Kyiv simple warrior X century
Unfortunately, a modern resident of Russia imagines medieval Europe much better than Rus' of the same period. This is because almost all major ideas about the past are shaped by popular culture. And now it is imported from us. As a result, “Russian fantasy” differs from “non-Russian” fantasy often only by inclusions of “national flavor” in the form of Baba Yaga or the Nightingale the Robber.
By the way, epics should be taken more seriously. They contain a lot of interesting and reliable information about how and with what Russian soldiers fought. For example, the fabulous heroes - Ilya Muromets, Alyosha Popovich and Dobrynya Nikitich - are real historical figures. Although, their adventures, of course, are slightly embellished by popular rumor.
In a characteristically unpredictable Russian history There is, perhaps, only one point that raises no doubts. One way or another, in the 9th century the Russian state arose, and its history began. What was Rus' like in the era of Oleg, Igor and Svyatoslav?
In the 9th and 10th centuries, feudal relations in Rus' were just beginning to take shape. The peasants (except for a small number of captive slaves) remained free, and their duties to the state were limited to a modest quitrent.
The tribute in furs (which the prince had to collect personally, traveling around the estate) did not provide funds for the maintenance of a large squad. The main force of the Russian armies remained the militias of peasants, obliged to go on campaign at the first princely word.
However, one could hardly talk about duty here. Rather, it was the prince who was obliged to regularly lead his subjects on raids on their neighbors... On violent raids! So what to do? IN early middle ages robbery was the most profitable, albeit somewhat one-sided, form of trade.
Ordinary soldiers went on a campaign with spears and “huge”, “difficult to carry”, as the Byzantines defined it, shields. The small ax was used both for combat and for the construction of plows.
In addition, each fighter certainly had a bow. Hunting in Rus' in those days was still a very necessary trade for survival. The princely warriors, naturally, had chain mail, swords and battle axes. But there were only a few hundred such warriors.
Due to the need to cover long distances, walking on foot was not popular in Rus'. The infantry traveled on low horses, and even more often along rivers on plows. Therefore, in Rus', foot troops were often called “ship’s army”
Izhora simple warrior (X-XI centuries)
If the main force of the army was the cavalry, then the campaign was usually transferred to winter time. The army moved along the ice of the rivers, transformed by frost from natural obstacles (there were no bridges) into smooth highways. The heroic horses easily trampled down the deep snow, and the infantry rode behind them on sleighs.
However, especially in the southern part of the country, soldiers sometimes had to travel on foot. And in this regard, it is worth mentioning short boots with a curved toe and high heels. Contrary to the belief of many authors of “Russian fantasy” (starting with the animators of the cartoon “The Golden Cockerel”), no one in Rus' wore such shoes. Riding boots had high heels. Even in the Middle Ages, boots of the most ordinary style were used for walking on foot.
Princely warrior. Late 10th century
Despite the far from brilliant weapons and training of the troops, the Russian state showed itself to be quite strong already in the first century of its existence. Although, of course, only in its “weight category”. Thus, the campaigns of the Kyiv princes against the Khazar Kaganate led to the complete defeat of this state, which once collected tribute from the tribes of southern Rus'.
...In this time of ours, there is nothing left of either the Bulgarians, or the Burtases, or the Khazars. The fact is that the Russians invaded all of them and took away all these regions from them... Ibn-Haukal, Arab geographer of the 10th century
Mari noble warrior X century
Just as it happened in Europe, as feudal relations developed in Rus', an increasing number of peasants were attached to the land. Their labor was used to support the boyar and princely squads. The number of trained and well-armed warriors thus increased.
When the number of squads became comparable to the size of the militia, the squads took up a position on the flanks of the regiment. This is how the “regimental row” appeared from three regiments: “right hand”, “large” and “left hand”. The archers covering the battle formation soon formed a separate “advanced” regiment.
Russian warrior. Mid-10th century
In the 12th century, warriors stopped dismounting altogether. From that time on, cavalry became the main force of the Russian armies. The heavily armed horsemen were supported by mounted riflemen. These could be either Cossacks or simply hired Polovtsians.
The Russian knight of the 13th century wore chain mail, over which scales or leather armor with iron plates were put on. The warrior's head was protected by a conical helmet with a nosepiece or mask. In general, the “armor class” of warriors was not only very respectable for its time, but also surpassed that of European knights. The Bogatyrsky horse, however, was somewhat smaller in size than the European destrie, but the difference between them was insignificant.
On the other hand, the Russian knight sat on his huge horse in an Asian style - in a backless saddle with high-mounted stirrups. In this regard, protection on the legs by the Russians, as a rule, was not used. The advantage of the Asian seat was the greater mobility of the rider. Chainmail stockings would have been a hindrance.
The Asian seat allowed the rider to effectively use the sword and bow, but did not provide sufficient stability for fighting with spears. So the main weapons of the warriors were not spears, but swords and clubs.
In addition, unlike the European knight, the knight also carried with him a throwing weapon: a bow with a pair of darts.
D the misfortunes of the Pereyaslavl warrior. Reconstruction
Russian weapons in the 12-13 centuries, in general, were better than European ones. Nevertheless, even then, “their” knight in close combat was somewhat stronger than “our” knight. The European horseman had the opportunity to be the first to use his longer spear. But the Russian cavalry was superior to the European cavalry in mobility, variety of combat techniques and ability to interact with infantry.
The warriors of the knights were significantly superior in number. True, only in relation to the population of the country. The Novgorod land, where only about 250 thousand Slavs lived, had a squad of 1,500 horsemen. The Ryazan principality - far from the richest in Rus' - with a population of less than 400 thousand, fielded 2,000 horsemen in full armor. That is, in relation to military force Novgorod or Ryazan in the 13th century were approximately equal to a country like England.
In the 13th century, horse armor was used more often in Rus' than in Europe
The large number of heavy cavalry in Rus' is due to the fact that in the 11th-13th centuries Rus' became a predominantly trading country. Despite the fact that there were no people living in the Russian principalities more people than in England alone, the urban population of Rus' was greater than the urban population of all Western Europe. By the beginning of the 12th century, Kyiv had a population of 100 thousand. Only Constantinople could compare with it.
The great importance of cities in Rus' is well illustrated by the fact that all Russian principalities were named after their main cities: Moscow, Tver, Ryazan, Novgorod. France, for example, has never been called the “kingdom of Paris.”
Who are you, “free Cossack, yes Ilya Muromets”?
In fact, where did the Cossacks come from near Murom, and even in the 13th century? After all, the Cossacks seem to belong to a later era, and the Cossacks lived in Ukraine. Well, the geography is just fine. Murom, after all, was located in Ukraine. In Ryazan Ukraine. This is how the Ryazan principality was called from time immemorial. In Rus', all border lands were called “Ukrains” - “outskirts”.
And the Cossack... The Polovtsy called themselves Cossacks (Kazakhs, Kaysaks). It is not for nothing that the knight’s native village, Karacharovo, bears a Turkic name.
Nomadic Turkic tribes settled on the borders of Rus'. The Polovtsians converted to Orthodoxy and received land under the conditions of performing border service. In addition, the baptized Polovtsy - Cossacks or, as they were also called, “klobuks” - in the pre-Mongol period fielded light cavalry under the banners of the Russian princes.
However, the strangest thing about the figure of the epic knight is not his nationality. In order to think deeply about the inscription on the signpost stone (and such in Rus', indeed, were not uncommon), one had to be able to read. In the 12th and 13th centuries, literacy in Rus' was a common phenomenon in all layers of society.
Monument to Ilya Muromets in Murom
In the 12th-13th centuries, infantry in Rus' retained great importance in the northern principalities, where forests and swamps often impeded the actions of cavalry. Thus, the inhabitants of the Novgorod land not only provided funds for the maintenance of the squads of the prince and the mayor, but also armed themselves.
A significant difference between the Russian medieval infantry and the European infantry was that until the 17th century, pikes were not known in Rus'. In the European medieval phalanx, pikemen stood behind a row of shields, and only then spearmen.
In Rus', warriors with horns, spears and sulits stood immediately behind the shields.
The absence of pikes significantly weakened the infantry, since the spears could only provide some protection against light cavalry. The wedge of the crusaders during the Battle of the Ice was stopped not by the foot militia of Novgorod, but by the peculiarities of local geography.
The knights were prevented from flying from the ice of the lake to the shore by a low (only about 1.5 meters) but slippery cliff. The Germans either underestimated the steepness of the slope, or did not notice it at all, since their view was blocked by the Cossacks who drove out onto the ice.
The first row of the phalanx was formed by warriors with large shields
The main task of the Russian infantry in the 12th and 13th centuries was not the fight against cavalry in the field, but the defense of fortresses. Military operations on the rivers, where, naturally, the cavalry could not threaten the infantry, did not lose their importance. When defending the walls, as in the “river battles,” the battle was fought primarily by throwing. Therefore, the main weapon of the Russian infantryman was a longbow or crossbow.
The crossbow is traditionally considered a Western weapon. But crossbows came to Europe from Arab countries after Crusades in the 12th century. This weapon came to Rus', among other Asian wonders, along the Volga already in the 11th century.
Crossbows were used quite widely in Rus' throughout the Middle Ages. The state “crossbow yard” existed in Moscow until the 17th century.
Grand Duke Vasily III Ivanovich, 19th century drawing
If you look at the map of the Russian state in the 9th century, you will notice that the territory of the Moscow region was not yet included in the number of Russian lands. In fact, the lands between the Oka and Volga were developed by the Slavs only in the 11th century. By the standards of the Middle Ages, living conditions in this area could easily be called extreme.
It is all the more surprising that already in the middle of the 12th century the Vladimir land became the economic and political center of Rus'. Kievan Rus was replaced by Vladimir Rus.
The Vladimir land owed its rise to nothing other than the Great Silk Road - the main trade artery of the Middle Ages. The Caspian Sea and the Volga were convenient for transporting goods from Persia, India and China to Europe. Transportation along the Volga especially increased during the Crusades. The route to the Mediterranean Sea through Syria at this time became too dangerous.
And so European beauties began to dress in “Russian” silks, and references to “seven silks” and silk whips penetrated into Russian epics. Great value trade in Rus' is perfectly illustrated by the appearance in epics of the colorful figure of the merchant Sadko, looking down on Vladimir Krasno Solnyshko himself.
Unsinkable businessman Sadko
The tactics of the Russian armies constantly became more complicated, and already in the 12th-13th centuries it began to provide for the division of the battle order into 5-6 regiments. From the front, the battle formation was covered by 1-2 “advanced” regiments of horse archers. The “right hand”, “left hand” and “large” regiments could consist of both infantry and cavalry.
Moreover, if a large regiment consisted of infantry, then it, in turn, was divided into smaller “city regiments,” each with its own detachment of archers. And behind him there was also a strong cavalry detachment, covering the princely banner and serving as a reserve.
Finally, in the third line, behind one of the flanks there remained a “guard” or “ambush” regiment. This has always been the best cavalry
In the 14th century, Rus' was going through one of the most difficult periods of its history. The devastation of the country by civil strife, the invasion of the Mongols and the monstrous plague epidemic could not but affect its armed forces. The princes' squads became noticeably smaller. Accordingly, the role of the infantry increased. And she no longer had such weapons as before. The protective equipment of a foot warrior was now most often limited to a shirt lined with felt and hemp at the chest.
The cavalry changed even more. In the 14th and 15th centuries, the protective equipment of the Russian cavalry became noticeably lighter. The horses themselves became twice as light. In preparation for offensive actions, Dmitry Donskoy transferred his squad to short but hardy Trans-Volga horses.
Duel between Peresvet and Chelubey on the Kulikovo Field
The lightening of protective equipment was only partly due to the insufficient “carrying capacity” of horses and the general economic decline. The Russians never used full knightly armor, although the princes, of course, could afford it. Hard armor was not of interest to Russian soldiers, since in Rus' the transition from swords to sabers was completed already in the 15th century.
In battle with long knightly spears, mobility was not of great importance. It did not play a decisive role in combat with heavy swords or axes. But on sabers... In saber fighting, mobility was so important that in the 18th-19th centuries hussars even wore a jacket (“mentik”) only on one shoulder in order to completely free right hand. A warrior could only effectively use a saber wearing light and flexible armor.
By the middle of the 15th century, the Moscow army again became predominantly cavalry. The heavy cavalry consisted of nobles and their slaves (as squires were called in Rus'). Light cavalry was fielded by the Cossacks and allied Tatars.
As before, chain mail was most often used as protective equipment for mounted warriors. But ringed armor, although it made it possible to wield a saber, did not itself provide satisfactory protection from saber strikes. In an effort to increase the reliability of armor, Russian armor workers brought the weight of chain mail to 24 kg by the 15th-16th centuries. But this did not solve the problem.
Forged chain mail (made of large flat rings 2 mm thick, connected by ordinary wire rings) did not solve the problem either. Such chain mail, of course, could not be cut, but piercing blows “held” even worse. Therefore, kaftans stuffed with cotton wool, hemp and horsehair began to be worn over chain mail more and more often. In the same way, fur hats were worn over helmets to protect against saber strikes.
In the 16th century, metal shields or even European-style cuirasses began to be attached to caftans with belts. Russian horsemen of the 15th and 16th centuries were armed with sabers, poles, flails, darts, bows and short spears with a huge scimitar-like tip.
Moscow horseman of the 15th century
At the end of the 15th century, cities still continued to field infantry. Armed with bows and long reeds, foot soldiers wore hemp armor. From this time on, the foot warrior in Rus' began to be called a archer. That is, a shooter. Close combat was to be carried out by cavalry. Already in the 15th century, the arquebus became the best weapon for a shooter. The bullet could pierce the armor of a Livonian knight or knock down a Tatar horse. But there were still not enough townspeople in Moscow capable of purchasing arquebuses.
Ivan III got out of the situation by starting to finance the purchase of guns from the treasury. This is how “official beepers” appeared in Rus'.
In the 16th century, most townspeople were exempted from military service. A minority of townspeople (in Moscow about 25%) formed the class of archers. Later, horse archers were added to the foot archers - “stirrup”. In Europe they would be called dragoons.
Squeakers. Early 15th century
The entire history of Muscovy in the 14th and 15th centuries can be described in one word: “war.” Like the inhabitants of early Rome, the Muscovites went on a campaign annually, as if for field work. The neighbors, however, did not remain in debt, so in some years several wars happened at once. But Moscow won. In 1480, Sarai was destroyed by the troops of Ivan III. Having learned about this, the Tatars fled from the Ugra. The yoke is over.
The end of the 15th century became turning point in the history of Rus'. During the reign of Ivan III, Moscow defeated the Horde and united the northern Russian principalities. In addition, Muscovy had to enter into a long war with the Polish-Lithuanian union, which outnumbered the population five times. In 1503, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, having ceded a significant part of the territory to Muscovy, concluded a truce.
Sagittarius - “official squeaker”
Russian history can safely be called long-suffering. Only in the 20th century it was rewritten several times. But no matter what the next guidelines turn out to be, the truth cannot be strangled or killed!
But the truth is that history is written by the winners. Or, at least, those who manage to survive it. The Byzantines, for example, will no longer be able to rewrite their history. And the Khazars won’t be able to either.
The fact that the history of Russia has not yet been written is conclusive proof of the strength and effectiveness of Russian weapons.
Berserk is an effective and deliberately caused combat frenzy, as an extraordinary phenomenon of human fortitude, in ancient Germanic and ancient Scandinavian society a warrior who dedicated himself to the god Odin.
Among the Germanic peoples it turned into a kind of cult of the warrior-beast. Animal-like “transformations,” which are the highest form of development of combat rage, are known among all Germans. Late ancient historians report on the “Frankish fury”, on the “wolf warriors” of the Lombard people... At the same time, such unstoppable forces were released that even a closed, disciplined formation and the art of “correct combat” could not always resist them.
Even the Vikings themselves treated berserkers in their pure form with a feeling halfway between admiration, fearful respect and contempt. These are the true “dogs of war”; if they were able to be used, it was mainly in the position of “tamed animals”.
Berserkers were protected from throwing (and also from striking) weapons by a kind of “wisdom of madness.” Disinhibited consciousness enabled extreme responsiveness, sharpened peripheral vision, and likely enabled some extrasensory skills. The berserker saw (or even predicted) any blow and managed to parry it or bounce away.
Traditionally, berserkers formed the vanguard of the battle. They could not fight for long (the combat trance cannot last long), having broken the ranks of the enemies and laid the foundation for a common victory, they left the battlefield to ordinary warriors who completed the defeat of the enemy.
Not every berserker knew how to competently use internal energy. Sometimes they spent it too extensively - and then after the battle the warrior fell into a state of “berserker impotence” for a long time, which could not be explained only by physical fatigue.
The attacks of this powerlessness were so severe that the beast warrior could sometimes die after the battle, without even being wounded.
The Slavs had their own “berserkers” - wolf-knights. And not a single berserker could compare with the Slavic knight, because “The Slavs surpass the Germans both in body and spirit, fighting with bestial ferocity...” (Jordan, ancient historian, 6th century).
The knight is the living embodiment of Slavic anger. Already in the name you can hear a furious animal roar, and the word itself literally means “growl warrior.” In Rus', knights were special warriors who were able to successfully fight against an enemy many times superior in numbers, under any conditions, with all types of weapons, simultaneously with both hands. The knight outwardly looks like a complete madman, but internally he remains icy calm. The purpose of his life is to serve his family. Historical sources they say that one knight was able to disperse 10-20 warriors, and two knights put a hundred armed people to flight.
Three hundred knights of the city of Arkona - guards of the temple of Svetovit, terrified the entire non-Slavic coast of the Baltic. The temple of Radogost in the city of Retra was famous for the same warriors. There was even a whole Slavic tribe of knights - Lutichi(from the word “fierce”), all of whose warriors fought in wolf skins.
A warrior who wanted to find a patron spirit, usually a wolf or a bear, had to fight them alone and naked. This is the reason why the enemies were so afraid of the knight, and the one who went through this test himself became more dangerous than the beast he defeated.The knights fought naked or wearing only animal skins, without chain mail and shields (they simply got in their way!). They were always the first to rush into battle, with a battle cry “ Yar!» rushing forward. Roaring like those possessed, the knights destroyed their opponents, cutting a footman in half in a jump, and a horseman to the saddle. Having lost his weapon, having fallen under enemy arrows, the knight continued to tear apart enemies with his bare hands, without fear of death, without feeling either pain or fear, possessing an unbending will. And neither steel nor fire could do anything with them.
The Slavic princes recruited close warriors and comrades-in-arms from the knights, and often they themselves were knights-wolfhounds.
The rulers of Byzantium, China, the Caliphate - all had heard about the great Slavic warriors, and had in their troops elite guards units assembled exclusively from Slavs.
“Olbeg Ratiborich, take your bow, and lay a shot, and strike Itlar in the heart, and beat up his entire squad... “(Radziwill Chronicle: L.: Nauka, 1989, p. 91.) Eloquently.
The Nikon Chronicle speaks no less eloquently about Ragdai: “And this man went against three hundred soldiers” (!).
“Ragdai died as a daring warrior, as he ran into three hundred warriors” (Ragdai died as a daring warrior, who fought alone against 300 warriors).
What is this, hero worship? Where there! The chronicler is disgusted by the “ungodliness” of the bloody showdowns. Barbarian beauty is not his path at all. This is the real point.It is known from legends that Raghdai was like a wolf, and tales about the treasure sword originate from this character. Which he waved as if it had no weight.
“The filthy ones had nine hundred mines, and Rus' had ninety copies. Those who rise to the strength, the abominations of the pond, and ours are against them... And the wallpaper was dreamed of, and evil was coming... and the Polovtsians fled, and ours chased after them, they slashed..." (Radziwill Chronicle, p. 134. 26)..
Unfortunately, much of what our forefathers could and did is now lost, forgotten, shrouded in secrecy and dark rumors, and requires new discovery. Fortunately, the roots are not completely lost...
Few researchers draw parallels with Russian fairy tales about Ivan Tsarevich and the Gray Wolf; about Sivka the Burka, through whose ear the good fellow, having made his way, received new strength; about Van turning into a Bear, etc.
The legends of the skalds speak of berserkers as great creators of victories. In ancient Russian fairy tales - as about werewolves for the sake of victories on a larger scale. Everything worked out for the sorcerer warriors because they had the highest, inhuman capabilities. For they were the favorites of the Gods! Masters of extraordinary powers!
By awakening within oneself the accumulated reserves of evolution and animal nature and combining THIS with the trance capabilities of human consciousness, one can actually be a super-activated person - for the sake of success and victories in life.
Mastering trance skills, hypnoid qualities, special condition, into which the Berserker falls to induce a “gloomy” stupor on the enemy. The victorious maneuvers of the Berserker are so fast and high-quality that the enemy does not even have time to understand that he no longer exists...
It is impossible to defend against the powerful energy of Berserkers, nothing can stop them, because in an instant of the enemy’s reaction, the Berserker manages to get ahead of the enemy by several moves and deliver 3-4 victorious blows.
Berserk is not just a warrior’s teaching, but, unfortunately, it became such in official history; the Judeo-Christian Church stood in the way of this closed brotherhood, outlawing berserkers, after which these people were exterminated for a reward. Since that time, it has been generally accepted that these were ill-mannered people, full of anger and rage, who were impossible to control.
SECRET WEAPONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD: WEREWOLVES AGAINST ARMIES
“Having arranged an interrogation, Alexander began to find out where the captives were from. But the barbarians, having fallen into a dying frenzy, seemed to rejoice in the torment, as if someone else’s body was suffering from scourges.” Byzantine Chronicles Tales of bestial warriors are very typical of early sources describing the battles of antiquity.
Scandinavian berserkers and Slavic wolfhounds haunt serious historians and young fantasy lovers. They are credited with certain qualities, which can most easily be explained by battle magic and the magic of forest sorcerers. It’s easiest when there is no desire to look for answers to questions. But we, contrary to generally accepted patterns, will try to find a rational grain in one of the main secrets of ancient Europe. The main distinguishing feature of an elite lone warrior is his seemingly supernatural strength, which allows him to fight many armed opponents. Inhuman speed and insensitivity to pain make the “werewolf” truly a weapon of mass destruction. But there's another one important point, characterizing a warrior-beast. As a rule, he moved ahead of the main detachment, which means he was the first to engage in battle with (!) the ranks of the enemy army that had not yet been broken.
From point of view common sense This is not only stupid, but also impossible in principle. Unless they hid a barrel of gunpowder under the wolf's skin. But there was no gunpowder then, and the poor guy had to tear the enemy apart with his hands. To explain this phenomenon, they resort to both fly agarics and combat trance. Having read this crap, young romantics comb the forests in search of magic mushrooms and jump with tambourines, trying to find true power. Strength does not increase, and neither does intelligence.
Belov Alexander Konstantinovich (Selidor) reasonably suggests that berserkers, apparently, possessed certain mental properties, possibly having a genetic basis. This is quite plausible, given the fact that any trait, including those from the field of behavioral psychology, is, to one degree or another, based on genetics.
But then the question arises: “If there is a certain “berserker gene,” then why does it not manifest itself in the modern world?”
After all, if back in the 12th century a special decree was issued in Iceland prohibiting animal madness, then, apparently, we are dealing with a once quite widespread phenomenon. In general, genetics itself is only half the battle. Environment must facilitate the disclosure of the necessary properties, otherwise the gene will lie dormant. That is, genes are turned on by the environment.
With the transition to a civilized society, circumstances could well have arisen in which the “genes of fury” were out of work. Beast warriors could well be difficult to control, and therefore made life considerably more difficult for themselves and those around them. In the era of large military formations, smooth formations and coordinated interaction of many units, “werewolves” could find themselves without work.
And yet, what could be the material nature of this interesting phenomenon, if, of course, it really existed? Slavic wolfhounds and Scandinavian berserkers have always inspired terror in their opponents. Isn't this their true superiority? As Napoleon used to say: “Ten thousand vanquished men retreat before ten thousand victors simply because they have lost heart...” A demoralized enemy is unable to fight. Moreover, the key to defeat is to open the ranks of the enemy detachment. Isn't that why they were sent? terrifying warriors ahead of their own, so that strangers falter and break the ranks?
Many years of experience in abattoir combat shows that a lone individual has a chance of victory only in the case of deep mental superiority over the opposing enemy group. That is, the hunter must not only believe in his victory, but also passionately desire to fight the enemy, feeling his own strength. Only by feeling like a shark in a pool of swimmers can he be truly effective. And not only because in such a state he does not know fear, the consequence of which is muscle stiffness. The point is also that the attacking unit reacts sharply to the movements of the central fighter. The hunter's confident, powerful movements mentally suppress the attackers, and they simply do not risk exchanging blows.
More than once I have had the opportunity to observe how a hunter on a competition site chases a fighting troika, as if for a moment turning into an invulnerable werewolf. And I’ll note again: it’s all about the psychological processing of the fighter. One pleasant spring evening, a group of athletes encountered a numerically superior herd of Gopniks. The resulting fight ended in victory for the former. However, the “city street hyenas” were thirsty for revenge and tracked down the offenders, waiting until the enemy group was reduced to three people. By this time, the gopas themselves had received more reinforcements and launched an open attack right next to the city hall building. Stones and bottles were thrown at the athletes, and the herd rushed into battle. Suddenly they saw someone running towards them, dodging the cobblestones, who, according to all the laws of logic, should have sought shelter. The fittings glittered unkindly in his hands.
And then everything developed according to a completely illogical scenario. The first ranks of the attackers wavered and turned back, colliding with those who were pressing from behind. For a second, a pile of malas appeared, and then, obeying the herd instinct, the “posons” fled from the battlefield, holding up their pants. The battle was won without a single blow. Why? The one who came to meet them went to kill, stepping over his death. And such an intention is easily and quickly read by both animals and humans. Any dog breeder knows that animals perfectly sense a person’s fear or confidence. This mechanism is associated with the body’s hormonal response to the current situation. Thus, fear is caused by the action of adrenaline, and it is its smell that the predator senses, immediately recognizing the prey behind it. Rage is a product of norepinephrine, and feels just as good. People, oddly enough, react to all these aromas that enter the air along with sweat, no less acutely than four-legged pets.
However, this mechanism is not able to explain the combat effect of an overclocked psyche. Academician Bekhterev, who at the beginning of the last century studied on request, will come to our aid Soviet power crowd behavior. If I'm not mistaken, it was he who introduced the concept of “dominant”. The fact is that human behavior is based on foci of excitation in the brain. The dominant focus in its strength is called the dominant. Each neuron, receiving a signal from the outside, independently, based on many factors, decides whether to be excited or not. If the excited neurons gain a certain critical mass, a dominant appears. And human behavior obeys its program.
It is interesting that the spread of excitement in the crowd follows this same pattern. Each individual, based on a set of external stimuli, makes a decision whether to respond or not. The more people who fall under the power of the exciting force, the greater the percentage of probability that each new member of the crowd will fall under its influence. This is how the speaker’s dominance is transmitted to the protesters. Only, if in the case of brain neurons the communicative function was performed by neurotransmitters (say, dopamine), then in a situation with a group of people it will be verbal and non-verbal signals. Up to 70% of information during human contact is transmitted by the sphere of the unconscious. At this level, we easily and naturally unconsciously encode each other. We encode the psyche of the interlocutor for the appropriate reaction.
This reaction, for example, may be the activity of the amygdala and, as a result, fear. Posture, facial expressions, gestures, voice timbre, motor specificity itself - everything is subordinate to the emerging dominant. And this huge flow of information, absolutely not subject to falsification, falls on the subconscious of the people around, and they, of course, react.
Neurophysiologists operate with the concept of “strong nervous system" By this term they understand the ability of the nervous system to quickly and powerfully move into an excited state and maintain it for some time. True... after this there may be a period of nervous exhaustion. Doesn't this remind you of anything?..
The secret of the wolfhounds did not disappear into eternity with them. True, today there is no need to put on wolf skins. Mental suppression of the enemy, coupled with the advanced capabilities of the human body, continues to be studied in military laboratories. But in civil society the law of 1123 is still in effect, depriving the berserker of the right to life and freedom...
In conditions of acute confrontation with warlike neighbors, Ancient Rus' would not have been able to establish itself as an independent national entity, which would be recognized and taken into account by other peoples, without a well-organized military affairs. During the formation of tribal unions, during the so-called period of military democracy, in case of general danger or during campaigns, the Slavs gathered an army and elected a leader - a prince. Initially, he was elected at a people's meeting - the veche, and then the power of the prince became hereditary. There were also advisers with him - tribal elders. The prince was entitled to a large share of military spoils and income from the land, which allowed him to maintain a squad with him - military comrades, professional warriors. Thus, an apparatus of power and a permanent core of troops were gradually created. By the end of the 8th century, the military forces of the ancient Slavs consisted of princely squads and people's militia. The militia was organizationally divided into clans (hundreds), tribes (regiments) and a union of tribes (army). The number of such formations at that time was different: for example, a clan - from 50 to 100 warriors.
The basis of the army was made up of foot soldiers, armed with two spears - a light throwing one (sulitsa) and a heavy one for hand-to-hand combat, as well as bows and swords. There was also cavalry. Byzantine sources repeatedly reported on Slavic horsemen who won victories even over the heavily armed cavalry (cataphracts) of the empire: “One of the enemy detachments (Slavs) entered into battle with Asbad (a warrior from the emperor’s bodyguard detachment). He commanded the regular cavalry, which... consisted of numerous excellent horsemen. And without much difficulty the Slavs put them to flight and killed many during this shameful flight” (1).
The battle formation of the Slavs was a deep formation in the form of columns. United by clan and tribal ties, they possessed enormous striking power. It is no coincidence that Byzantine military treatises ordered their commanders to maintain extreme caution when invading the lands of the Slavs: to have strong reconnaissance, fortify overnight and camp sites, and choose fairly level terrain for battle. All these precautions indicated that the Byzantine army, which preferred to fight with throwing weapons (archery) at a distance, could not withstand the massive pressure of the Slavic columns.
Slavic warriors fought skillfully both on the plain and in forests and mountains. Unlike the Byzantines, they sought to get close to the enemy, hit him with spears and arrows, and then began to fight hand-to-hand. The Danish chronicler Saxo Grammaticus (1140-1208) reported that the main fighting quality of the Slavic warrior was determination in battle: “In hand-to-hand combat, the Slavs threw the shield behind their backs... and with an open load... with a sword in their hand they rushed at the enemy "(2).
In the fight against the enemy, he improved and gained combat experience. If the enemy invaded unexpectedly and with a large army, the Slavic warriors attacked him in small detachments and “were in no hurry to measure their strength.” They used false retreats, organized ambushes and night attacks, exhausting and weakening the invaders. Having tired the enemy, the columns of the Slavs suddenly fell on him, trying to inflict damage on him. complete defeat. Such tactics terrified the Byzantine warriors: every gorge and forest area was fraught with formidable danger. It is known that in 602 Byzantine soldiers rebelled, flatly refusing to participate in the campaign against the Slavic lands.
The Slavs widely used military cunning. They skillfully camouflaged themselves in the area. A Byzantine source says that the Slavs “were accustomed to hiding behind small stones or behind the first bush they came across and catching enemies” (3). Being taken by surprise, they knew how to dive into the water and for a long time, breathing through a hollow reed, stay at the bottom of the river. Byzantine writer of the 7th century. Theophylact Simokatta wrote that during campaigns, Slavic warriors set up field fortifications - camps made of carts. Hiding behind the carts, the Slavs inflicted heavy losses on the enemy with archery and carried out unexpected forays.
But it was not only on land that Slavic warriors distinguished themselves in battles. They were also known as skilled shipbuilders and sailors. Their longships (boats) could accommodate up to 20 warriors. The boat fleet made long sea voyages to Greece, Italy, Spain, and boldly entered into single combat with the Byzantine fleet. The Slavs skillfully organized the interaction of their fleet and ground forces. Sometimes, having started a battle on land, they pinned down the main forces of the enemy and at the same time landed part of the army in his rear on boats, “actions according to ... with the help of countless numbers of ships cut from one trunk (one-tree)
" (4).
Before battle, Slavic warriors swore an oath: to stand to the death for their father and brother, for the lives of their relatives. The word of honor was highly valued and obliged warriors to observe military twinning. Those who violated it were “knocked out of the ground” - expelled from the territory of the tribe. The Slavs considered captivity a disgrace. Such coordination in actions was inaccessible to the multi-ethnic army of the empire - in many ways, only the fear of cruel punishments kept the huge formations of the Byzantine phalanx in obedience. The resilience of the ancient Russian warrior in hand-to-hand combat was noted by Byzantine chroniclers. So, in 1019, the Byzantine army fought in Italy and in the first three battles suffered defeats from the Normans, “who remained victorious, but in the fourth battle, where they had to fight the Russian people (a detachment of Russian soldiers), they (the Normans) were defeated , turned into nothing” (5).
The combat skills of warriors were acquired not only in battles, but also in constant exercises in peacetime. Usually, at funeral feasts (funerals for deceased relatives), competitions of experienced warriors were organized, who introduced youths to the military profession. The fight of an unarmed warrior against an armed one was shown, the so-called abattoir fight, which included elements of protection from a sword or spear during a fight. The accumulated combat experience was passed on from generation to generation, preserving the best military traditions of Slavic warriors.
The Russian army, in the struggle to strengthen the political and economic positions of their state, showed high examples of military art, which clearly manifested themselves during the period of intense confrontation Kievan Rus with Khazaria and Byzantium in the 10th century.
But Rus' was forced to fight not only the empire and the kaganate. Its borders were constantly hit by waves of raids by nomadic Pechenegs and Polovtsians. As for the Pecheneg raids, under Svyatoslav’s successors the Pechenegs tried to attack Rus', but were able to withstand only about eight battles. In 1036, the Kiev prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich (ruled from 1015 to 1054) inflicted a crushing defeat on the Pecheneg hordes, after which the Pechenegs chose to live in peace and carry out border service in Rus'. To combat the nomadic danger, the Russian princes built a network of fortified fortress cities along the Desna, Vorskla, Sula, Stugna, and Ros rivers, which strengthened the defense of the steppe borders. Not only the garrisons of fortresses, but also mobile cavalry units took part in their defense. Having received news of the attack, they quickly went to the threatened areas and began to fight the nomads. Russian warriors achieved no less success in naval affairs.
The fleet of Kievan Rus consisted of longships. The river boat was made from hollowed out trunks of aspen, linden or oak. Sometimes three or four boards, each up to 30 centimeters high, were sewn onto the base. Such a boat (dugout, single-tree) easily crossed shallow waters and was dragged through dangerous river rapids without much difficulty.
Vessels intended for navigation on the seas had from 15 to 20 pairs of oars, were equipped with sails, were distinguished by sufficient speed and could accommodate from 40 to 50 people with supplies. A sea boat could accommodate from 8 to 10 war horses. In the middle of the 12th century, decked military ships with two rudders - stern and bow, which had great maneuverability, began to be built on the Dnieper.
The Rus' boat fleet was an integral part of their fighting forces and had its own characteristics. Therefore, there is no reason to assert that Rus' borrowed the art of navigation from the Scandinavians, as well as statehood.
The tactics of the Russian boat fleet can be judged by the news of an eyewitness - a major scientist of the 11th century, advisor to the Byzantine emperor Constantine (Michael) Psellus.
In 1042, Constantine IX Monomakh (1042-1055) ascended the throne, who dealt not only with his rivals, but also with those who could potentially support them. The Russian ambassador was one of the first to fall dead. In Constantinople, the emperor provoked an attack on Russian merchants and plundered the Orthodox monastery in Athos. In response, the last one took place sea voyage Russian boat fleet to Byzantium. It was headed by Yaroslav's son Vladimir.
In 1043, 15 thousand Russian soldiers on 400 boats unexpectedly appeared at the walls of the capital of Byzantium. Emperor Constantine Monomakh assembled a fleet - fire-carrying ships and heavy "transport" palace ships and lined them up against the Russian boats, "standing at the harbor on the other side." The Russians, the Byzantine historian reports, placed all their ships one by one in a row, in a chain, so to either “attack us themselves, or accept our attack.”
The opponents, having lined up their ships in battle formation at a certain distance from each other, did not move for a long time. The Russians expected an attack by Byzantine ships, and the Byzantines - Russians. Unable to withstand the tension, the Byzantine emperor ordered two large ships to go to the Russians. “When they came forward smoothly and orderly, the spearmen and stone throwers from above raised a war cry, and the fire throwers lined up in an order convenient for throwing it; then most of the enemy boats sent towards, rowing quickly, rushed towards our ships, and then, dividing, surrounding and, as it were, encircling each of the individual triremes, tried to break through them from below with beams” (6).
Soon, the concerned Byzantine emperor sent all his ships to the Russian fleet, but things did not come to a general battle. Nature helped the Byzantines. An ensuing storm prevented the battle. A strong whirlwind pretty much battered the Russian boats, some of them were thrown ashore, as the Russian chronicler wrote, “and smashed the ships of Rus'.”
The Byzantine emperor organized the pursuit of the surviving part of the Russian flotilla. The Russians met 24 ships sent against them and boldly entered the battle. The Byzantines were defeated.
Vladimir Yaroslavich returned to Kyiv on boats. But a different fate awaited 6 thousand Russian soldiers, thrown ashore by a storm. They decided to reach their homeland by land, but near Varna they were surrounded and taken prisoner. The emperor ordered some of them to have their eyes gouged out, and others to have their right hands cut off so that they could not raise a sword against the empire.
Yaroslav began preparing a new campaign, and in the meantime, the emperor, who had come to his senses, hastened to send an embassy to Kyiv. He promised to compensate for all losses incurred by Russian merchants, return the prisoners to their homeland and give sixteen-year-old Vsevolod Yaroslavich his daughter Princess Maria, the future mother of the Russian commander Vladimir Monomakh, as his wife. In 1046 peace was concluded.
Thus ended the Russian campaign against Constantinople. The experience of this campaign testifies that the Russian boat fleet fought at sea in a certain, long-established formation. Having large Byzantine ships in front of them, Russian longships lined up “one in a row.” This battle formation was suitable both for attacking and for meeting the advancing enemy. When attacking, Russian boats rushed in groups towards large enemy ships. Each group of people surrounded the ship and immediately began to destroy its sides. As a result of these actions, the ship, having received holes, sank into the sea. There were probably also means (hooks with rope ladders) for climbing from the boats onto the side of the ship. Not only on land, but also at sea, Russian soldiers were able to fight with experienced enemy sailors, which, undoubtedly, were the sailors of Byzantium.
In the last years of Yaroslav's reign, Kievan Rus reached the apogee of power. After the death of his brother Mstislav Vladimirovich in 1036, the Kiev prince became the sole “autocrat of the Russian land.”
Two years before his death, he divided the Russian lands between his sons. He gave Kyiv to Izyaslav, Chernigov to Svyatoslav, and Vsevolod was imprisoned in Pereyaslavl. At the same time, he ordered his sons not to quarrel over lands. But this reasonable advice had no effect. After the death of Yaroslav in 1054, the first signs of feudal fragmentation appeared in the lands of Rus'.
During the era of the beginning of the collapse of the once unified state into separate principalities, changes also occurred in the military organization of Rus'. In the armed forces, feudal militias - armed detachments, fielded by individual princes - began to occupy an increasing place. These units were called regiments. The regiments were gathered in the cities of the Russian lands and brought to the battlefield by the princes. The regiments were called by the name of the territory in which they were assembled (Kiev regiment, Novgorod regiment), or by the name of the prince who led the regiment. In the event of a serious military danger, at the call of the people's veche (meeting), a militia of free people - peasants and townspeople - was convened. Each family sent adult sons to it, with the exception of the youngest. Refusal was considered a shame. The people's militia took part in all major wars against external enemies. Only thanks to the support of the people were the grandiose campaigns and victories of the Russian army possible. The order of battle was also changed. It has been divided along the front and in depth, becoming more complex and flexible. Usually the Russian army at this time was built in a regimental row, which consisted of several independent regiments united by a common command: an advanced one, sometimes two advanced regiments in the first line, a right wing, a center and a left wing in the second line. In front of the first line were soldiers armed with throwing weapons. The division of the Russian army into regiments can be traced throughout the entire period of developed feudalism. The regimental row became the main battle formation of the Russian army. It had the necessary stability and at the same time allowed flexible maneuvering on the battlefield, allowing regimental leaders to take the initiative in battle.
For battle, a wide, flat area was usually chosen, where visual and sound communication could be maintained between the regiments. After this, the Russian army formed into battle formation. The right to build (“arrange”) regiments before the battle belonged to the eldest prince. The army was controlled orally and with the help of signals with a banner, the sounds of a horn, trumpets and a tambourine. The battle began with warriors armed with throwing weapons. Being in front of the front regiment, they bombarded the enemy with arrows from a distance of 150-200 steps, and then retreated to the first line, i.e. to the forward regiment. Along with bows, Russian warriors skillfully used crossbows. The crossbow was a bow that was attached to a wooden stock equipped with a device for throwing arrows out of a special chute.
The riders were armed with a saber and a lightweight sword, adapted for cutting from a horse. But the predominant place in the cavalry was occupied by a heavily armed warrior with a spear. In the infantry, the warrior preferred an ax and throwing weapons. The outcome of the battle was decided in hand-to-hand combat.
The marching order of the Russian army during this period still consisted of guards, main forces and convoys. The guards were the most experienced warriors, who were entrusted with reconnaissance and security during the campaign. The watchman was given great importance. The success of the entire campaign depended on reconnaissance of routes, timely collection of information about the enemy, and skillful guarding of the main forces during the campaign. With the help of foot envoys and mounted messengers, the “capital city” (capital) kept in touch with the army that had gone on a campaign. In case of extreme importance and complete secrecy of the news, it was encrypted, sealed and sent with authorized persons. There were several methods of secret writing. In Rus', encrypted news was called “gibberish letters” when the Glagolitic alphabet (signs) was used instead of the Cyrillic alphabet. In addition to messengers, signaling using fires was widely used. Signals were transmitted from special observation points located in the direction of a probable enemy invasion, from one point to another, until they reached the capital city.
The warriors in Rus' had the right to transfer to service from one prince to another. This right was confirmed every time in princely agreements. However, such transitions were very rare. Since loyalty to the prince was considered one of the highest virtues of a warrior. It was considered a shame for the squad and for each of its members to leave the battlefield, and for the prince it was shameful to abandon his squad in danger. Military exploits and military merits have not gone without rewards since ancient times. The earliest insignia were gold neck hryvnias - medals that were worn around the neck on a chain.
Russian squads were familiar with the use of ambushes, luring the enemy with a deliberate retreat and then suddenly going on the offensive. Variety of combat formations and tactics indicates that Russian military art during this period was in many ways superior to the military art of Western European countries, where the battlefields were dominated by single combat of heavily armed knights, and infantry played the role of a living obstacle, doomed to destruction. It should also be noted that there are shortcomings in the organization of the armed forces of the Old Russian state - the emerging disunity of the troops of the princes, which the nomadic peoples took advantage of when raiding Rus'. Princely strife ruined the people, undermined Russian statehood, creating a crisis situation within the country. This was aggravated by the invasion of nomadic hordes and had the character of a nationwide disaster.
In the 11th century In the southern Russian steppes, the Torks were replaced by Polovtsian hordes. And if the Torks were quite easily repulsed even by Vsevolod’s Pereyaslav army, then the wave of nomads that followed them marked the beginning of the grueling wars between Rus' and the steppe, which lasted more than 150 years. Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh (1053-1125) had to break the power of the Polovtsians. He managed to unite the military forces of the principalities and move from passive defense to a strategic offensive deep into the Polovtsian steppes. The results of the campaigns against the Cumans (1103, 1107, 1111) were impressive. Part of the hordes migrated to the North Caucasus and Georgia. The borders of Rus' have found peace. However, with the death of Vladimir Monomakh in 1125, the process of separation of Russian principalities resumed. The united Old Russian state practically ceased to exist, but its legacy in military affairs had a huge impact on the construction of the armed forces and the development of military art in subsequent centuries.
* * *
The wars of Ancient Rus' significantly enriched Russian military art: the strategy, tactics and organization of Russian troops received further development.
The strategy of the Russian army was decisive. For this purpose, long campaigns were carried out into enemy territory. Finding and defeating the main forces of the enemy was the main task of the Russian troops. The strategy was also influenced by the population of Ancient Rus', especially when repelling the raids of nomads. Under pressure from the people, the Kyiv princes moved from passive defense of the state's borders to large-scale campaigns, having previously abandoned mutual claims - civil strife. The principle of strategic surprise and the seizure of strategic initiative were widely used.
The tactics of ancient Russian troops were also important in the development of military art. The tactics of the columns of the Slavic tribes, the variety of combat techniques (detours, ambushes), the use of terrain features, and the coordination of actions forced the Byzantines to borrow the tactical forms of armed struggle of the ancient Slavs. During the formation of the Old Russian state, tactics and combat formation changed. The Russian army was a monolithic “wall” that decided the outcome of the battle in hand-to-hand combat, while a reserve was allocated - a second line to guard the rear. In the XI-XII centuries. The battle formation was divided along the front and in depth - the army was divided into three regiments (Listven 1024), and then into two lines of regiments in the battle with the Cumans on the Salnitsa River in 1111 - which increased the maneuverability of the army. There is an uneven distribution of forces in the battle formation, which made it possible to fight to encircle the enemy: in the battle on the Koloksha River near Suzdal in 1096, the Novgorodians reinforced one of the flanks with two infantry detachments standing one behind the other, and behind them they placed a detachment of cavalry intended for coverage of the enemy's rear (7). In campaigns against the Polovtsy, a strong vanguard was created. He delivered an unexpected blow to the enemy's advanced units, seized the initiative and thereby ensured moral superiority. The organization of interaction between infantry and cavalry on the battlefield is noteworthy, with the infantry and militia playing a decisive role in the outcome of the battles. In contrast to Western European military art, the tactics of Russian troops were based on close interaction between military branches.
The high achievements of military art can be judged not only by the campaigns and battles themselves, but also by chronicle sources created in Ancient Rus'. Such monuments include “The Tale of Bygone Years”, “Russian Truth”, “Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh”, and monuments of folklore.
“The Tale of Bygone Years” is the first monument to Russian military thought, a unique military history Russian antiquity. Its authors not only outlined the course of events, but also analyzed them. The chronicle was a summary of events civil history Ancient Rus', it also summarized the extensive military experience that the Russian people accumulated in the 10th-12th centuries.
Another monument to military thought of the 10th-11th centuries are the lives of prince-commanders. The first life known to us is “The Legend of Svyatoslav.” This is a story about his campaigns and a revelation of his military leadership based on the stories of direct participants in Svyatoslav’s campaigns. The image of the warrior prince, according to the author of the “Tale,” was supposed to be an example on which warriors of subsequent generations would be raised.
In some historical monuments an attempt was made to broadly generalize the military art of that time. Among the latter are the “Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh” (8) - a unique set of military thoughts and instructions on military affairs.
All of the listed monuments of written literature expressed not only the ideas of the prince-voivodes, but the thoughts and moods inherent in the entire army, right down to its lower ranks: the lower-level governors and ordinary soldiers.
Literature:
1. Materials on the history of the USSR. M., 1985, Issue 1. P.228.
2. Klibanov. The order of battle among the ancient Slavs. Military History Magazine, 1945. No. 1-2. P.78.
3. Procopius from Caesarea. War with the Goths. M., 1950. P.209-210.
4. Materials on the history of the USSR. P.261.
5. Grekov B.D. Kievan Rus. M., 1953. P.329-330.
6. Vasilievsky V.G. Varangian-Russian and Varangian-English squad in Constantinople in the 11th-12th centuries. - Journal of the Ministry of Public Education. 1875, March (No. 3). P.91.
7. The Tale of Bygone Years. M.-L. Part 1. P.370-372.
8. Ibid. P.354-359.
Oleg Fedorov's drawings are based on reliable archaeological and scientific data, many of them were created for major museums and private collectors from Russia, Ukraine and other countries. We have already talked about reconstruction in Fedorov’s watercolors, this time we will talk about the warriors of Ancient Rus'.
The druzhina culture in Ancient Rus' was formed simultaneously with the Old Russian statehood and embodied ethnic, social and political processes 9th – early 11th centuries.
As historical materials show, the Slavs, the main population of the ancient Russian territories, were relatively weak in military-technical terms. The only weapons they used were arrows, spears and axes. The situation changed after the so-called “Rus” came to the territory of Ancient Rus'. According to scientists, this was the name given to warriors who came from northern Europe in ancient times. Along with the Rus, items of military weapons and protection that were progressive for that time appeared.
Among the archaeological materials, children's wooden swords and other “toy” weapons are often found. For example, a wooden sword was found with a handle width of about 5–6 cm and total length approximately 60 cm, which corresponds to the size of the palm of a boy aged 6-10 years. Thus, the games were used to teach skills that would be useful to future warriors in adulthood.
It is important to note that the “Russian” army at the initial stage of its existence fought exclusively on foot, which is confirmed by Byzantine and Arab written sources of that time. At first, the Rus viewed horses solely as a means of transportation. True, the horse breeds common at that time in Europe were quite short, so for a long time they simply could not carry a warrior-horseman in full armor.
By the end of the 10th century, military conflicts increasingly occurred between the detachments of the Rus and the troops of the Khazar Kaganate, as well as Byzantine Empire, who had strong and trained cavalry. Therefore, already in 944, Prince Igor’s allies in the campaign against Byzantium were the Pechenegs, whose detachments consisted of light horsemen. It was from the Pechenegs that the Rus began to buy specially trained horses for a new type of army. True, the first attempt of Russian troops in battle on horseback, made in 971 at the Battle of Dorostol, ended in failure. However, failure did not stop our ancestors, and since they still did not have enough cavalry of their own, the practice of attracting mounted detachments of nomads, who were even part of the ancient Russian squads, was introduced.
Old Russian warriors adopted from the steppe people not only the skills of mounted combat, but also borrowed weapons and clothing characteristic of the “horsemen” culture. It was at that time that sabers, spheroconic helmets, flails, caftans, tash bags, complex bows and other items of rider weapons and horse equipment appeared in Rus'. The words caftan, fur coat, feryaz, sarafan are of eastern (Turkic, Iranian, Arabic) origin, which, apparently, reflects the corresponding origin of the objects themselves.
Taking into account the fact that in most of the territory of Ancient Rus' the climatic conditions were quite harsh, historians suggest that woolen fabric could have been used when sewing Russian caftans. “They put on him trousers, leggings, boots, a jacket, and a brocade caftan with gold buttons, and they put a sable brocade hat on his head” - this is how the Arab traveler and geographer of the 10th century Ibn Fadlan describes the funeral of a noble Russian. The wearing of wide trousers gathered at the knee by the Russians is mentioned, in particular, by the Arab historian of the early 10th century, Ibn Ruste.
In some military burials of the ancient Rus, silver conical caps, decorated with filigree and grain, were found, which are presumably the ends of headdresses in the form of a cap with a fur trim. Scientists claim that this is exactly what the “Russian hat” made by the craftsmen of ancient Rus' looked like, the shape of which most likely belongs to nomadic cultures.
The need to conduct military operations mainly against steppe lightly armed horsemen led to a gradual change in Russian weapons towards greater lightness and flexibility. Therefore, at first, the completely European (Varangian) weapons of the Russian squads from the time of the campaigns against Byzantium gradually acquired more eastern features: Scandinavian swords were replaced by sabers, warriors moved from rooks to horses, and even heavy knightly armor, which over time became widespread in Europe, never had analogues in the works of ancient Russian gunsmiths.
In the next period, associated with the dominance of the Turkic-Bulgarians in the steppes, the Slavs found themselves cut off from the Byzantine borders, but in the 9th century two events took place that immediately chronologically preceded the era of the Old Russian state - the Russian-Byzantine War of 830 and the Russian-Byzantine War of 860. Both expeditions were by sea.
Features of the development of ancient Russian statehood at its early stage (the presence of powerful tribal unions with local princely dynasties and large urban centers with veche self-government, their subordination to the Kiev prince on a federal basis, features of emerging feudal relations, the absence of private ownership of land) largely determined the uniqueness of the military organization Ancient Rus'.
Troop organization
9th-11th centuries
With the expansion in the first half of the 9th century of the influence of the Kiev princes on the tribal unions of the Drevlyans, Dregovichi, Krivichi and Northerners, the establishment of a collection system (carried out by the forces of 100-200 soldiers) and the export of Polyudia, the Kyiv princes began to have the means to maintain a large army in constant combat readiness, which was required to fight the nomads. Also, the army could stay under the banner for a long time, making long-term campaigns, which was required to defend the interests of foreign trade in the Black and Caspian Seas.
The most numerous part of the army was the militia - the warriors. At the turn of the 10th century, the militia was tribal. Archaeological data indicate a stratification of property among the Eastern Slavs at the turn of the 8th - 9th centuries and the emergence of thousands of mansions of the local nobility, while tribute was calculated in proportion to the households, regardless of the wealth of the owners (however, according to one version of the origin of the boyars, the local nobility was prototype of the senior squad). From the middle of the 9th century, when Princess Olga organized the collection of tribute in the Russian North through a system of graveyards (later we see the Kyiv governor in Novgorod, transporting 2/3 of the Novgorod tributes to Kyiv), tribal militias lost their importance.
The recruitment of warriors at the beginning of the reign of Svyatoslav Igorevich or when Vladimir Svyatoslavich formed the garrisons of the fortresses he built on the border with the steppe are of a one-time nature; there is no information that this service had any duration or that the warrior had to report for service with any equipment .
In the wars of Ancient Rus', mercenary troops took a certain part. Initially these were the Varangians. They participated not only as mercenaries. Varangians are also found among the closest associates of the first Kyiv princes. In some campaigns of the 10th century, Russian princes hired Pechenegs and Hungarians. Later, during the period of feudal fragmentation, mercenaries also often took part in internecine wars. Among the peoples who were among the mercenaries, in addition to the Varangians and Pechenegs, there were Cumans, Hungarians, Western and Southern Slavs, Finno-Ugrians and Balts, Germans and some others. They all armed themselves in their own style.
The total number of troops could be more than 10,000 people.
XII-XIII centuries
Thus, for speed of movement, the army used pack horses instead of a convoy. For battle, the army often dismounted; Leo the Deacon under 971 indicates the unusual performance of the Russian army on horseback.
However, professional cavalry was needed to fight the nomads, so the squad became cavalry. At the same time, the organization took into account the Hungarian and Pecheneg experience. Horse breeding began to develop. The development of cavalry occurred faster in the south of Rus' than in the north, due to differences in the nature of the terrain and opponents. In 1021, Yaroslav the Wise and his army traveled from Kyiv to the Sudomir River, where they defeated Bryachislav of Polotsk, in a week, that is, the average speed was 110-115 km per day. In the 11th century, cavalry was compared in importance to infantry, and later surpassed it. At the same time, horse archers stood out; in addition to bows and arrows, they used axes, possibly spears, shields and helmets.
Horses were important not only for war, but also for the economy, so they were bred in the owner’s villages. They were also kept on princely farms: there are known cases when princes gave horses to militias during the war. The example of the Kyiv uprising of 1068 shows that the city militia was also mounted.
Throughout the pre-Mongol period, infantry played a role in all military operations. She not only took part in the capture of cities and carried out engineering and transport work, but also covered the rear, carried out sabotage attacks, and also took part in battles along with the cavalry. For example, in the 12th century, mixed battles involving both infantry and cavalry were common near city fortifications. There was no clear division in weapons, and everyone used what was more convenient for him and what he could afford. Therefore, everyone had several types of weapons. However, depending on this, the tasks they performed varied. So, in the infantry, as in the cavalry, one can distinguish heavily armed spearmen, in addition to the spear, armed with sulits, a battle axe, a mace, a shield, sometimes with a sword and armor, and lightly armed archers, equipped with a bow and arrows, a battle ax or an iron mace, and, obviously without defensive weapons. The infantry often used stone throwers.
Strategy
Kyiv princes in the period of the 9th-11th centuries, as a rule, they did not split up their forces, but consistently attacked different opponents. It is known that the campaign was interrupted due to a threat to the capital (siege of Kyiv (968)).
In 1129, it is known that the Principality of Polotsk was attacked simultaneously from several directions, which occurred, however, under the conditions of the overwhelming advantage of the attacking side.
From a strategic point of view, the northern campaign of Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich (1180-1181) during the internecine wars is also of interest. Chernigov and allied troops, gathering from three centers (Chernigov, Novgorod, Polovtsian steppe), successively encountered three opponents, conducting two regroupings between these clashes and all the time covering Chernigov with allocated secondary forces. The hike took all seasons: from winter to autumn. During the campaign, the Chernigov squad covered about 2 thousand km, the Novgorod army and the Kursk squad - about 1.5 thousand km.
Military training and education. Our ancestors paid exceptional attention to the military education of the younger generation. The training of a professional warrior began in early childhood from the day of “tonsuring” or “mounting a horse.” From this act, the boy entered adulthood, going to live with his father’s half, under the tutelage of the “uncle,” who began to prepare him both physically, morally and psychologically to overcome the difficulties of combat and military life. If representatives of the highest aristocracy trained individually, then for the children of vigilantes, the institution of “gridays” (later “children’s”) played an important role, who underwent military training and education collectively, under the control of their commanders and courtiers.
In military education, the main attention was paid to the formation of such qualities as loyalty to one’s prince, including after his death, and personal honor - strict compliance a certain code of conduct. In battle, this meant an unconditional willingness to sacrifice for the sake of the prince and even a willingness to die in the same place after his death. As in the West, honor for a professional warrior was an absolute concept and far exceeded the value of life. For the prince, in addition to personal honor, and even more important value was glory - the idea established in society of him as a fair, generous, pious ruler, a brave and successful commander.
In addition to individual ideas and qualities that stimulated a certain type of behavior, in the ancient Russian army, and not only in the druzhina environment, the concept of collective honor and glory was extremely developed. Thus, the soldiers of Svyatoslav, besieged by superior forces of the Byzantines, were most concerned about the glory of Russian weapons, which until then had remained invincible. Therefore, death in battle for them seemed preferable to breaking out of the fortress and leaving the Danube without a truce and booty, which was considered tantamount to flight and recognition of oneself as the defeated side. Svyatoslav was ready to die, since “the dead have no shame,” and the squad expressed their readiness to lay down their heads where his “head would fall,” but not to lose the honor of the Russian soldiers.
With the adoption of Orthodoxy, military ideology is ennobled. The words of the Gospel: “Greater love has no one than this, that someone lay down his life for his friends,” meaning readiness for self-sacrifice not only for the sake of the prince and military comrades, but also for all those whom the Orthodox warrior is called to protect, henceforth become the basis of his behavior . With the strengthening and comprehensive development of Kievan Rus, the ideas of the Russian people about its and their own role in history are expanding. The warriors of Rus', “glorious in all four corners of the earth,” can already read “the first work of Russian literature - “The Word of Law and Grace”, that they live in God’s chosen country, to which they are destined great destiny- serve the ideals of Christian love, goodness and justice and lead the fight against world Evil in the name of the triumph of God's truth on earth.
Armament
Offensive
Protective
If the early Slavs, according to the Greeks, did not have armor, then the spread of chain mail dates back to the 8th-9th centuries. They were made from rings made of iron wire, which reached 7-9 and 13-14 mm in diameter, and 1.5 - 2 mm in thickness. Half of the rings were welded, and the other half was riveted during weaving (1 to 4). In total, at least 20,000 of them were used for one piece of chain mail. Later there were chain mail with copper rings woven in for decoration. The ring size is reduced to 6-8 and 10-13 mm. There were also weavings where all the rings were riveted together. Old Russian chain mail, on average, was 60-70 cm in length, about 50 cm or more in width (at the waist), with short sleeves of about 25 cm and a split collar. At the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th century, chain mail made of flat rings appeared - their diameter is 13-16 mm with a wire width of 2-4 mm and a thickness of 0.6-0.8 mm. These rings were flattened using a stamp. This shape increased the coverage area with the same weight of armor. In the 13th century, a pan-European heavier armor took place, and knee-length chain mail appeared in Rus'. However, chain mail weaving was also used for other purposes - around the same time, chain mail stockings (nagavitsy) appeared. And most helmets were equipped with aventail. Chain mail in Rus' was very common and was used not only by the squad, but also by humble warriors.
In addition to chain mail, lamellar armor was used. Their appearance dates back to the 9th-10th centuries. Such armor was made from iron plates of a close to rectangular shape, with several holes along the edges. Through these holes, all the plates were connected with straps. On average, the length of each plate was 8-10 cm, and the width was 1.5-3.5 cm. More than 500 of them were needed for the armor. The lamellar had the appearance of a hip-length shirt, with a hem that widened downwards, sometimes with sleeves. According to archeology, in the 9th-13th centuries there was 1 lamellar for every 4 pieces of chain mail, while in the north (especially in Novgorod, Pskov, Minsk) plate armor was more common. And later they even supplant chain mail. There is also information about their export. Scale armor was also used, which were plates measuring 6 by 4-6 cm, attached at the top edge to a leather or fabric base. There were also brigantines. To protect hands, folding bracers have been used since the late 12th and early 13th centuries. And at the end of the 13th century, early mirrors appeared - round plaques worn over armor.
During the siege of Constantinople in 626 by the Slavic-Avar army, the siege equipment consisted of 12 copper-clad mobile towers, several rams, “turtles” and throwing machines covered with leather. Moreover, it was mainly Slavic detachments that manufactured and serviced the vehicles. Mention is made of arrow-throwing and stone-throwing machines and when
Loading...