Instructions
Look at how the position of the continent compares with other continents, the equator, the north and south poles, in which hemisphere the continent is located, for example, North America in the northern hemisphere, and Africa crosses the equator. Describe this in as much detail as possible.
Carefully study the coordinate grid and find the coordinates of the continent: the northernmost (upper), southern (lower), western (right) and eastern (left) points. To find the coordinates of a point, find the latitude and longitude.
Count the latitude from the equator; if you go up from the equator, then the latitude value will be positive, if you go down, it will be negative. It is impossible to determine the exact value on paper; estimate approximately using the drawn parallels (horizontal lines). That is, if your point (for example, Cape Agulhas - the southernmost point of Africa) lies between the parallels of 30° and 45°, divide this distance by eye and determine about 34° - 35°. For a more accurate determination, use an electronic map or geographic atlases.
Count longitude from the prime meridian (this is a line passing through London). If your point lies to the east of this line, put a “+” sign in front of the value, if to the west, put a “-”. In the same way as latitude, determine longitude, only not by horizontal, but by vertical lines (meridians). Exact value can only be determined by using an electronic map or using a sextant.
Write down the coordinates of all the extreme points of the continent in the form (latitude from -90° to +90°, from -180° to +180°). For example, the coordinates of Cape Agulhas will be (34.49° south latitude and 20.00° east longitude). Modern notation of coordinate systems involves writing them in degrees and decimals, but previously measurements in degrees and minutes were popular; you can use either one or the other recording system.
At the globes and geographical maps has its own coordinate system. Thanks to this, any object on our planet can be applied to them and found. Geographic coordinates are longitude and latitude; these angular values are measured in degrees. With their help, you can determine the position of an object on the surface of our planet relative to the prime meridian and equator.
Instructions
Instructions
Determine whether a river flows in a part of the continent. In the northern regions, precipitation quickly accumulates into ice, so there are no rivers with rapid currents there. In the south, on the contrary, rain moisture quickly evaporates, so there are no rivers there either. The deepest rivers with fast and turbulent currents are observed in the middle part of the country.
Find out where the river flows. All rivers flow into seas or oceans. The junction of the river and the sea is called the mouth.
Determine in which direction the river flows. There will be no problems with this, since the direction of river flow is from source to mouth.
Also, for a complete geographical study, establish how the river flows (i.e., what kind of current is there: fast, slow, torrent), depending on the terrain.
Determine the type of river. All rivers are divided into mountain and lowland. In the mountains the current is fast and stormy; in the lowlands it is slow, and the valleys are wide and terraced.
Explain the economic and historical meaning rivers. Indeed, throughout the development of mankind, rivers have played a significant role in the development of the area. Since ancient times, they have been used as trade routes, for fish farming and fishing, timber rafting, water supply and field irrigation. Since ancient times, people have settled on the banks of rivers. Now the river is the main source of hydroelectric power and the most important transport route.
Video on the topic
What is tundra?
The natural area is located in the northern hemisphere and covers northern part Russia and Canada. Nature here is very sparse, and the climate is considered harsh. Summer is practically absent - it lasts only a few weeks, and the temperature, as a rule, stays at 10-15 degrees Celsius. Precipitation occurs frequently, but total small.
The tundra extends along the entire coast of the North Arctic Ocean. Due to constant low temperatures, winter lasts here for about nine months (temperatures can reach -50°C), and the rest of the time the temperature does not rise above +15°C. Low temperatures also lead to the fact that the ground is frozen all the time and does not have time to thaw.
There are no forests or tall trees here. In this area there are only swamps, small streams, mosses, lichens, low plants and shrubs that can survive in such a harsh climate. Their flexible stems and short height allow them to adapt to cold winds.
However, the tundra is still a nice place. This can be especially noticeable in the summer, when it sparkles with different colors thanks to the many delicious berries, which spread in a beautiful carpet.
In addition to berries and mushrooms, in the summer you can find herds of reindeer in the tundra. At this time of year they feed on whatever they find: lichens, leaves, etc. And in winter, deer feed on plants that they take out from under the snow, and can even break it with their hoofs. These animals are very sensitive, have great charm, and also know how to swim - reindeer can freely swim across a river or lake.
Flora and fauna
The flora in the tundra is very poor. The soil of this zone can hardly be called fertile, since most time she is frozen. Few plant species can survive in such difficult conditions, where there is little heat and sunlight. Mosses, lichens, snow buttercups, saxifrage grow here, and some berries appear in the summer. All plants here are of dwarf growth. The “forest”, as a rule, grows only to the knee, and the local “trees” are no taller than an ordinary mushroom. Geographical position It is completely unsuitable for forests, since the temperature here remains low for many years in a row.
As for animals, the tundra is most suitable for those that prefer the sea. Because of large quantity water in these places, many waterfowl live here - ducks, geese, loons. Animal world the tundra is rich in hares, foxes, wolves, brown and
Northernmost point of Africa
The most extreme point The African continent has the following latitudes: 37° 20′ 28″ north latitude and 9° 44′ 48″ east longitude. Thus, it can be stated that this point is located on the territory of one of the small states in North Africa- in Tunisia.A closer look at the characteristics of this point shows that it is a cape projecting quite far into the Mediterranean Sea. The Arabic name of this world-famous point is pronounced “Ras al-Abyad”, but quite often you can find a shortened version of this phrase - “El Abyad”.
From a substantive point of view, both of these options are legitimate. The fact is that “ras” translated from Arabic in Russian it means “cape”, so the use of the Russian analogue in this situation is quite acceptable. In turn, the word “abyad” can be translated from the original language as “white”, and “el” is just an untranslatable article in this situation. Thus, the name of the extreme northern point of Africa translated into Russian means “white cape”.
However, according to geographers, it is unlikely that this name was assigned to it due to its northern position. Most likely, this name reflects the special color of the sand on this Mediterranean coast.
Other names
At the same time, the cape, which represents the northernmost point of the African continent, has other names. So, at a time when Tunisia was a French colony, in European countries the name was quite common, representing a translation of the Arabic original into French: it was called “Cap Blanc”, which French also meant "white cape". However, the original source of this name was the Arabic name of this geographical point.Another name common in those days was the name “Ras Engela”, which, by analogy with the modern name, was often shortened to the version “Engel”: in fact, such a name can be translated into modern Russian as “Cape Engel”. Researchers suggest that this African cape could have received its name in honor of the once quite famous German traveler Franz Engel, who accomplished several significant geographical discoveries at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, although his activities were more related to South America than with Africa.
And it allows you to find the exact location of objects on the earth’s surface degree network- a system of parallels and meridians. It serves to determine geographical coordinates points on the earth's surface - their longitude and latitude.
Parallels(from Greek parallelos- walking next to) are lines conventionally drawn on the earth's surface parallel to the equator; equator - a line of section of the earth's surface by a depicted plane passing through the center of the Earth perpendicular to its axis of rotation. The longest parallel is the equator; the length of the parallels from the equator to the poles decreases.
Meridians(from lat. meridianus- midday) - lines conventionally drawn on the earth's surface from one pole to another along the shortest path. All meridians are equal in length. All points of a given meridian have the same longitude, and all points of a given parallel have the same latitude.
Rice. 1. Elements of the degree network
Geographic latitude and longitude
Geographic latitude of a point is the magnitude of the meridian arc in degrees from the equator to a given point. It varies from 0° (equator) to 90° (pole). There are northern and southern latitudes, abbreviated as N.W. and S. (Fig. 2).
Any point south of the equator will have a southern latitude, and any point north of the equator will have a northern latitude. Determining the geographic latitude of any point means determining the latitude of the parallel on which it is located. On maps, the latitude of parallels is indicated on the right and left frames.
Rice. 2. Geographical latitude
Geographic longitude of a point is the magnitude of the parallel arc in degrees from the prime meridian to a given point. The prime (prime, or Greenwich) meridian passes through the Greenwich Observatory, located near London. To the east of this meridian the longitude of all points is eastern, to the west - western (Fig. 3). Longitude varies from 0 to 180°.
Rice. 3. Geographical longitude
Determining the geographic longitude of any point means determining the longitude of the meridian on which it is located.
On maps, the longitude of the meridians is indicated on the upper and lower frames, and on the map of the hemispheres - on the equator.
The latitude and longitude of any point on Earth make up its geographical coordinates. Thus, the geographical coordinates of Moscow are 56° N. and 38°E
Geographic coordinates of cities in Russia and CIS countries
| City | Latitude | Longitude |
| Abakan | 53.720976 | 91.44242300000001 |
| Arkhangelsk | 64.539304 | 40.518735 |
| Astana(Kazakhstan) | 71.430564 | 51.128422 |
| Astrakhan | 46.347869 | 48.033574 |
| Barnaul | 53.356132 | 83.74961999999999 |
| Belgorod | 50.597467 | 36.588849 |
| Biysk | 52.541444 | 85.219686 |
| Bishkek (Kyrgyzstan) | 42.871027 | 74.59452 |
| Blagoveshchensk | 50.290658 | 127.527173 |
| Bratsk | 56.151382 | 101.634152 |
| Bryansk | 53.2434 | 34.364198 |
| Velikiy Novgorod | 58.521475 | 31.275475 |
| Vladivostok | 43.134019 | 131.928379 |
| Vladikavkaz | 43.024122 | 44.690476 |
| Vladimir | 56.129042 | 40.40703 |
| Volgograd | 48.707103 | 44.516939 |
| Vologda | 59.220492 | 39.891568 |
| Voronezh | 51.661535 | 39.200287 |
| Grozny | 43.317992 | 45.698197 |
| Donetsk, Ukraine) | 48.015877 | 37.80285 |
| Ekaterinburg | 56.838002 | 60.597295 |
| Ivanovo | 57.000348 | 40.973921 |
| Izhevsk | 56.852775 | 53.211463 |
| Irkutsk | 52.286387 | 104.28066 |
| Kazan | 55.795793 | 49.106585 |
| Kaliningrad | 55.916229 | 37.854467 |
| Kaluga | 54.507014 | 36.252277 |
| Kamensk-Uralsky | 56.414897 | 61.918905 |
| Kemerovo | 55.359594 | 86.08778100000001 |
| Kyiv(Ukraine) | 50.402395 | 30.532690 |
| Kirov | 54.079033 | 34.323163 |
| Komsomolsk-on-Amur | 50.54986 | 137.007867 |
| Korolev | 55.916229 | 37.854467 |
| Kostroma | 57.767683 | 40.926418 |
| Krasnodar | 45.023877 | 38.970157 |
| Krasnoyarsk | 56.008691 | 92.870529 |
| Kursk | 51.730361 | 36.192647 |
| Lipetsk | 52.61022 | 39.594719 |
| Magnitogorsk | 53.411677 | 58.984415 |
| Makhachkala | 42.984913 | 47.504646 |
| Minsk, Belarus) | 53.906077 | 27.554914 |
| Moscow | 55.755773 | 37.617761 |
| Murmansk | 68.96956299999999 | 33.07454 |
| Naberezhnye Chelny | 55.743553 | 52.39582 |
| Nizhny Novgorod | 56.323902 | 44.002267 |
| Nizhny Tagil | 57.910144 | 59.98132 |
| Novokuznetsk | 53.786502 | 87.155205 |
| Novorossiysk | 44.723489 | 37.76866 |
| Novosibirsk | 55.028739 | 82.90692799999999 |
| Norilsk | 69.349039 | 88.201014 |
| Omsk | 54.989342 | 73.368212 |
| Eagle | 52.970306 | 36.063514 |
| Orenburg | 51.76806 | 55.097449 |
| Penza | 53.194546 | 45.019529 |
| Pervouralsk | 56.908099 | 59.942935 |
| Permian | 58.004785 | 56.237654 |
| Prokopyevsk | 53.895355 | 86.744657 |
| Pskov | 57.819365 | 28.331786 |
| Rostov-on-Don | 47.227151 | 39.744972 |
| Rybinsk | 58.13853 | 38.573586 |
| Ryazan | 54.619886 | 39.744954 |
| Samara | 53.195533 | 50.101801 |
| Saint Petersburg | 59.938806 | 30.314278 |
| Saratov | 51.531528 | 46.03582 |
| Sevastopol | 44.616649 | 33.52536 |
| Severodvinsk | 64.55818600000001 | 39.82962 |
| Severodvinsk | 64.558186 | 39.82962 |
| Simferopol | 44.952116 | 34.102411 |
| Sochi | 43.581509 | 39.722882 |
| Stavropol | 45.044502 | 41.969065 |
| Sukhum | 43.015679 | 41.025071 |
| Tambov | 52.721246 | 41.452238 |
| Tashkent (Uzbekistan) | 41.314321 | 69.267295 |
| Tver | 56.859611 | 35.911896 |
| Tolyatti | 53.511311 | 49.418084 |
| Tomsk | 56.495116 | 84.972128 |
| Tula | 54.193033 | 37.617752 |
| Tyumen | 57.153033 | 65.534328 |
| Ulan-Ude | 51.833507 | 107.584125 |
| Ulyanovsk | 54.317002 | 48.402243 |
| Ufa | 54.734768 | 55.957838 |
| Khabarovsk | 48.472584 | 135.057732 |
| Kharkov, Ukraine) | 49.993499 | 36.230376 |
| Cheboksary | 56.1439 | 47.248887 |
| Chelyabinsk | 55.159774 | 61.402455 |
| Mines | 47.708485 | 40.215958 |
| Engels | 51.498891 | 46.125121 |
| Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk | 46.959118 | 142.738068 |
| Yakutsk | 62.027833 | 129.704151 |
| Yaroslavl | 57.626569 | 39.893822 |
For determining latitude It is necessary, using a triangle, to lower the perpendicular from point A to the degree frame onto the line of latitude and read the corresponding degrees, minutes, seconds on the right or left along the latitude scale. φА= φ0+ Δφ
φА=54 0 36 / 00 // +0 0 01 / 40 //= 54 0 37 / 40 //
For determining longitude you need to use a triangle to lower a perpendicular from point A to the degree frame of the line of longitude and read the corresponding degrees, minutes, seconds from above or below.
Determining the rectangular coordinates of a point on the map
The rectangular coordinates of the point (X, Y) on the map are determined in the square of the kilometer grid as follows: 
1. Using a triangle, perpendiculars are lowered from point A to the kilometer grid line X and Y and the values are taken XA=X0+Δ X; UA=U0+Δ U
For example, the coordinates of point A are: XA = 6065 km + 0.55 km = 6065.55 km;
UA = 4311 km + 0.535 km = 4311.535 km. (the coordinate is reduced);
Point A is located in the 4th zone, as indicated by the first digit of the coordinate at given.
9. Measuring the lengths of lines, directional angles and azimuths on the map, determining the angle of inclination of the line specified on the map.
Measuring lengths
To determine on a map the distance between terrain points (objects, objects), using a numerical scale, you need to measure on the map the distance between these points in centimeters and multiply the resulting number by the scale value. 
A small distance is easier to determine using a linear scale. To do this, it is enough to apply a measuring compass, the opening of which is equal to the distance between given points on the map, to a linear scale and take a reading in meters or kilometers. 
To measure curves, the “step” of the measuring compass is set so that it corresponds to an integer number of kilometers, and an integer number of “steps” is plotted on the segment measured on the map. The distance that does not fit into the whole number of “steps” of the measuring compass is determined using a linear scale and added to the resulting number of kilometers.
Measuring directional angles and azimuths on a map
.
We connect points 1 and 2. We measure the angle. The measurement is carried out using a protractor, it is located parallel to the median, then the angle of inclination is reported clockwise.
Determining the angle of inclination of a line specified on the map.
The determination follows exactly the same principle as finding the directional angle.
10. Direct and inverse geodetic problem on a plane. When performing computational processing of measurements taken on the ground, as well as when designing engineering structures and making calculations to transfer projects into reality, the need arises to solve direct and inverse geodetic problems. Direct geodetic problem . By known coordinates X 1 and at 1 point 1, directional angle 1-2 and distance d 1-2 to point 2 you need to calculate its coordinates X 2 ,at 2 .
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Rice. 3.5. To the solution of direct and inverse geodetic problems |
The coordinates of point 2 are calculated using the formulas (Fig. 3.5): (3.4) where X,atcoordinate increments equal to
(3.5)
Inverse geodetic problem .
By known coordinates X 1 ,at 1 points 1 and X 2 ,at 2 points 2 need to calculate the distance between them d 1-2 and directional angle 1-2. From formulas (3.5) and Fig. 3.5 it is clear that. (3.6) To determine the directional angle 1-2, we use the arctangent function. At the same time, we take into account that computer programs and microcalculators give the main value of the arctangent= 
, lying in the range90+90, while the desired directional anglecan have any value in the range 0360.
The formula for transition from kdepends on the coordinate quarter in which the given direction is located or, in other words, on the signs of the differences y=y 2 y 1 and x=X 2 X 1 (see table 3.1 and figure 3.6). Table 3.1
Rice. 3.6. Directional angles and main arctangent values in the I, II, III and IV quarters
The distance between points is calculated using the formula
(3.6) or in another way - according to the formulas 
(3.7)
In particular, electronic tacheometers are equipped with programs for solving direct and inverse geodetic problems, which makes it possible to directly determine the coordinates of observed points during field measurements and calculate angles and distances for alignment work.
A system of geographic coordinates is necessary in order to accurately determine the location of an object on the Earth's surface. As you know, this system consists of geographic latitude and longitude. The first element of this system is the angle between the local zenith (noon) and the equatorial plane, ranging from 0 to 90 degrees west or east of the equatorial boundary. Longitude is the angle formed by two planes: the meridian passing through a given point in the area and the Greenwich meridian, i.e. zero point. From the latter, the longitude count begins, ranging from 0 to 180 degrees east and west (eastern and western longitude). Knowing how to navigate the terrain using latitude and longitude will help you communicate your exact coordinates if an emergency occurs. emergency situation when you find yourself in an unfamiliar place that is not marked on the map, or get lost in the forest. You can learn more about how you can determine the latitude and longitude of your location.
Clock for determining location by latitude and longitude
How to determine a place by latitude and longitude
Determination of local geographic longitude is carried out using ordinary watches. To do this you need to install on them exact time location in this moment. Then you should determine the time of local noon, a time-tested method will help with this: you need to find a meter or one and a half meter stick and stick it vertically into the ground. The length of the line of the falling shadow will indicate the time intervals that need to be detected. The moment when the shadow is shortest is the local zenith, i.e. The gnomon shows exactly 12 noon, and the direction of the shadow is from south to north.
At this time, you need to check the time on your watch - this will be Greenwich Mean Time. From this value you need to subtract the indicator that is taken from the table of the equation of time. This correction arises due to the variability of the angular velocity of movement and the dependence on the time of year. Taking this correction into account, the average Greenwich time is converted to true solar time. The resulting difference between this solar time(i.e. 12 hours) and Greenwich, taking into account the correction, must be converted into degree values. To do this, you need to know that in one hour the Earth rotates by 15 degrees (if you divide 360 degrees by 24 hours) of longitude, or by 1 degree in four minutes. If noon in a given area occurs before Greenwich, indicate eastern longitude in your calculations; if later, then western longitude. The closer the coordinates of the desired area are to the polar regions, the more accurate the longitude measurements will be.
Once the longitude value has been found, you can begin to determine the latitude value of a specific area. First you need to determine the length of daylight hours, which begins with sunrise and ends with sunset. Next, you need to create a nomogram, i.e. determination of latitude: on the left side the value of daylight hours is indicated, on the right - the date. If you combine these values, you can determine where latitude intersects with middle part. The location found will indicate the local latitude. When determining latitude relative to the southern hemisphere, add 6 months to required date. The second method is to find latitude using a conventional protractor: for this, a plumb line (thread with a weight) is fixed in the center of this instrument, and its base is pointed at the North Star. The angle formed by the plumb line and the base of the protractor must be reduced by 90 degrees, i.e. subtract this value from its value. The value of this angle shows the height of the North Star, i.e. the height of the pole above the horizon. Since geographic latitude is equal to the magnitude of the pole above the horizon of a particular place, this value will indicate its degree.
Geographical coordinates determine the position of a point on the earth's surface. Geographic coordinates are based on the spherical principle and consist of latitude and longitude.
Latitude- the angle between the local zenith direction and the equatorial plane, measured from 0° to 90° on both sides of the equator. The geographic latitude of points lying in the northern hemisphere (northern latitude) is usually considered positive, the latitude of points in southern hemisphere- negative. It is customary to speak of latitudes close to the poles as high, and about those close to the equator - as about low.
Longitude- the angle between the plane of the meridian passing through a given point and the plane of the initial prime meridian, from which longitude is measured. Longitudes from 0° to 180° east of the prime meridian are called eastern, and to the west - western. Eastern longitudes are considered to be positive, western longitudes are considered negative.
Geographic coordinates recording format
Geographic coordinates of a single point can be expressed in different formats. Depending on whether minutes and seconds are represented as values from 0 to 60 or from 0 to 100 (decimals).
The coordinate format is usually written as follows: DD- degrees, MM- minutes, SS- seconds, if minutes and seconds are presented as decimals, then they are written simply DD.DDDD. For example:
- DD MM SS: 50° 40" 45"" E, 40 50" 30"" N - degrees, minutes, seconds
- DDMM.MM: 50° 40.75" E, 40 50.5" N - degrees, decimal minutes
- DD.DDDDD: 50.67916 E, 40.841666 N - decimal degrees
Why do you need to know the coordinates of your home?
Often, houses in holiday villages and many villages do not have clear navigation consisting of signs with street names and house numbers, or even houses with signs with numbers can be scattered throughout the village in a random order (historically established as the village was developed). There are times when everything is fine with navigation in a populated area, but not all car GPS navigators have such a house or street. Residents of such houses have to explain for a long time and, as a rule, confusingly how to get to them using different landmarks. In this case, it is easier to give the coordinates of the house, because any car navigator can plot the route using the coordinates.
To work out the technical feasibility of connecting to the Internet in a country house, we also ask our customers to provide the coordinates of the house, especially if it is not located at the address on any of the online mapping services.
Determining coordinates using online mapping services
Currently, the most famous online mapping services with a search function are Google and Yandex maps. Let's look at how you can determine geographic coordinates from a map or satellite image in the service Google Maps:
2. Find the exact location on the map. For this card can be moved mouse, zoom in and out by scrolling the mouse wheel. You can also find the one you need locality by using search by name using a locality, street and house. To find the location of your home as accurately as possible, switch between display modes: Map, Hybrid or Satellite.
3. Click right click on to the right place on the map and select from the menu that opens paragraph “What's in here?” . A marker in the form of a green arrow will appear on the map. Repeat the operation if the marker is not positioned accurately.
4. When you hover your mouse over the green arrow, the geographic coordinates of the location will appear, and they will also appear in the search bar from where they can be copied to the clipboard.
Rice. 1. Determining the coordinates of a place using a pointer on a Google map
Now let's look at how you can determine geographic coordinates from a map or satellite image in the service Yandex maps:
To find a place, we use the same algorithm as for searching on Google maps. Open Yandex.Maps: http://maps.yandex.ru. To obtain coordinates on a Yandex map, use tool"Get information"(button with an arrow and a question mark, in the upper left part of the map). When you click on the map with this tool, a marker appears on the map and coordinates are displayed in the search bar.
Rice. 2. Determining the coordinates of a place using a sign on the Yandex map
On the maps search engines by default, coordinates are shown in degrees s decimal with "-" signs for negative longitude. On Google maps and Yandex maps, first latitude, then longitude (until October 2012, Yandex maps adopted reverse order: first longitude, then latitude).
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