three main components.
1. The conflict is based on contradiction, which is a consequence of differences in interests and ideas.
2. Each conflict affects values that are significant to the participant, which can cause negative emotions, and emotions are the main obstacle to open dialogue.
3. Conflicts involve clarifying personal relationships, searching negative qualities opponents, etc.
All three components conflict situation vary depending on the strength of the conflict itself, the object, personal
and professional characteristics of conflict participants situations.
The structure of the conflict has been considered by sociologists in different ways nomu, but today the following components have been identified: the emergence of a conflict situation, the presence of participants, the object of the conflict (the cause of the conflict), the trigger of the conflict, the development and resolution of the conflict. There are stages of conflict: the emergence of a contradiction between individuals; identifying the desire of individuals to develop a conflict situation; individuals' awareness of the essence and source of the conflict; manifestation of conflict relationships; identification of participants and parties to the conflict; "fading" of the conflict.
M. Deutsch divided the conflicts into destructive And product tive. Destructive conflicts are those that lead to disunity of people, involving a large number of teaching stnikov. Moreover, in the process of conflict development, its causes occurrences lose their meaning, so resolving such a conflict is quite difficult. It is destructive conflict that contributes to stress and psychological sky discomfort.
Productive conflict arises as a result of divergence opinions on solving specific problems and does not affect personal ny relationships. Such a conflict always produces a result acceptable to all participants. Recognition of the correct solution proposed by one of the parties can become the beginning of cooperative interaction. Very rarely destructive the conflict degenerates into a productive one.
Social psychology studies many types of conflicts and their course. Each example of a conflict situation can but measured by the degree of conflict, by the involvement of the teacher stnikov (intrapersonal, interpersonal, intergroup, between a group and one person). Moreover, conflicts may vary in levels: horizontal and vertical new Based on the time of occurrence, there are short-term and long-term conflicts. Sources can also be the basis classification of conflicts: if the conflict arises as a result of the manifestation personal qualities one individual is not acceptable to others, the conflict is subjective; if different areas of activity are affected, the conflict is objective.
Many sociologists also distinguish between realistic and unrealistic conflicts. The first are characterized by the fact that participants try to implement specific plans, assigned tasks, and follow a clearly developed plan. The latter do not have a clear goal; participants in an unrealistic conflict rather strive to get rid of accumulated negative emotional energy, stress, and aggression. Once the participants achieve their goals, the conflict resolves itself.
Questions and tasks for review
1. Explain the essence of the term “communication”.
2. Talk about interpersonal relationships and implementation. communication through interpersonal relationships.
3. Tell us about the structure of communication.
4. What is the communicative component of communication?
5. What barriers might there be in communication?
6. Name the types of communication and give them characteristics.
7. Explain the meaning of the interactive component of communication.
8. Name structural components conflict, give them brief description.
9. Name the types of conflicts, reveal the essence of each kind.
10. Name the elementary models of communication. Give characterize them, give examples for each mo Delhi.
Sots.ps analyzes first of all those patterns of human behavior and activity that are determined by the fact of communication and interaction of people. Ch. task, cat. stands before social ps, - reveal the specific mechanism of “weaving” the individual into the fabric social reality in order to understand what is the result of the influence of social conditions on the activities of the individual. The personality itself, on the one hand, is already a “product” of these social connections, and on the other hand, is their creator, an active creator. There is an interaction between the individual and society as a whole, so the study of the individual is always another side of the study of society.
There are two main types of relationships: public and interpersonal
General structure relationships are studied by sociology. They are impersonal. They are based on production, material relations, and a whole series is built on top of them: social, political, ideological. All this together represents a system of social relations. The specifics of their mortgage. in that they do not simply “meet” individual with individual, but individuals “meet” as representatives of certain social groups (classes, professions, political parties, etc.). Such relationships are built not on the basis of the interaction of specific individuals, but on the basis of a certain position occupied by each person in the system of society.
Interpersonal(Myasishchev calls them “psychological”) relationships do not develop somewhere outside the community. rel., and within them, there are no “pure” general rel. In almost all group actions, their participants appear in two capacities: as performers of an impersonal social role and as unique human personalities. The concept of “interpersonal role” is introduced as a fixation of a person’s position in a system of group connections based on individual psychological characteristics personality (shirt-guy, one-on-one, scapegoat, etc.). Interl. rel. can be considered as a factor in the psychological “climate” of the group. The most important specific feature of interl. rel. – emotional basis. Based on the set of feelings, two large groups can be distinguished:
1)conjunctive- this includes various kinds of things that bring people together, uniting their feelings. The parties demonstrate their readiness to cooperate, to collaborate. actions.
2)disjunctive feelings- here rel. feelings that separate people, there is no desire to collaborate.
Practical rel. relationships between people in a group do not develop solely on the basis of immediate emotions. contacts. Relationships mediated by joint activities are important here. When the act of communication must take place even if the groups are antagonistic.
Communication concept. Communication and speech. Concept of speech. Types of speech. Properties of speech. The influence of communication and speech on people’s lives and activities. Development and speech disorders.
Communication as interaction and exchange of information. Communication as interconnection and mutual influence. The main aspects of the communication process: perceptual, communicative, interactive. Types of communication. Non-verbal communication. Communication functions. The role of communication and speech in the mental and personal development of a person.
Psychological means of influence and influence in the process of communication. Communication style. Contact strategies.
Characteristics of socio-psychological processes unfolding during communication (imitation, infection, persuasion, suggestion). Feedback in communication. The concept of a communication barrier.
Basic concepts of the topic: communication, speech (external, internal, oral, written, affective, dialogical, monologue), communication, perceptual, interactive aspects of communication, language, non-verbal communication, interpersonal interaction, psychological contact, semantic barrier, interpersonal conflict, style and communication strategies: reverse connection.
Topic 20. Communication as mutual understanding and mutual knowledge.
Interpersonal relationships (relationships) as a socio-psychological phenomenon. Classification and types of relationships. Patterns of manifestation of interpersonal relationships between people. The role of communication in the system of social and interpersonal relations.
Understanding how highest level interactions. Psychological features of mutual understanding. Mechanisms of mutual understanding in the process of communication. Conditions and factors for achieving mutual understanding.
Sources and reasons for people's misunderstanding of each other. Understanding the interlocutor's speech. Awareness of the manifesting qualities of interacting individuals. Identification of the influence of the situation of interaction with a partner on the personality.
Basic concepts of the topic: interpersonal relationships, partnership qualities, mutual understanding, mutual misunderstanding, mutual assistance, opposition, empathy, mutual influence, contact.
2.3. Thematic plan of seminar classes.
Topic 1: History of the formation of psychological science
QUESTIONS FOR THE SEMINAR:
Psychology as a subject. Main branches of psychology
The concept of the soul, psyche and mental activity.
The role of psychology in the activities of a social worker.
The relationship between everyday and scientific psychology.
REPORT TOPICS:
Democritus, Plato, Aristotle - biography and philosophical reflections on the soul.
ABSTRACT TOPICS:
The importance of psychological knowledge for a social worker.
Introduction to psychology. Textbook for university students / Ed. ed. prof. A.V.Petrovsky. - M.: "Academy", 1995. 496 p.
Gipenreiter Yu.B. Introduction to Psychology. – M., 2006.
Druzhinin V.N. General psychology. - SPb.: PETER, 2006.
Enikeev M.I. General and social psychology. – M.: Publishing house
NORM, 2002.
Maklakov A.G. General psychology. – St. Petersburg: Peter, 2006.
Topic 2: History of the formation of psychological science.
QUESTIONS FOR THE SEMINAR:
Depth psychology.
Behaviorism.
Gestalt - psychology.
Transpersonal psychology.
Cognitive psychology.
Genetic psychology.
Humanistic psychology.
Domestic psychological school.
ABSTRACT TOPICS:
Founder domestic psychology V.M. Bekhterev.
MINI STUDY:
Find in educational literature all areas in psychology. Select scientists who have contributed to this area. Make a table
LITERATURE:
Gipenreiter Yu.B. Introduction to Psychology. – M., 2006.
Petrovsky A.V., Yaroshevsky M.G. History and theory of psychology. - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 1996. - 416 p.
Kjell L. Ziegler D. Theories of personality. – St. Petersburg: Peter, 2006. – 608 p.
SUBJECT: Methodology of psychological research
QUESTIONS FOR THE SEMINAR:
Methods of psychological research.
The relationship between methodology, methods and techniques of psychological research.
Objective research methods.
Types of observation. Advantages and disadvantages of observation.
The essence of experimental research. Advantages and disadvantages of the experimental method.
Comparative analysis of observation and experiment.
ABSTRACT TOPICS:
Methods of scientific psychology.
Methods practical psychology.
Method of observation and self-observation in psychology.
Psychological tests and their features.
Research methods in psychology.
MINI STUDY:
Study the methods of psychology in the scientific literature. Make a table:
SUBJECT:
QUESTIONS FOR THE SEMINAR:
Definition of the concept of “psyche”
The structure of the psyche in the traditions of Russian psychology
The main differences between the animal psyche and the human psyche.
Key Features intellectual behavior animals.
Development of higher mental functions.
Conscious reflection of reality.
General problems of the origin of the human psyche.
REPORT TOPICS:
Psyche and consciousness: on the relationship between phenomena and concepts.
The problem of determining the natural or social conditioning of the human psyche and behavior.
Mysteries of consciousness.
The structure of consciousness according to A.N. Leontiev and V.P. Zinchenko.
Druzhinin V.N. General psychology. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2006.
Luria A.R. Lectures on general psychology. – St. Petersburg: Peter, 2007. - 320 p.
Maklakov A.G. General psychology. – St. Petersburg: Peter, 2006.
SUBJECT: Origin and development of the psyche and consciousness
QUESTIONS FOR THE SEMINAR:
Consciousness as the highest level of mental reflection and the highest level of self-regulation.
Self-awareness. Concept.
Functions of self-awareness.
The structure of self-awareness. Levels of self-awareness.
Stages of development of self-awareness.
Criteria for impairment of object consciousness
ABSTRACT TOPICS:
The problem of the unconscious in psychology.
Cognitive and active-creative sides of consciousness.
Development of consciousness of a child (adult).
Levels and properties of consciousness.
Altered states of consciousness. Sleep and its stages.
Artificially induced states of consciousness.
Intuition as a form of supraconscious phenomenon.
SUBJECT: Psychological characteristics of activity QUESTIONS FOR THE SEMINAR:
Activity. Interdisciplinary approach to activities.
The relationship between external and internal activities.
Mastering the activity.
Main types of activities and their characteristics (work, play, study)
Abilities, skills, habits and their characteristics.
ABSTRACT TOPICS:
Psychological analysis of people's habits.
The work of an artist, scientist, inventor.
Abilities, skills, habits and their characteristics.
MINI STUDY:
Analyze the scientific literature, make a table on the topic: “Main types of activities and their characteristics.”
Druzhinin V.N. General psychology. - St. Petersburg: Publishing house PETER, 2006.
Maklakov A.G. General psychology. – St. Petersburg: Publishing house PETER, 2006.
Petrovsky A.V. Introduction to psychology. - M.: Academy, 2005.
Rubinshtein S.L. Fundamentals of general psychology: In 2 volumes. - T.1 - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2002. - 720 p.
SUBJECT: Feeling.
QUESTIONS FOR THE SEMINAR:
Feel.
Basic properties of sensations (quality, intensity, duration, spatial localization of stimuli)
General patterns of sensations (sensitivity, sensation thresholds, adaptation, sensitization, synesthesia)
Compensation for sensations.
REPORT TOPICS:
Sherrington Charles Scott - major scientific discoveries.
ABSTRACT TOPICS:
Luria A.R. Sensation and perception. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2005. – 320 p.
SUBJECT: Perception.
QUESTIONS FOR THE SEMINAR:
Perception and its psychological properties.
Peculiarities of time perception depending on the content of the activity.
Perceptual actions in the process of perception.
Conditions for adequate perception of the world.
Illusions of perception.
ABSTRACT TOPICS:
Laws and mysteries of visual perception.
Development of perception in children.
The role and types of sensitivity (sensation) in humans.
Bashaeva T.V. Development of perception in children. Shape, color, sound. – Yaroslavl, 1998.
Gippenreiter Yu.B. Psychology of sensations and perceptions. – M., 2002
Luria A.R. Sensation and perception. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2005
Martsinkovskaya G.D., Yaroshevsky M.G. 100 outstanding psychologists of the world. – Voronezh, 1996. – 320 s.
Shiffman H. Sensation and perception. – St. Petersburg: Peter, 2003.
SUBJECT: Memory.
QUESTIONS FOR THE SEMINAR:
Memory, definition, concept, types.
Characteristics of memory processes.
Individual differences in memory processes.
Patterns of memory.
Rational memorization techniques
MINI STUDY:
Study the scientific literature, make a table on the topic: “Characteristics and patterns of memory.”
ABSTRACT TOPICS
Interrelation and interaction of different types of memory in humans.
Individual characteristics of memory and human abilities.
Memory disorders.
Rational methods of memorization.
Druzhinin V.N. General psychology. - St. Petersburg: Publishing house PETER, 2006.
Lapp D. The art of remembering and forgetting. – St. Petersburg: Peter, 1995
Lapp D We improve memory at any age. M.: Mir, 1993
Maklakov A.G. General psychology. – St. Petersburg: Publishing house PETER, 2006.
SUBJECT: Thinking.
QUESTIONS FOR THE SEMINAR:
General characteristics of thinking. Types of thinking.
Classification of types of thinking.
Thinking speech.
Thinking and sensory cognition.
Thinking as problem solving.
ABSTRACT TOPICS:
Psychology of creative thinking.
Problems and ways to develop creative thinking.
Diagnostics of mental development.
Comparative characteristics of theoretical and empirical thinking
Gipenreiter Yu.B. Introduction to Psychology. Lecture course. – M., 2006. – 336 p.
Godefroy J. What is psychology: in 2 volumes. / ed. Ankelova A.G. – M.:Mir, 1996. – 370 p.
Luria A.R. Lectures on general psychology. – St. Petersburg: Peter, 2007. – 320 p.
Martsinkovskaya G.D., Yaroshevsky M.G. 100 outstanding psychologists of the world. – Voronezh, 1996. – 320 s.
Nemov R.S. Psychology: in 3 books. Book 1. General fundamentals of psychology. –M.: VLADOS center, 1998.
SUBJECT: Imagination.
QUESTIONS FOR THE SEMINAR:
Imagination, psychological characteristics.
Individual characteristics of imagination.
The role of fantasy in personality activity.
Psychological techniques for creating imaginary images.
ABSTRACT TOPICS:
Imagination and individual creativity.
Imagination and artistic creativity.
Using imagination for social and psychotherapeutic purposes.
Gipenreiter Yu.B. Introduction to Psychology. Lecture course. – M., 2006. – 336 p.
Luria A.R. Lectures on general psychology. – St. Petersburg: Peter, 2007. – 320 p.
Martsinkovskaya G.D., Yaroshevsky M.G. 100 outstanding psychologists of the world. – Voronezh, 1996. – 320 s.
Nemov R.S. Psychology: in 3 books. Book 1. General fundamentals of psychology. –M.: VLADOS center, 1998.
SUBJECT: Attention
QUESTIONS FOR THE SEMINAR:
Attention : definition, types. Comparative characteristics main types of attention.
Properties of attention.
Methods for studying the properties of attention.
Attention disturbance.
Development of attention in ontogenesis.
REPORT TOPICS:
Lange Nikolai Nikolaevich, Galperin Pyotr Yakovlevich, Ukhtomsky Alexey Alekseevich, Uznadze Dmitry Nikolaevich - biography and psychological works.
ABSTRACT TOPICS:
Attention and attitude (concept by D.N. Uznadze)
Techniques for developing attention.
Emotional-motor theory of T. Ribot
Individual characteristics of students' attention.
Is intelligent activity possible without attention?
What could be the reason for students' inattention? Students?
Reveal the content of each quality of attention, its role in life and human activity, name the factors influencing the manifestation and development of these qualities.
What are the ways to attract attention at different stages of a lecture? Lesson?
Gipenreiter Yu.B. Introduction to Psychology. Lecture course. – M., 2006. – 336 p.
Godefroy J. What is psychology: in 2 volumes. / ed. Ankelova A.G. – M.: Mir, 1996. – 370 p.
Luria A.R. Lectures on general psychology. – St. Petersburg: Peter, 2007. – 320 p.
Martsinkovskaya G.D., Yaroshevsky M.G. 100 outstanding psychologists of the world. – Voronezh, 1996. – 320 s.
Nemov R.S. Psychology: in 3 books. Book 1. General fundamentals of psychology. – M.: VLADOS, 2007.
SUBJECT:
QUESTIONS FOR THE SEMINAR:
1. Basic theoretical approaches to the study of personality.
2. Psychodynamic theory of personality.
3. Analytical theory of personality.
4. Behavioral theory of personality.
5. General idea of self-actualization in humanistic psychology..
6. Four-component model of personality in the activity approach.
7. Dispositional theory of personality.
REPORT TOPICS:
Sigmund Freud, C.G. Jung, A. Maslow, K. Rogers, A. Bandura, J. Rotter, A.N. Leontyev – biography and psychological works.
ABSTRACT TOPICS:
The problem of personal meaning in psychology.
What are the main criteria for distinguishing different theories?
Why is there not one, but many theories?
What are the similarities and differences between the classical psychoanalysis of S. Freud and the analytical theory of personality of C. Jung?
How do needs develop according to A. Maslow?
What is the main function of behavioral potential?
How is self-efficacy formed according to A. Bandura?
What is the fundamental difference between the activity approach to the study of personality and other approaches.
What are the main factors in personality development among dispositionists?
Druzhinin V.N. General psychology. - St. Petersburg: Publishing house PETER, 2006.
Maklakov A.G. General psychology. – St. Petersburg: Publishing house PETER, 2006.
Nemov R.S. Psychology: in 3 books. Book 1. General fundamentals of psychology. –M.: VLADOS, 2005.
Pershina L.A. General psychology. – M.: Academic Project, 2004.
SUBJECT: Psychological characteristics of personality
QUESTIONS FOR THE SEMINAR:
Personality orientation as a system of dominant motives.
Personal self-awareness. Self-concept of personality.
Personality assessment and self-esteem.
Socialization and individualization as forms of personality development. Stages, factors of socialization.
Personal development. Abnormal personality development.
ABSTRACT TOPICS:
Socialization of personality.
Self-concept of personality.
Conditions and factors of normal and abnormal personality development.
Sources, factors, conditions and driving forces of personality development.
Blum J. Psychoanalytic theories of personality / Transl. from English, intro. Art. A.B. Havina. - M.: Academic project; Ekaterinburg: Business book, 1999. - 222 p.
Druzhinin V.N. General psychology. - St. Petersburg: Publishing house PETER, 2006.
Maklakov A.G. General psychology. – St. Petersburg: Publishing house PETER, 2006.
Nemov R.S. Psychology: in 3 books. Book 1. General fundamentals of psychology. –M.: VLADOS, 2005.
Pershina L.A. General psychology. – M.: Academic Project, 2004.
Kjell L., Ziegler D. personality theory. – St. Petersburg, 2006, pp. 105-146, 161-187, 271-315, 479-514, 528-556.
TOPIC: Emotions and feelings.
QUESTIONS FOR THE SEMINAR:
Types of emotions and their general characteristics.
The role of emotions.
Psychological theories of emotions.
Emotional stress, its types and phases.
Managing emotions. Ways to relieve emotional stress.
The development of emotions and their significance in human life.
Possible violations in emotional sphere person.
ABSTRACT TOPICS:
The development of emotions and their meaning in human life.
Emotions and human relationships.
The role of adults in the formation of emotions and emotional states in children
Gorbatkov A.A. Two models of the dynamics of connections between positive and negative emotions // Questions of Psychology, No. 3, 2004.
Izard K.E. Psychology of emotions - St. Petersburg, Peter, 1999.
Leontyev A.N. lectures on general psychology. – M, 2000. Lecture 48, 49.
Langle A. Introduction to the existential-analytical theory of emotions: touching value. // Questions of Psychology, No. 4, 2004. P. 3
Subbotin V.E. Motivation and emotions // Modern psychology. Reference Guide/Ed. Druzhinina. – M: Infra, 1999.
Stolyarenko L.D. Basics of psychology. – Rostov-on-Don, 2000, pp. 255-259.
SUBJECT: Will.
QUESTIONS FOR THE SEMINAR:
Will as a regulatory process. The mechanism of will.
The structure of the volitional process.
Volitional personality traits.
Development of the will in man.
Formation of strong-willed personality traits.
REPORT TOPICS:
W. James - biography and contribution to psychology.
ABSTRACT TOPICS:
The formation of volitional regulation of behavior in children.
The main directions and ways of developing the will.
Ilyin E.P. Psychology of will. – St. Petersburg, 2000.
Ladanov I.D. Stress management. – M., 1989. Will training. Page 43-69.
Leontyev A.N. Will / Bulletin of Moscow State University. Series 14. – M., 1993, No. 2 p. 3-14.
Leontyev A.N. lectures on general psychology. – M, 2000. Lecture 50.
Maklakov A.G. General psychology. – St. Petersburg, 2006.
Pershina L.A. General psychology. –M., 2004.
Rubinshtein S.L. Fundamentals of general psychology. – St. Petersburg: Peter, 2006.
Smirnov B.N. On different approaches to the problem of will in psychology // Journal “Questions of Psychology” No. 3 2004, pp. 64-70.
SUBJECT: Character.
QUESTIONS FOR THE SEMINAR:
Concept of character. Character traits.
Theoretical and experimental approaches to character research. (physiognomy, palmistry, graphology, constitutional method).
Typology of character according to Leonhard.
Typology of character according to Lichko.
Character formation.
The influence of factors on the formation of character (factor of work activity, factor of imitation, conflict situations).
Character diagnostics.
REPORT TOPICS:
Johann Kasper Lavater - life path, outstanding works.
E. Fromm – outstanding research.
ABSTRACT TOPICS:
Character and temperament.
Age-related characteristics of the development of character traits in humans.
Granovskaya R. M. Elements of practical psychology. - St. Petersburg: Light, 2005.
Maklakov A.G. General psychology. – St. Petersburg: Peter, 2006.
Rubinstein S. L. Fundamentals of general psychology. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2005.
Practical tasks:
Exercise 1.
CHARACTEROLOGICAL QUESTIONNAIRE(QUESTIONNAIRE BY K. LEONHARD)
Instructions: “You will be offered statements regarding your character. If you agree with the statement, put a sign next to its number « + » (yes), if no – sign « - » (no). Don’t think about the questions for too long, there are no right or wrong answers.
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№ p/p |
Judgment |
(Not really) « + »/« - » |
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Are you often in a cheerful and carefree mood? | ||
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Are you sensitive to insults? | ||
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Does it ever happen that tears come to your eyes at the cinema, theater, conversation, etc.? | ||
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Having done something, do you doubt whether everything was done correctly, and do not calm down until you are convinced once again that everything was done correctly? | ||
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As a child, were you as brave as your peers? | ||
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How often do your moods suddenly change from a state of boundless jubilation to disgust for life and for yourself? | ||
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Are you usually the center of attention in society or company? | ||
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Does it ever happen that you are in such a grumpy mood for no reason that it is better not to talk to you? | ||
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Are you a serious person? | ||
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Are you capable of admiring and admiring something? | ||
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Are you entrepreneurial? | ||
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Do you quickly forget if someone offends you? | ||
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Are you kind-hearted? | ||
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When placing a letter in a mailbox, do you check by running your hand along the slot of the box that the letter has completely fallen into it? | ||
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Have you ever been scared as a child during a thunderstorm or when meeting with an unfamiliar dog? | ||
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Do you strive to maintain order in everything and everywhere? | ||
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Does your mood depend on external factors? | ||
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Do your friends love you? | ||
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Do you often have a feeling of inner restlessness, a feeling of possible trouble or trouble? | ||
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Do you often feel somewhat depressed? | ||
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Have you ever had a tantrum or breakdown | ||
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Is it difficult for you to sit in one place for a long time? | ||
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If you were treated unfairly, do you vigorously defend your interests? | ||
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Can you slaughter a chicken or a sheep? | ||
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Does it irritate you if a tablecloth or curtain hangs unevenly at home, or do you immediately try to straighten it? | ||
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Were you afraid of being alone at home as a child? | ||
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Do you often have mood swings? | ||
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Do you always strive to be a strong enough worker in your profession? | ||
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Do you quickly become angry or angry? | ||
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Can you be absolutely, carefree cheerful? | ||
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Does it ever happen that a feeling of boundless happiness literally permeates you? | ||
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Do you think you would make a lead in a humorous play? | ||
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Do you usually express your opinions to people quite frankly, directly and unambiguously? | ||
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Do you find it difficult to bear the sight of blood? Doesn't this make you feel discomfort? | ||
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Do you like work with high personal responsibility? | ||
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Are you inclined to speak out in defense of people who have been treated unfairly? | ||
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Is it difficult or scary for you to go down into a dark basement? | ||
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Do you prefer a job where you have to act quickly, but the quality requirements are low? | ||
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Are you sociable? | ||
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Did you like to recite poetry at school? | ||
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Did you run away from home as a child? | ||
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Does life seem difficult to you? | ||
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Does it ever happen that after a conflict or resentment, you were so upset that going to work seemed unbearable? | ||
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Can you say that when you fail, you lose your sense of humor? | ||
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Would you take the first steps towards reconciliation if someone offended you? | ||
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Do you really love animals? | ||
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When you return, you make sure that you have left the house or workplace in such a state that nothing will happen there? | ||
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Are you sometimes haunted by the thought that something terrible might happen to you and your loved ones? | ||
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Do you find that your mood is very changeable? | ||
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Is it difficult for you to report (perform on stage) in front of a large number of people? | ||
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Can you hit the offender if he insults you? | ||
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Do you have a great need to communicate with other people? | ||
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Are you one of those who, when disappointed, falls into deep despair? | ||
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Do you like work that requires energetic organizational activity? | ||
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Do you persistently achieve your goal if you have to overcome a lot of obstacles on the way to it? | ||
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Can a tragic film move you so much that tears come to your eyes? | ||
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Do you often find it difficult to sleep because the problems of the day and the future are always spinning in your thoughts? | ||
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At school, did you sometimes give your friends hints or let them copy? | ||
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Will it require more willpower for you to walk through the cemetery alone? | ||
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Do you carefully ensure that every item in your apartment is always in the same place? | ||
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Does it happen that while you are in a good mood before going to bed, you get up the next day in a depressed mood that lasts for several hours? | ||
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Do you easily get used to new situations? | ||
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Do you have headaches? | ||
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Do you laugh often? | ||
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Can you be friendly even with someone whom you clearly do not value, love, or respect? | ||
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Are you an active person? | ||
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Are you very worried about injustice? | ||
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Do you love nature so much that you can call it a friend? | ||
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When leaving home or going to bed, do you check whether the gas is turned off, the lights are off, or the door is closed? | ||
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Are you very fearful? | ||
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Does your mood change when you drink alcohol? | ||
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In your youth, did you willingly participate in an amateur art group? | ||
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Do you view life somewhat pessimistically, without expecting joy? | ||
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Do you often want to travel? | ||
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Can your mood change so dramatically that the state of joy suddenly gives way to gloomy and depressed? | ||
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Is it easy for you to cheer up your friends in company? | ||
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How long have you been offended? | ||
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How long have you been experiencing the sorrows of other people? | ||
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How often, as a schoolchild, did you rewrite a page in your notebook if you accidentally left a blot in it? | ||
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Do you treat people with distrust and caution rather than trust? | ||
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Do you often have scary dreams? | ||
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Does it happen that you are afraid that you will throw yourself under the wheels of a passing train or, standing at the window of a multi-story building, you are afraid that you might suddenly fall out of the window? | ||
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Are you usually cheerful in a cheerful company? | ||
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Are you able to distract yourself from difficult problems that need to be solved? | ||
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Do you become less inhibited and feel more free after drinking alcohol? | ||
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Are you short on words in conversation? | ||
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If you had to act on stage, would you be able to get into the role and forget that it’s just a game? |
When calculating points on each scale of the Leonhard questionnaire, the value of each scale is multiplied by a certain number to standardize the results. This is indicated in the key to the method. Accented personalities are not pathological. They are characterized by highlighting bright character traits.
KEY
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1. Hyperthymic x 3 1, 11, 23, 33, 45, 55, 67, 77 |
6. Cyclotic x 3 6, 18, 28, 40, 50, 62, 72, 84 |
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2. Excitable x 2 2, 15, 24, 34, 37, 56, 68, 78, 81 |
7. Demonstrative x 2 7, 19, 22, 29, 41, 44, 63, 66, 73, 85, 88 |
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3. Emotive x 3 3, 13, 35, 47, 57, 69, 79 |
8. Unbalancedx 3 8, 20, 30, 42, 52, 64, 74, 86 |
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4 . Pedantic x 2 4, 14, 17, 26, 39, 48, 58, 61, 70, 80, 83 |
9. Dysthymic x 3 9, 21, 43, 75, 87 |
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5. Alarming x 3 16, 27, 38, 49, 60, 71, 82 |
10. Exalted x 6 Communication. communication. social perception. Communication in the system of interpersonal and social relations. Analysis of the connection between social and interpersonal relations allows us to place the right emphasis on the question of the place of communication throughout complex system human connections with the outside world. However, first it is necessary to say a few words about the problem of communication in general. The solution to this problem is very specific within the framework of domestic social psychology. The term “communication” itself does not have an exact analogue in traditional social psychology, not only because it is not entirely equivalent to the commonly used English term“communication”, but also because its content can only be considered in the conceptual dictionary of a special psychological theory, namely activity theories. Of course, in the structure of communication, which will be discussed below, aspects of it that are described or studied in other systems of socio-psychological knowledge can be highlighted. However, the essence of the problem, as it is posed in domestic social psychology, is fundamentally different. Both series of human relationships - both social and interpersonal, They are revealed and realized precisely in communication. Thus, the roots of communication In the very material life of individuals. Communication is what it is Implementation of the entire system of human relations. "Under normal circumstances A person’s relationship to the objective world around him is always They are mediated by his attitude towards people, towards society,” i.e. included in communication. It is especially important here to emphasize the idea that real communication not only the interpersonal relationships of people are given, i.e. not only their emotional attachments, hostility, etc. are revealed, but social ones are also embodied in the fabric of communication, i.e. impersonal in nature, relationships. The diverse relationships of a person are not covered only by interpersonal contact: the position of a person beyond the narrow framework Interpersonal connections, in a broader social system , where his place is not determined by the expectations of the individuals interacting with him, also requires a certain construction of a system of his connections, and this process can also be realized only in communication. Without communication, human society is simply unthinkable. Communication appears in it as a way of cementing individuals and at the same time as a way of developing these individuals themselves. It is from here that the existence of communication flows both as a reality of social relations and as a reality of interpersonal relations. Apparently, this made it possible for Saint-Exupery to paint a poetic image of communication as “the only luxury that a person has.” Naturally, each series of relationships is realized in specific forms of communication. Communication as the implementation of interpersonal relationships is a process more studied in social psychology, while communication between groups is more likely to be studied in sociology. Communication, including in the system of interpersonal relations, is forced by the joint life activity of people, therefore it is necessary to carry out a wide variety of interpersonal relationships, i.e. given both in the case of a positive and in the case of a negative attitude of one person towards another. The type of interpersonal relationship is not indifferent to how communication will be built, but it exists in specific forms, even when the relationship is extremely strained. The same applies to the characterization of communication at the macro level as the implementation of social relations. And in this case, whether groups or individuals communicate with each other as representatives of social groups, the act of communication must inevitably take place, is forced to take place, even if the groups are antagonistic. This dual understanding of communication - in the broad and narrow sense of the word - follows from the very logic of understanding the connection between interpersonal and social relations. In this case, it is appropriate to appeal to Marx’s idea that communication is an unconditional companion of human history (in this sense, we can talk about the importance of communication in the “phylogenesis” of society) and at the same time an unconditional companion in everyday activities, in everyday contacts of people (see. A.A. Leontiev, 1973). In the first plan, one can trace the historical change in forms of communication, i.e. changing them as society develops along with the development of economic, social and other public relations. Here the most difficult methodological question is being resolved: how does a process figure in the system of impersonal relations, which by its nature requires the participation of individuals? Acting as a representative of a certain social group, a person communicates with another representative of another social group and simultaneously realizes two types of relationships: both impersonal and personal. A peasant, selling a product on the market, receives a certain amount of money for it, and money acts here the most important means communication in the system of public relations. At the same time, this same peasant bargains with the buyer and thereby “personally” communicates with him, and the means of this communication is human speech. On the surface of phenomena, a form of direct communication is given - communication, but behind it there is communication forced by the system of social relations itself, in this case the relations of commodity production. In socio-psychological analysis, one can abstract from the “secondary plan”, but in real life this “second plan” of communication is always present. Although in itself it is a subject of study mainly by sociology, it should also be taken into account in the socio-psychological approach. In contrast to this, domestic psychology accepts the idea of the unity of communication and activity. This conclusion logically follows from the understanding of communication as the reality of human relations, which assumes that any forms of communication are included in specific forms of joint activity: people not only communicate in the process of performing various functions, but they always communicate in some activity, “about” it. Thus, an active person always communicates: his activities inevitably intersect with the activities of other people. But it is precisely this intersection of activities that creates certain relationships of an active person not only to the subject of his activity, but also to other people. It is communication that forms a community of individuals performing joint activities. Thus, the fact of the connection between communication and activity is stated in one way or another by all researchers. However, the nature of this connection is understood in different ways. Sometimes activity and communication are considered not as parallel existing interconnected processes, but as two sides of a person’s social existence; his way of life. In other cases, communication is understood as a certain aspect of activity: it is included in any activity, is its element, while the activity itself can be considered as a condition of communication. Finally, communication can be interpreted as a special type of activity. Within this point of view, two of its varieties are distinguished: in one of them, communication is understood as a communicative activity, or a communication activity that occurs independently at a certain stage of ontogenesis, for example, in preschoolers and especially in adolescence (Elkonin, 1991). In the other - communication in in general terms is understood as one of the types of activity (meaning, first of all, speech activity), and in relation to it all the elements characteristic of activity in general are sought: actions, operations, motives, etc. It is unlikely that it will be very important to clarify the advantages and comparative disadvantages of each of these points of view: none of them denies the most important thing - the undoubted connection between activity and communication, everyone recognizes the inadmissibility of separating them from each other during analysis. Moreover, the divergence of positions is much more obvious at the level of theoretical and general methodological analysis. As for experimental practice, all researchers have much more in common than different. This common thing is the recognition of the fact of the unity of communication and activity and attempts to fix this unity. In our opinion, it is advisable to have the broadest understanding of the connection between activity and communication, when communication is considered both as an aspect of joint activity (since activity itself is not only work, but also communication in the process of work), and as its unique derivative. Such a broad understanding of the connection between communication and activity corresponds to a broad understanding of communication itself: as the most important condition for an individual to appropriate the achievements of the historical development of mankind, be it at the micro level, in the immediate environment, or at the macro level, in the entire system of social connections. The acceptance of the thesis about the organic connection between communication and activity dictates some very specific standards for the study of communication, in particular at the level of experimental research. One of these standards is the requirement to study communication not only and not so much from the point of view of its form, but from the point of view of its content. This requirement is at odds with the principle of studying the communication process, typical of traditional social psychology. As a rule, communication is studied here primarily through a laboratory experiment - precisely from the point of view of form, when either the means of communication, or the type of contact, or its frequency, or the structure of both a single communicative act and communication networks are analyzed. If communication is understood as an aspect of activity, as a unique way of organizing it, then analyzing the form of this process alone is not enough. An analogy can be drawn here with the study of the activity itself. The essence of the principle of activity lies in the fact that it is also considered not just from the side of form (i.e., the individual’s activity is not simply stated), but from the side of its content (i.e., exactly the object to which this activity is directed is revealed). An activity, understood as an objective activity, cannot be studied outside of the characteristics of its subject. Similarly, the essence of communication is revealed only in the case when not just the fact of communication itself, or even the method of communication, is stated, but its content (Communication and activity, 1931). In the real practical activity of a person, the main question is not how the subject communicates, but about what he communicates. Here again, an analogy with the study of activity is appropriate: if the analysis of the subject of activity is important there, then here the analysis of the subject of communication is equally important. Neither one nor the other formulation of the problem is easy for the system of psychological knowledge: psychology has always polished its tools only for analyzing the mechanism - if not activity, but activity; maybe not communication, but communication. Analysis of the substantive aspects of both phenomena is poorly supported methodologically. But this cannot become a reason for refusing to raise this question. (An important circumstance is that the proposed formulation of the problem is prescribed by the practical needs of optimizing activity and communication in real social groups.) Naturally, highlighting the subject of communication should not be understood vulgarly: people communicate not only about the activity with which they are associated. In order to highlight two possible reasons for communication, the literature differentiates between the concepts of “role-based” and “personal” communication. Under some circumstances, this personal communication in form may look like role-playing, business, “subject-problem-based”. Thus, the separation of role and personal communication is not absolute. IN certain relationships and situations, both are associated with activity. The idea of “wovenness” of communication into activity also allows us to consider in detail the question of what exactly in activity can “constitute” communication. In the most general form, the answer can be formulated in such a way that through communication, activity is organized and enriched. Building a plan for joint activities requires each participant to have an optimal understanding of its goals, objectives, understanding the specifics of its object and even the capabilities of each participant. The inclusion of communication in this process allows for “coordination” or “mismatch” of the activities of individual participants. This coordination of the activities of individual participants can be achieved thanks to such a characteristic of communication as its inherent function of influence, in which the “reverse influence of communication on activity” is manifested (Andreeva, Yanoushek, 1987). We will find out the specifics of this function along with consideration of various aspects of communication. Now it is important to emphasize that activity through communication is not just organized, but actually enriched, new connections and relationships between people arise in it. All of the above allows us to conclude that the principle of connection and organic unity of communication with activity, developed in domestic social psychology, opens up truly new perspectives in the study of this phenomenon. ^ Structure of communication. Given the complexity of communication, it is necessary to somehow indicate its structure so that analysis of each element is then possible. The structure of communication can be approached in different ways, as well as the definition of its functions. We propose to characterize the structure of communication by identifying three interrelated aspects in it: communicative, interactive and perceptual. The communicative side of communication, or communication in the narrow sense of the word, consists of the exchange of information between communicating individuals. The interactive side consists in organizing interaction between communicating individuals, i.e. in the exchange of not only knowledge, ideas, but also actions. The perceptual side of communication means the process of perception and cognition of each other by communication partners and the establishment of mutual understanding on this basis. Naturally, all these terms are very conditional. Sometimes others are used in a more or less similar sense. For example, in communication there are three functions: information-communicative, regulatory-communicative, affective-communicative. The task is to carefully analyze, including at the experimental level, the content of each of these aspects or functions. Of course, in reality, each of these sides does not exist in isolation from the other two, and their isolation is possible only for analysis, in particular for building a system experimental research. All aspects of communication identified here are revealed in small groups, i.e. in conditions of direct contact between people. Separately, we should consider the question of the means and mechanisms of influence of people on each other and in the conditions of their joint mass actions, which should be the subject of special analysis, in particular when studying the psychology of large groups and mass movements. Therefore, without excluding the possibility of applying some provisions of information theory when describing the communicative side of communication, it is necessary to clearly place all the emphasis and identify the specifics in the process of information exchange itself when it takes place in the case of communication between two people. Firstly, communication cannot be considered only as the sending of information by some transmitting system or as its reception by another system because, unlike the simple “movement of information” between two devices, here we are dealing with the relationship of two individuals, each of whom is active subject: mutual informing of them presupposes the establishment of joint activities. This means that each participant in the communicative process assumes activity in his partner as well; he cannot consider him as a certain object. The other participant also appears as a subject, and it follows that when sending him information, it is necessary to focus on him, i.e. analyze his motives, goals, attitudes (except, of course, the analysis of one’s own goals, motives, attitudes), “address” him, in the words of V.N. Myasishcheva. Schematically, communication can be depicted as an intersubjective process (S S). But in this case, one must assume that in response to the information sent, new information emanating from another partner. Therefore, in the communication process there is not a simple movement of information, but at least an active exchange of it. The main “add” in a specifically human exchange of information is that here the significance of information plays a special role for each participant in communication (Andreeva, 1981), because people not only “exchange” meanings, but, as A.N. Leontiev, strive to develop a common meaning. This is only possible if the information is not just accepted, but also understood and meaningful. The essence of the communication process is not just mutual information, but joint comprehension of the subject. Therefore, in every communicative process, activity, communication and cognition are actually given in unity. Secondly, the nature of the exchange of information between people, and not cybernetic devices, is determined by the fact that through a system of signs partners can influence each other. In other words, the exchange of such information necessarily involves influencing the behavior of the partner, i.e. a sign changes the state of participants in the communicative process; in this sense, “a sign in communication is like a tool in work” (Leontyev, 1972). The communicative influence that arises here is nothing more than psychological impact one communicator to another in order to change his behavior. The effectiveness of communication is measured precisely by how successful this impact is. This means that when exchanging information, the very type of relationship that has developed between the participants in communication changes. Nothing similar happens in “purely” information processes. Thirdly, communicative influence as a result of information exchange is possible only when the person sending the information (communicator) and the person receiving it (recipient) have a single or similar system of codification and decodification. In everyday language, this rule is expressed in the words: “everyone must speak the same language.” This is especially important because the communicator and the recipient constantly change places in the communication process. Any exchange of information between them is possible only on the condition that the signs and, most importantly, the meanings assigned to them are known to all participants in the communicative process. Only acceptance unified system meanings ensures that partners can understand each other. To describe this situation, social psychology borrows from linguistics the term “thesaurus”, which means common system values accepted by all members of the group. But the whole point is that, even knowing the meanings of the same words, people can understand them differently: social, political, age characteristics may be the reason for this. Also L.S. Vygotsky noted that thought is never equal to the direct meaning of words. Therefore, communicators must have identical - in the case of auditory speech - not only the lexical and syntactic systems, but also the same understanding of the communication situation. And this is possible only if communication is included in some general system of activity. This is well explained by J. Miller using an everyday example. It seems essential for us to make some distinction between interpreting an utterance and understanding it, since understanding is usually facilitated by something other than the linguistic context associated with that particular utterance. A husband, greeted at the door by his wife's words: “I bought some light bulbs today,” should not limit himself to their literal interpretation: he must understand that he needs to go to the kitchen and replace the burnt out light bulb. Finally, fourthly, in the conditions of human communication, completely specific communication barriers can arise. They are not associated with vulnerabilities in any communication channel or with encoding and decoding errors, but are social or psychological character. On the one hand, such barriers may arise due to the fact that there is a lack of understanding of the communication situation, caused not simply by the different language spoken by the participants in the communication process, but by deeper differences that exist between partners. These can be social, political, religious, professional differences, which not only give rise to different interpretations of the same concepts used in the process of communication, but also generally different attitudes, worldviews, and worldviews. Barriers of this kind are generated by objective social reasons, the belonging of communication partners to various social groups, and when they manifest themselves, the inclusion of communication in a broader system of social relations becomes especially clear. Communication in this case demonstrates its characteristic that it is only a side of communication. Naturally, the communication process takes place even in the presence of these barriers: even military opponents negotiate. But the whole situation of the communicative act is significantly complicated by their presence. On the other hand, barriers to communication may also be of a more purely psychological nature. They can arise either as a result of the individual psychological characteristics of the communicants (for example, excessive shyness of one of them (Zimbardo, 1993), the secrecy of another, the presence of a trait in someone called “uncommunicativeness”), or due to the special kind of psychological relationships that have developed between the communicants : hostility towards each other, mistrust, etc. In this case, the connection that exists between communication and attitude, which is naturally absent in cybernetic systems, becomes especially clear. All this allows us to pose the question of teaching communication in a completely special way, for example, in the context of socio-psychological training, which will be discussed in more detail below. The mentioned features of human communication do not allow us to consider it only in terms of information theory. Some terms from this theory used to describe this process always require a certain rethinking, at least those amendments discussed above. However, all this does not exclude the possibility of borrowing a number of concepts from information theory. For example, when constructing a typology of communication processes, it is advisable to use the concept of “signal directionality.” In the theory of communication, this term allows us to distinguish: a) axial communication process (from the Latin ahis - axis), when signals are sent to individual information receivers, i.e. to individuals; b) a real communication process (from the Latin rete - network), when signals are sent to many likely recipients. In the era of scientific and technological progress in connection with the gigantic development of means mass media The study of real communicative processes is of particular importance. Since in this case sending signals to the group makes the group members realize that they belong to this group, in the case of retial communication there is also not just a transfer of information, but also a social orientation of the participants in the communicative process. This also indicates that the essence of this process cannot be described only in terms of information theory. The dissemination of information in society occurs through a kind of filter of “trust” and “mistrust”. This filter acts in such a way that absolutely true information may be rejected, and false information may be accepted. Psychologically, it is extremely important to find out under what circumstances a particular channel of information can be blocked by this filter, as well as to identify means that help the acceptance of information and weaken the effects of filters. The combination of these means is called fascination. Various accompanying means act as fascination, acting as a “transportation”, an accompaniment of information, creating some additional background against which the main information benefits, since the background partially overcomes the filter of distrust. An example of fascination could be the musical accompaniment of speech, its spatial or color accompaniment. The information itself coming from the communicator can be of two types: motivating and stating. Incentive information is expressed in an order, advice, or request. It is designed to stimulate some action. Stimulation, in turn, can be different. First of all, this can be activation, i.e. motivation to act in a given direction. Further, it can be interdiction, i.e. an incentive that does not allow, on the contrary, certain actions, a prohibition of undesirable activities. Finally, it may be destabilization - a mismatch or disruption of some autonomous forms of behavior or activity. Ascertaining information appears in the form of a message; it takes place in various educational systems and does not imply a direct change in behavior, although it indirectly contributes to this. The very nature of the message can be different: the degree of objectivity can vary from a deliberately “indifferent” tone of presentation to the inclusion of fairly obvious elements of persuasion in the text of the message. The message option is specified by the communicator, i.e. the person from whom the information comes. Each of them must be considered separately. Verbal communication uses human speech, natural sound language, as a sign system, i.e. a system of phonetic signs that includes two principles: lexical and syntactic. Speech is the most universal remedy communication, since when transmitting information through speech, the meaning of the message is least lost. True, this must be accompanied high degree common understanding of the situation by all participants in the communication process, which was discussed above. With the help of speech, information is encoded and decoded: the communicator encodes while speaking, and the recipient decodes this information while listening. The terms “speaking” and “listening” were introduced by I.A. Zimnyaya as a designation of the psychological components of verbal communication (Zimnyaya, 1991). The sequence of actions of the speaker and the listener has been studied in sufficient detail. From the point of view of transmission and perception of the meaning of the message, the K - S - R (communicator - message - recipient) scheme is asymmetrical. For a communicator, the meaning of information precedes the encoding process (utterance), since the “speaker” first has a certain idea and then embodies it in a system of signs. For the “listener,” the meaning of the received message is revealed simultaneously with decoding. In this case, the significance of the situation of joint activity is especially clearly manifested: its awareness is included in the decoding process itself; revealing the meaning of the message is unthinkable outside of this situation. The accuracy of the listener’s understanding of the meaning of the statement can become obvious to the communicator only when there is a change in “communicative roles” (a conventional term meaning “speaker” and “listener”), i.e. when the recipient turns into a communicator and with his statement makes it known how he revealed the meaning of the received information. Dialogue, or dialogic speech, How specific type“conversation” is a consistent change of communicative roles, during which the meaning of the speech message is revealed, i.e. a phenomenon occurs that has been designated as “enrichment, development of information.” The degree of coherence between the actions of the communicator and the recipient in a situation where they alternately assume these roles largely depends on their inclusion in the general context of the activity. There are many experimental studies in which this dependence was revealed (in particular, studies devoted to establishing the level of operation with the joint meanings of the signs used). The success of verbal communication in the case of dialogue is determined by the extent to which the partners provide the thematic focus of the information, as well as its bilateral character. In general, regarding the use of speech as a certain sign system in the process of communication, everything that has been said about the essence of communication as a whole is true. In particular, when characterizing the dialogue, it is important to always keep in mind that it is conducted among themselves by individuals who have certain intentions (intentions), i.e. dialogue is “the active, two-way nature of interaction between partners.” This is what determines the need for attention to the interlocutor, consistency, and coordination of speech with him. Otherwise, the most important condition for the success of verbal communication will be violated - understanding the meaning of what the other person is saying, and ultimately - understanding and knowing another person (Bakhtin, 1979). This means that through speech it is not just “information that moves”, but the participants in communication influence each other in a special way, orient each other, convince each other, i.e. strive to achieve a certain change in behavior. There may be two different tasks in orienting a communication partner. A.A. Leontyev proposes to designate them as personal-speech orientation (LRO) and social-speech orientation (SRO), which reflects not so much the difference in the recipients of the message, but rather the predominant topic and content of communication. The influence itself can be understood in different ways: it can be in the nature of manipulation of another person, i.e. direct imposition of some position on him, or may contribute to the actualization of the partner, i.e. the discovery of some new possibilities in him and himself. In social psychology, there is a large number of experimental studies that elucidate the conditions and methods for increasing the effect of speech influence; both the forms of various communication barriers and ways to overcome them have been studied in sufficient detail. Thus, an expression of resistance to accepting information (and therefore the influence exerted) can be a disconnection of the listener’s attention, a deliberate reduction in one’s perception of the authority of the communicator, the same - intentional or unintentional “misunderstanding” of the message: either due to the specific phonetics of the speaker, or due to the peculiarities of its style or the logic of text construction. Accordingly, every speaker must have the ability to re-engage the listener’s attention, to attract him with something, to confirm his authority in the same way, to improve the manner of presenting the material, etc. (Krizhanskaya, Tretyakov, 1992). Of particular importance, of course, is the fact that the nature of the statement corresponds to the situation of communication (Bern, 1988), the measure and degree of the formal (ritual) nature of communication, etc. indicators. A set of certain measures aimed at increasing the effectiveness of speech influence is called “persuasive communication”, on the basis of which the so-called experimental rhetoric is developed - the art of persuasion through speech. To take into account all the variables included in the process of speech communication, K. Hovland proposed a “matrix of persuasive communication,” which is a kind of model of the speech communication process with the designation of its individual links. The point of constructing models of this kind (and several have been proposed) is to not miss a single element of the process when increasing the effectiveness of the impact. This can be shown using the simplest model proposed at one time by the American journalist G. Lasswell to study the persuasive influence of the media (in particular, newspapers). Lasswell's model of the communication process includes five elements. 1) Who? (transmits message) - Communicator 2) What? (transmitted) - Message (text) 3) How? (transfer in progress) - Channel 4) To whom? (message sent) - Audience 5) With what effect? - Efficiency A wide variety of studies have been undertaken on each element of this framework. For example, the characteristics of a communicator that contribute to increasing the effectiveness of his speech are comprehensively described, in particular, the types of his position during the communicative process are identified. There can be three such positions: open - the communicator openly declares himself a supporter of the stated point of view, evaluates various facts in support of this point of view; detached - the communicator is emphatically neutral, compares conflicting points of view, not excluding orientation towards one of them, but not openly stated; closed - the communicator is silent about his point of view, sometimes even resorting to special measures to hide it. Naturally, the content of each of these positions is determined by the goal, the task that is pursued in the communicative influence, but it is important that, in principle, each of these positions has certain capabilities for increasing the effect of influence (Bogomolova, 1991). Likewise, ways to increase the impact of text have been extensively explored. Communication in the system of interpersonal and social relations.Communication as the implementation of interpersonal relationships is a process more studied in social psychology, while communication between groups is more likely to be studied in sociology. Communication is forced by the joint life activity of people, given both in the case of a positive and in the case of a negative attitude of one person towards another. It is in communication that both social and interpersonal relationships are realized. Without communication, human society is simply unthinkable. Communication appears in it as a way of cementing individuals and at the same time as a way of developing these individuals themselves. Communication is understood as the process and result of establishing contacts between people or the interaction of subjects through various sign systems. Human communication resembles a kind of pyramid consisting of four sides: we exchange information, interact with other people, get to know them and, at the same time, experience our own state that arises as a result of communication. In its forms and types, communication is extremely unique. We can talk about direct and indirect communication, direct and indirect, verbal and non-verbal, etc. Direct communication is historically the first form of communication with each other. On its basis, in later periods of the development of civilization, various types of indirect communication arise. Indirect communication can be considered as incomplete psychological contact with the help of written or technical devices that make it difficult or separate in time to receive feedback between participants in communication. Interpersonal communication associated with direct contacts of people in groups or pairs with a constant composition of participants. Mass Communication – This is a variety of direct contacts between strangers, as well as communication mediated by various types of media. There are interpersonal and role communication. Participants in interpersonal communication are specific individuals, possessing unique individual qualities that are revealed to another in the course of communication and organization of joint actions. When role communication its participants act as bearers of certain roles (teacher - student, buyer - seller). In the process of such communication, a person is no longer reflected as an individual, but as a certain social unit performing certain functions. Communicating with other people, a person assimilates universal human experience, historically established social norms, values, knowledge and methods of activity, and is also formed as a person. Communication favors the most important factor mental development person. According to its purpose, communication is multifunctional. You can select five basic functions of communication. 1. Pragmatic function communication. It is realized through the interaction of people in the process of joint activity. 2. Formative. It manifests itself in the process of formation and change in a person’s mental appearance. During development, external, communication-mediated forms of interaction between a child and an adult are transformed into internal mental functions and processes, as well as into the independent external activity of the child. 3. Confirmation function. In the process of communicating with other people, a person gets the opportunity to know, approve and confirm himself. Wanting to establish himself in his existence and his value, a person seeks a foothold in other people. William James noted that for a person “there is no more monstrous punishment than to be left to one’s own devices in society and to remain absolutely unnoticed.” In many psychotherapeutic systems, this human state is captured by the concept of “disconfirmation.” Rituals, introductions, greetings, naming, providing various signs of attention, there are procedures organized according to the principle of the simplest “confirmatory therapy”. 4. The function of organizing and maintaining interpersonal relationships. Perceiving other people and maintaining various relationships with them (from intimate personal to purely business) is invariably associated with evaluating people and establishing certain emotional relationships - either positive or negative in their sign. They permeate the entire system of relationships between people, leaving their mark even on role relationships. 5. Intrapersonal communication function is realized in a person’s communication with himself (through internal or external speech, structured like a dialogue). Such communication can be considered as a universal way of human thinking. Communication in the system of interpersonal relations is carried out with the most diverse attitude of one person to another, both positive and negative. The type of interpersonal relationship is not indifferent to how communication will be built, but it exists in specific forms, even when the relationship is extremely strained. In social psychology there are three types of interpersonal communication. 1. Imperative communication– this is an authoritarian, directive form of interaction with a communication partner in order to achieve control over his behavior, attitudes and thoughts, forcing him to certain actions or decisions. In this case, the communication partner is considered as an object of influence and acts as a passive, “suffering” party. Effective in conditions: Military statutory relations; The relationship "superior - subordinate" in extreme situations; Work under emergency circumstances. Inappropriate: - in intimate – personal and marital relationships; In child-parent contacts; In the system of pedagogical relations. 2. Manipulative communication - This is a form of interpersonal communication in which influence on a communication partner in order to achieve one’s intentions is carried out covertly. Manipulation involves an objective perception of a communication partner, the desire to achieve control over the behavior and thoughts of another person. The area of “permitted manipulation” is business and business relationships in general. The manipulative style of communication is also widespread in the field of propaganda. Relationships built on love, friendship and mutual affection are most severely destroyed by manipulation, since during manipulative communication the partner is perceived not as an integral unique personality, but as a bearer of certain properties and qualities “needed” by the manipulator. By combining manipulative and imperative forms of communication, we can characterize them as different types monologue communication. A person who considers another as an object of his influence essentially communicates with himself, with his thoughts and tasks, without seeing the true interlocutor, ignoring him. 3. Dialogical communication – this is an equal subject - subjective interaction, with the goal of mutual knowledge, self-knowledge of communication partners. This is possible only if a number of relationship rules are observed: a) the presence of a psychological attitude towards current status the interlocutor and one’s own current psychological state (following the “here and now” principle); b) the use of a non-judgmental perception of the partner’s personality, an a priori attitude towards his intentions; c) perception of the partner as an equal, having the right to his own opinion and decisions; d) communication should be personalized, i.e., conduct a conversation on your own behalf (without reference to the opinions of authorities), present your true feelings and desires. Dialogical (humanistic) communication allows us to achieve deeper mutual understanding, self-disclosure of partners, and creates conditions for mutual personal growth. At the macro level, in the implementation of social relations, in the case when groups or individuals communicate with each other as representatives of social groups, the act of communication must inevitably take place, is forced to take place, even if the groups are antagonistic. This dual understanding of communication - in the broad and narrow sense of the word - follows from the very logic of understanding the connection between interpersonal and social relations. Structure of communication. There are several approaches to structuring communication. One of the frequently used approaches is that there are three interconnected aspects of communication – communicative, interactive and perceptual. Communication consists of the exchange of information between communicating individuals. The interactive side of communication manifests itself in the organization of interaction between participants in communication, i.e. in the exchange of not only knowledge, ideas, states, but also actions.  Loading... |