Geographical encyclopedia of what is Manchukuo, what does it mean and how to spell it correctly. Chinese Emperor Pu Yi Order of Auspicious Clouds

The Great Empire of Manchukuo was proclaimed on March 1, 1934 and was a puppet state of Japan on the territory of China occupied by Japan. With his first edict, the newly proclaimed emperor Pu Yi announced the establishment of an award system for the empire. Three orders were established: the Order of the Blooming Orchid, which became the highest order of the empire, the Order of the Illustrious Dragon and the Order of Beneficent Clouds. All orders of Manchukuo had their full counterparts in the Japanese system of awards. So, the Order of the Blooming Orchid corresponded to the Japanese Order of the Chrysanthemum, the Order of the Illustrious Dragon - to the Order of the Rising Sun with paulownia flowers, and the Order of Beneficent Clouds, which had 8 degrees - to the Order of the Rising Sun.

On April 19, 1934, the law on orders and insignia was adopted, which regulates the issues of the award system. Orders for the production of awards were placed at the mint in Osaka. The control over the awards was carried out by the command of the Kwantung Army, since the vast majority of the awards were made to Japanese military personnel and officials. In total, during the existence of the empire, according to various sources, from 166 to 196 thousand orders of all degrees were made.

On July 14, 1938, five medals were established to reward various civilian merit. A number of award signs were also established, worn without ribbons, and having a lower status than medals on ribbons.

On October 1, 1938, the distinctions of the Manchukuo Red Cross Society were established: the Order of Merit, medals for special and ordinary members of the society. As in the case of orders, these awards repeated similar awards of the Japanese Red Cross.

With the fall of imperial power in August 1945, all the awards of the Great Empire of Manchukuo ceased to exist.

Order of the Blooming Orchid

The Order of the Blooming Orchid (大勲位蘭花章), the highest state award of the Great Manchukuo Empire, was established by Imperial Edict No. 1 on the day the State of Manchukuo was proclaimed an empire, March 1, 1934. The order was actually the equivalent of the Japanese Order of the Chrysanthemum. The award was divided into two classes: the order with a chain (大勲位蘭花章頸飾) and the order with a large ribbon (大勲位蘭花大綬章). The order on a chain was intended for monarchs and heads of state, on a large ribbon - for high dignitaries. From 1934 to 1941, two holders of the order with a chain are known - Emperors Pu Yi and Hirohito. Until 1945, several more orders with a chain were awarded, including the King of Romania, Mihai I. From 1934 to 1940, three orders with a large ribbon are known to be awarded, the total number of awards has not been established.

The chain of the order is gold, consists of one central large link and 20 small links, interconnected by figured intermediate links in the form of a Buddhist "endless knot". The small links of the chain are openwork slotted pentagons with rounded corners, symbolizing clouds. Eight of them contain the “eight auspicious signs of Buddha” covered with green enamel: to the left of the central link - a lotus flower, a precious vessel, two fish and an endless knot; to the right of the central link - a shell, a wheel of teaching, a precious umbrella and a banner of victory. Round medallions with trigrams "qian" and "kun" are inscribed in two links. The ten others are inscribed with stylized "spiral clouds". The central link is an openwork slotted hexagon, symbolizing a cloud, into which a round medallion of blue enamel is inscribed. The medallion depicts a dragon “in the clouds” wriggling around the flaming Sun. The badge of the order is suspended from the central link.

The badge of the order for the chain is gold, with a diameter of 71 mm, it is a stylized image of the main imperial symbol - an orchid flower. On the front side, the sign looks like a round jagged medallion of green enamel, on which is superimposed a star of five narrow “petals” of yellow enamel. A large pearl is fixed in the center of the star, between the “petals” there are golden stems with fixed small pearls, five in each corner. On the reverse side of the badge are four hieroglyphs - "大勲位章" (highest merit award). Through a rectangular bracket on the upper "petal" the sign is attached to the intermediate link, which is a reduced copy of the sign itself, without enamels and pearls. At the upper end of the intermediate link there is a transverse eyelet for attaching to the chain of the order.

The badge of the order for the large ribbon is the same as for the chain, but somewhat smaller, made of gilded silver. The "petals" on the intermediate link are covered with yellow enamel. A ring is passed through the eyelet at the upper end of the intermediate link for attaching to the ribbon of the order.

The star of the order is silver (gilded), ten-pointed, multi-beam, 90 mm in diameter. Five groups of five rays are covered with white enamel, five groups of seven rays are without enamel, with a "diamond" cut. The badge of the order is superimposed on the center of the star, somewhat smaller than the badge for the large ribbon. On the reverse of the star are the same hieroglyphs as on the reverse of the badge. Worn on the left side of the chest.

The ribbon of the order is yellow silk moire with dark yellow stripes along the edges. The width of the tape is 108 mm, the width of the strips along the edges is 18 mm. Worn over the right shoulder. Knights of the order with a large ribbon were awarded a badge for the ribbon, a star and a ribbon of the order. Cavaliers of the order with a chain were awarded a chain and a badge for the chain, and in the absence of earlier badges of a large ribbon - a complete set of badges of the order.

Order of the Illustrious Dragon

The Order of the Illustrious Dragon or the Order of the Glorious Dragon (龍光章) was established by Imperial Edict No. 1 on the day the State of Manchukuo was declared an empire, March 1, 1934. The award, in fact, was the equivalent of the Japanese Order of the Rising Sun with paulownia flowers. The order was presented with a large ribbon (龍光大綬章), and was the empire's highest merit award. They could be awarded to officials and military officers of the highest ranks, already marked with the Orders of Beneficent Clouds and Pillars of the State. From 1934 to 1940, 33 Orders of the Illustrious Dragon are known to have been awarded, the total number of awards has not been established.

The badge of the order is silver gilded, with a diameter of 70 mm, it is an eight-pointed multi-beam star. All rays are smooth, eight of the shortest rays are covered with light green enamel. A round medallion of blue enamel is superimposed on the center of the star, on which a dragon is depicted wriggling around the flaming Sun, surrounded by six clouds emerging from the edges of the medallion. Around the medallion are 28 small disks of ruby enamel, symbolizing the 28 positions of the Moon during the month. On the reverse side of the badge are four characters - "勲功位章" (award for merit). The sign is attached through a rectangular bracket on the upper beam to an intermediate link of light green enamel, which is an openwork slotted pentagon, into which a similar smaller pentagon and a spiral are inscribed, symbolizing clouds. At the upper end of the intermediate link there is a transverse eyelet with a ring for attaching to the ribbon of the order.

The star of the order is silver gilded, 90 mm in diameter, repeating the badge of the order in its appearance. On the back, the same hieroglyphs are applied as on the back of the badge. Worn on the left side of the chest. The ribbon of the order is silk moire blue with white stripes along the edges. The width of the tape is 106 mm, the width of the strips along the edges is 18 mm. Worn over the right shoulder.

Order of Auspicious Clouds

The Order of Auspicious Clouds (景雲章) was established by Imperial Edict No. 1 on the day the State of Manchukuo was declared an empire, March 1, 1934. It was actually the equivalent of the Japanese Order of the Rising Sun. The order existed in eight classes. Prior to the establishment in September 1936 of the Order of the Pillars of the State, it was a junior order in the Manchurian hierarchy of orders. From 1934 to 1940, it is known about the award of 54,557 badges of the Order of Auspicious Clouds, including: 1st class - 110, 2nd class - 187, 3rd class - 701, 4th class - 1820, 5th class - 3447, 6th class - 6257, 7th class - 8329, 8th class - 33 706. Most of the awarded were employees of the Japanese army and the Japanese administration of Manchukuo. The total number of awards during the existence of the order has not been established, however, according to the Japanese Mint, about 129,500 signs of all classes were made.

The badge of the order of the 1st-5th classes is a silver gilded cross, each shoulder of which is made up of three shtrals, the central ones of which are covered with white enamel, and the side ones are yellow. In the center is a round yellow enamel medallion with a wide red enamel rim. In the corners of the cross are stylized images of clouds in light blue enamel; the space between the clouds and the central medallion is filled with black enamel. On the reverse side of the badge, smooth without enamels, four hieroglyphs are depicted - "勲功位章" ("merit award"). The badge through a rectangular bracket at the upper end is attached to the intermediate link in the form of the main imperial symbol - an orchid flower, five petals, which are covered with yellow enamel. At the upper end of the intermediate link there is a transverse eye with a ring for attaching to the ribbon of the order. Dimensions of signs with an intermediate link: 1st class - 71 × 108 mm; 2nd and 3rd grades - 62 × 97 mm, 4-6th grades - 48 × 80 mm.

The badge of the order of the 6th class is similar to the badges of the senior degrees, but the intermediate link with the ring is not gilded.

The badge of the order of the 7th-8th class is similar to the badges of the senior degrees, but without enamels, without a wide rim on the central medallion and without an intermediate link.

Sign of the 8th class - without gilding. Size - 46 × 46 mm.

The star of the order is silver, eight-pointed multi-beam with a “diamond” cut, 91 mm in diameter. The badge of the order (without an intermediate link) is superimposed on the center of the star. On the back of the star, the same hieroglyphs are applied as on the back of the badge.

The ribbon of the order is silk moire white with a pale bluish tint, with red stripes along the edges. The width of the tape of the 1st class is 107 mm, the width of the strips along the edges is 14 mm at a distance of 11 mm from the edges. The width of the tape of other classes is 37 mm, the width of the strips along the edges is 4.5 mm at a distance of 3.5 mm from the edges. A round rosette of the same ribbon with a diameter of 22 mm is attached to the ribbon of the 4th class order.

Knights of the Order of Auspicious Clouds 1st Class wear the badge of the order on a wide ribbon with a rosette over the right shoulder and the star of the order on the left side of the chest. Knights of the 2nd class wear the badge of the order on a narrow ribbon around the neck and the star of the order on the left side of the chest. Knights of the 3rd class wear the badge of the order on a narrow ribbon around the neck. Knights of the 4th-8th classes wear the badge of the order on a narrow ribbon on the left side of the chest.

Order of the Pillars of the State

The Order of the Pillars of the State or the Order of the Support (桂國章) is a state award of the Great Empire of Manchukuo, established in eight classes by Imperial Edict No. 142 of September 14, 1936. The name of the order symbolizes the traditional Chinese pillars (pillars) used in the construction of temples and palaces. The award was actually the equivalent of the Japanese Order of the Sacred Treasure. From 1936 to 1940, it is known about the award of 39,604 signs of the order, including: 1st class - 47, 2nd class - 97, 3rd class - 260, 4th class - 657, 5th class - 1 777, 6th class - 2 778, 7th class - 9 524, 8th class - 24 464. Most of the awarded were employees of the Japanese army and the Japanese administration of Manchukuo. The total number of awards during the existence of the order is unknown, however, according to the Japanese Mint, about 136,500 signs of all classes were made.

The badge of the order of the 1st and 3rd classes is silver gilded, which is a cross of four pillars diverging from the center, each of which is made up of several rectangular and rounded blocks. The lower blocks are covered with red enamel, the upper blocks are without enamel. In the center of the sign is an octagonal yellow enamel medallion with five narrow rims - (from the center) black, white, blue and red enamel and an outer silver one, without enamel, with gilded dots. In the corners of the cross there are wands, at the end of each one is fixed one pearl and at the base - two smaller pearls. On the obverse of the badge, smooth without enamels, four hieroglyphs are depicted - "勲功位章" (merit award). To the upper end of the badge is attached a curly brace of two stalks of Manchurian sorghum, through which the ribbon of the order is passed.

The badge of the order of the 4th-5th class is similar to the badges of the senior classes, but instead of pearls there are white enamel discs.

The badge of the order of the 6th-8th class is similar to the badges of the 4th-5th classes, but without gilding on the badge and without red enamel on the pillars.

Dimensions of signs (without brackets): 1st and 3rd classes - 63 × 63 mm; 4th-8th grades - 40 × 40 mm.

The star of the order is silver, eight-pointed multi-beam, with a diameter of 81 mm. Diagonal groups of rays, 5 rays each, are gilded. The badge of the order (without a bracket) is superimposed on the center of the star. On the back of the star, the same hieroglyphs are applied as on the back of the badge.

The ribbon of the order is silk moire red with yellow stripes along the edges. The width of the tape of the 1st class is 106 mm, the width of the strips along the edges is 18 mm. The width of the tape of other classes is 38 mm, the width of the strips along the edges is 6.5 mm. Ribbon strap - rectangular silver with a rim and a wavy ornament. For the 4th and 5th grades - planks gilded with white enamel, for 6-8th grades - without gilding and enamel. The strap size is 37×6 mm.

Cavaliers of the Order of the Pillars of the State 1st Class wear the badge of the order on a wide ribbon with a rosette over the right shoulder and the star of the order on the left side of the chest. Knights of the 2nd class wear only the star of the order on the left side of the chest. Knights of the 3rd class wear the badge of the order on a narrow ribbon around the neck. Knights of the 4th-8th classes wear the badge of the order on a narrow ribbon on the left side of the chest. To distinguish degrees, strips are attached to the tape: for the 4th grade - two gilded ones; for the 5th grade - one gilded; for the 6th grade - three silver; for the 7th grade - two silver; for the 8th grade - one silver.

Medal "Military Border Incident"

The Medal "Military Border Incident" (國境事変従軍記章) was established by Imperial Edict No. 310 of November 5, 1940 to commemorate the battles with the Mongolian and Soviet troops at Khalkin Gol from May to September 1939. The medal could be awarded to:

- participants in hostilities (this category included military and civilians, both direct participants in hostilities and administrative workers in the rear, as well as military and civilians who were involved in special work / services related to the incident);
— all persons mobilized before the official end of the incident;

— persons involved in the incident in the transport, engineering, communication and information services;

- military police;

— medical personnel;

- persons who died during the hostilities (the medal is awarded to the head of the family of the deceased).

Despite the fact that the medal was from the mother country, most of the awards were received by Japanese soldiers.

On the obverse of the medal there is the coat of arms of Manchukuo (orchid), below - a part of the globe, in the center - a dove with outstretched wings, surrounded by a stylized image of clouds against the background of diverging rays of light. On the reverse of the medal, four hieroglyphs run from right to left, meaning "border incident". Above and below the inscription are images of clouds. The 37 mm wide ribbon is made of golden yellow moire silk with two dark blue stripes on the edges 9.5 mm wide each. The medal has a diameter of 30 mm and is made of brass with an articulated suspension and a bar on which four kanji symbols are applied, which translates as “military medal”. According to estimates, from 75 to 100 thousand people were awarded the medal.

Manchukuo Red Cross Awards

In March 1931, the leadership of the Kwantung Army, represented by S. Itagaki, the Japanese ambassador to Manchuria and the commander-in-chief of the Japanese army, decided that the Manchu-Mongolian problem would be solved only if these territories were subordinated to Japan. Based on this decision, a document was developed and approved, which was called the "Report on the Management of Occupied Manchuria." Bogaturov A.D. Great Powers in the Pacific Ocean. History and theory of international relations in East Asia after the Second World War 1945-1995, M., 1997. 353p. The plans of this document included the decision to create from Manchuria a state under the control of Japan, as a military government, in which local government officials are in power. It was also decided in advance that the puppet emperor Pu Yi, who was the last Chinese emperor, would become the head of the administration.

On February 18, 1932, a new republic was created by the Japanese and at the same time the "Declaration of Independence of Manchuria and Mongolia" was published, which finally gave sovereignty to the Northeastern provinces. The plans of the new government were to create a single powerful sovereign state of Manchukuo. The declaration said: “Manchuria and Mongolia are starting a new life. In ancient times, Manchuria and Mongolia were annexed and separated more than once, but now the natural connection has been restored.” Shirokorad A. Japan. Unfinished rivalry, M., 2008. 464s.

In 1931, Pu Yi received an offer to head the new state of Manchukuo. Pu Yi had long dreamed of the imperial crown, yes, he had no choice. There.

Having placed the Chinese emperor at the head of Manchukuo, the Japanese planned to involve the local Chinese bourgeoisie in the management of the new state, and it was also planned to create institutions under the emperor that would allow the state system of Manchukuo to be adapted to the Japanese system of bourgeois-monarchical power. Zakharova G.F. Japanese policy in Manchuria. 1932-1945, M., 1990. 266s.

On March 8, 1932, Pu Yi and his wife Wan Zhen arrived in Changchun (?¬K). The Japanese greeted them magnificently, giving them a performance with a military band. Such a beginning gave Pu Yi the hope that if he worked with the Japanese, then from the position of Supreme Ruler he would be able to restore his imperial title. The day after his arrival, Pu Yi's inauguration ceremony was held. Pu Yi was crowned as Kang Te. The capital of the new state was the city of Xinjing (ђV‹ћ). Usov V. The Last Emperor of China Pu Yi, M., 2003. 416s. Along with the change in the name of the capital, the administrative-territorial division of Manchuria also changed: instead of three provinces (Heilongjiang, Fengtian and Jilin), they formed two special cities (Xinjing and Harbin) and 12 dwarf provinces (Andong, Fengtian, Jinzhou, Jilin, Rehe, Jiandao, Heihe, Sanjiang, Longjiang, Bingjiang, Guanandong, Guananxi, Guannannan and Guananbei). Amur State University//General characteristics of the system of higher state organizations of Manchukuo .pdf (accessed 05/19/2016)

The basic principles of the state organization of Manchukuo were spelled out in the "Declaration on the Formation of the New State of Manchukuo". So, the form of government of Manchukuo was a limited monarchy. The main institutions of the system of higher state bodies were: the Emperor, the Supreme Council, the Legislative Chamber, the Sehehui organization, the State Council, the Supreme Court. According to the law, the emperor had broad powers; under him, bodies were established that were completely subordinate to him, such as: the Military Council or the Ministry of the Imperial Court. There.

Despite the fact that, according to the law, Pu Yi had broad powers, in fact, all power was entirely in the hands of the Japanese, Seishiro Itagaki was a particularly significant person. As Pu Yi wrote in his memoirs: "I did not even have the right to go outside my residence." Pu Yi. The Last Emperor, M., 2006. 576 p. “Each decision of the Pu Yi government was negotiated by the headquarters of the Kwantung Army…”. Zakharova G. F. The politics of Japan…

By 1933, there were at least 3,000 Japanese advisers to the state administration in the state apparatus of Manchukuo. Everyone, from the department to the ordinary employee, did their job under supervision. Usov V. The Last Emperor of China…

In order to raise the international status of the new state, the Japanese tried in every possible way to achieve its recognition by other countries. Thus, on November 1, 1937, Manchukuo with its puppet regime was recognized by Italy, and on December 2 of the same year by Spain. In 1938, Germany and Poland also recognized the new state. Karaeva K. A. Manchukuo and international relations in the Far East. 1931-1945, EKB., 2005. 89s.

To continue their aggressive policy, the Japanese needed to strengthen the Manchurian foothold. For this, the 150,000th Kwantung Army was deployed in Manchukuo, which consisted of trained and well-armed soldiers who implicitly obeyed their commanders. The army was intended to "defend the people of Manchuria from the Chinese Bolsheviks, the Kuomintang and other bandits." Usov V. The Last Emperor of China Pu Yi, M., 2003. 416s.

The Japanese paid special attention to the construction of prisons and labor camps, as they were overcrowded and there were not enough places for all the "criminals". In 1935, an order was issued on the "rational use" of 22 places of detention due to the great need for labor for the construction of a new state, the prisoners also had to carry out labor duties. Zakharova G. F. The politics of Japan…

Reforms were carried out in education. Since Manchukuo needed new personnel, special attention was paid to the education and training of young people. All subjects in schools were taught in Japanese, and such a subject as "Great Japan" appeared in the curriculum. In all educational institutions, a pro-fascist way of thinking and the ideology of militarism were imposed on students. Successful students whose ideological sentiments were in line with the Japanese government were sent to study in Japan. There.

Later, the Sehehui (?©M?) organization was established. It occupied a special place in the system of the highest bodies of the state. Her honorary adviser was the commander of the Kwantung Army, General Inoue. Anyone could join it: people living in Manchukuo, and those who lived outside of it. The main requirement for joining the organization was the sharing of the ideas of this organization. The main functions of the organization were: to instill in the people respect and loyalty to Japan and the belief that Japan is the savior of Asia from the national government of China. The organization also partially performed the duties of the Legislative Chamber and intelligence functions. Amur State University//General characteristics of the system of higher state organizations in Manchukuo URL: http://www.amursu.ru/attachments/article/9535/N48_8.pdf

Thus, the Sehehui Society became the main pillar of the Kwantung Army. pro-Japanese puppet Manchukuo

On April 28, 1932, the Daily Manchurian Newspaper began to be published in the capital. In one of her articles it was said: “1312 thousand square meters. km of territory, stretching from north to south for 1700 km and from east to west for 1400 km, represent the widest field of activity for the liberated 30 million Manchu population. Warmed by the rising sun of the Yamato Empire, it begins to turn over the pages of the history of its free development, and it is no longer threatened by either the colonial expansion of the West, or communist aggression from the USSR or agents of the Comintern from Beijing or Nanjing ”Usov V. The Last Emperor of China ...

The cinema screened various Japanese documentaries showing the invincibility of the Kwantung Army in various battles with China.

Coat of arms of Manchukuo
Manchukuo is highlighted in green. The Japanese Empire is in red. Capital xinjing Currency unit Yuan of Manchukuo Form of government Empire Dynasty Aisingioro Supreme ruler - 1932 - 1934 Pu Yi Emperor - 1934-1945 Pu Yi

Manchukuo (State of Manchuria, whale. 大滿洲帝國 - "Damanzhou-digo" (Great Manchurian Empire)), a state (empire) formed by the Japanese military administration in the territory of Manchuria occupied by Japan; existed from March 1, 1932 to August 19, 1945.

In fact, Manchukuo was controlled by Japan and followed entirely in line with its policy. In the city, the armed forces of Manchukuo participated in the war at Khalkhin Gol (in Japanese historiography - “The Incident at Nomonkhan”). During the Soviet-Japanese War, Manchukuo ceased to exist. On August 19, 1945, Emperor Pu Yi was captured in the Mukden airport building by Red Army paratroopers. The territory of Manchukuo became part of the People's Republic of China.

Story

After the conquest of China by the Manchu tribes, the Ming dynasty was overthrown. The conquerors proclaimed the power of their Qing dynasty in China, but their historical homeland, Manchuria, was not fully integrated with China, retaining legal and ethnic differences.

The progressive weakening of Qing China in the 19th century caused the separation of part of the border regions and the strengthening of the great powers competing with each other. Russia expressed significant interest in the northern territories of the Qing Empire and in 1858, under the Beijing Treaty, gained control over the territories called Outer Manchuria in China (modern Primorsky Krai, Amur Krai, south Khabarovsk Krai and the Jewish Autonomous Region). However, the further weakening of the Qing government led to the strengthening of Russia also in Inner Manchuria, where the Chinese Eastern Railway was built, passing along the route Harbin - Vladivostok. The Russian government considered the Zheltorossiya project, the basis of which was to be the exclusion zone of the CER, the formation of a new Cossack army and Russian colonists.

The clash of Russian and Japanese interests led to the Russo-Japanese War of 1905, as a result of which Russian influence in Manchuria was replaced by Japanese. Between 1925 and 1925, Japan significantly increased its influence in Inner Manchuria, relying on economic leverage.

During the Russian Civil War of 1918-1921, Japan took advantage of Russia's weakening and occupied Outer Manchuria. Manchuria became the arena of struggle between Russia, Japan and China.

A buffer Far Eastern Republic was formed between Soviet Russia and Japan, however, further strengthening of the Bolsheviks and pressure from the Western powers on Japan led to the withdrawal of the occupying forces in 1925.

The commander of the Kwantung Army was also the Japanese ambassador to Manchukuo, and had the right to veto the decisions of the emperor.

There was a Legislative Assembly in the state, whose role was reduced to stamping the decisions of the State Council. The only political party allowed was the government-funded Concord Society (see below). en:Concordia Association); in addition to him, several emigrant groups, in particular, Russian emigrants, were allowed to organize their own political movements (see, for example, the Russian Fascist Party).

Concord Society

The Accord Society played a key role in Manchukuo. Its name is explained by the pan-Asian concept of the "consent of peoples" put forward by the Japanese, which assumed the self-determination of various Asian peoples along the lines of the Soviet model of the "union of peoples". At the same time, the coexistence of various nationalities was assumed strictly within the framework of a single centralized state, which could help to avoid possible weakening. The Concord Society assumed self-organization within separate communities for different nationalities; it included Mongols, Manchus, Koreans, Japanese, Muslims, Russian emigrants, and also a Chinese majority. At the same time, the organization was characterized by reliance on traditional religious leaders for each community.

The society was conceived as the main political force of Manchukuo, designed to replace the Kwantung Army in this capacity. However, in reality, the Concord Society has become an ideological tool in the hands of the Japanese military. In the mid-1930s, the leadership of the Kwantung Army ordered the society to purge its leaders, who were accused of left-wing sympathies. After the purge, the organization became, in fact, no different from its progenitors - the fascist parties of Europe of that time, standing on the positions of anti-communism and corporatism, and was transformed for mobilization purposes.

The model for the Concord Society was the Japanese organization Taisei Yokusenkai (Association for the Relief of the Throne). All civil servants, up to teachers, and all important figures of society were included in the society. Young people aged 16 to 19, starting in 1937, were automatically enrolled in the organization. By 1943, up to 10% of the population of Manchuria was in society.

Although a one-party system was not formally established in Manchukuo, in fact the only political party allowed was the Concorde Society. An exception to this rule were various political movements of immigrants living in Manchuria.

Armed forces

The Kwantung Army, the Japanese army group in the Far East, played a key role in the creation and further life of Manchukuo. The decision to seize Manchuria in 1932 was made by the command of the Kwantung Army arbitrarily, without the consent of the Japanese Parliament.

In the future, the commander of the Kwantung Army simultaneously served as the ambassador of Japan, and had the right to veto the decisions of Emperor Pu Yi. Thus, the status of Manchukuo did not actually differ from the status of a protectorate of any of the European colonial empires [ source not specified 205 days] .

The Kwantung Army formed and trained the Manchurian Imperial Army. Its core was the North-Eastern Army of General Zhang Xueliang, numbering up to 160 thousand people. The main problem of these troops was the low quality of the personnel; many were poorly trained, and there were large numbers of opium addicts in the army. The Manchu troops were prone to desertion. So, in August 1932, 2000 soldiers deserted from the Wukumiho garrison, and the 7th Cavalry Brigade mutinied. All of these forces joined the Chinese guerrillas fighting the Japanese.

Manchukuo had his own navy.

Demography

Train station in Xinjing

As of 1934, the population of Manchukuo was 30 million 880 thousand people. On average, there were 6.1 people per family, the ratio of men to women was 1.22 to 1. The population consisted of 29 million 510 thousand Chinese, 590 thousand 796 Japanese, 680 thousand Koreans, 98 thousand 431 representatives of other nationalities. 80% of the population lived in villages.

During the existence of Manchukuo, the population of this territory increased by 18 million people.

In 1934, Japan was considering the Fugu Plan to attract from 18,000 to 600,000 Jews to Manchukuo. This plan arose at a time when the USSR began to form the Jewish Autonomous Region (formed in 1934) on part of the territory of the former Outer Manchuria. In 1938, the plan sparked fierce debate at a cabinet conference. In 1941, the implementation of the plan was completely interrupted.

In Japan, there was practically no Jewish population, and the "Plan Fugu" appeared under the influence of naive ideas about the Jews, as people with great financial opportunities, capable of turning Manchukuo into a "profitable colony." This plan was actually never implemented, the number of Jewish refugees who arrived from Europe to Japan and the territories controlled by it amounted to only a few thousand people. To the dismay of the Japanese, most Jews fled Europe literally empty-handed.

Manchu-go, Manchuria (Chinese 滿洲國 - State of Manchuria, Chinese 大滿洲帝國 - "Damanzhou-digo" (Great Manchurian Empire)), a puppet state (empire) formed by the Japanese military administration on the territory of Manchuria occupied by Japan; existed from March 9, 1932 to August 19, 1945.
The capital is Xinjing (now Changchun); the last Chinese emperor (from the Manchu Qing dynasty) Pu Yi (Supreme ruler in 1932-1934, emperor from 1934 to 1945) was placed at the head of the state.
The League of Nations refused to recognize Manchukuo, which led Japan to withdraw from the organization in 1934. At the same time, Manchukuo was recognized by 23 of the 80 states of the world that existed at that time.
In fact, Manchukuo was controlled by Japan and followed entirely in line with its policy. In 1939, the armed forces of Manchukuo took part in the battles on the Khalkhin Gol River (in Japanese historiography - the "Incident at Nomonhan"). During the Soviet-Japanese war, Manchukuo ceased to exist. On August 19, 1945, Emperor Pu Yi was captured in the Mukden airport building by Red Army paratroopers. In 1949, the territory of Manchukuo became part of the PRC.
WIKI
I can not resist reposting this material (a lot of photos):
Pu Yi: Life of an Emperor
The emergence of Manchukuo - Territory and administrative structure - International recognition - Oath of Pu Yi - Emperor of the Great Manchurian Empire - Peaceful fate of Zaifeng - Japanese tutelage - Visits to Japan
New Visit to Japan - Establishment of the Amaterasu Cult in Manchukuo - Economic Growth and Public Holidays -
"Parent Country" - World War II - The Kwantung Army and the Beginning of the End

Japan took over Manchuria in 1931. Pu Yi was 25 at the time. On the initiative of the Fourth Division of the Kwantung Army, on February 23, 1932, the All-Manchurian Assembly was held, declaring the independence of Northeast China. A new state appeared - Manchukuo (滿洲國).

It was a fairly large power with an area of 1,165,000 square meters. km. By modern standards, it would take the twenty-sixth largest in the world - between South Africa and Colombia. The population of Manchukuo was 30 million people. Administratively, the country was divided into anto - an ancient Manchu administrative-territorial unit, similar to a province. In 1932, Manchukuo consisted of five anto, as it was during the Qing Dynasty. In 1941, a reform was carried out and the number of antos increased to nineteen. Anto was divided into prefectures.

Also in the structure of Manchukuo there was a special region of Peiman and two special cities - Xingjin (Changchun, the capital of the country) and Harbin. Peiman enjoyed the status of a special region from July 1, 1933 to January 1, 1936. Harbin eventually became part of the province of Binjiang.

Henry Pu Yi is the ruler of Manchukuo. 1932

The League of Nations, based on the Report of a commission led by Victor Bulwer-Lytton, determined that Manchuria was still an integral part of China and refused to recognize the new state, which led to the withdrawal of the Great Japanese Empire or League. Meanwhile, individual states recognized Manchukuo and established diplomatic relations with the Empire. These powers in different years included El Salvador, the Dominican Republic, the USSR (since March 1933, the Manchukuo-Di-Go consulate worked in Chita), Italy, Spain, Germany, and Hungary. After the outbreak of World War II, Manchukuo was recognized by Slovakia, France, Romania, Bulgaria, Finland, Denmark, Croatia, the Chinese regime of Wang Jingwei, Thailand and the Philippines. It is widely believed that the Vatican also established diplomatic ties with Manchukuo, but this is a misconception. Bishop Auguste Gaspé was indeed appointed ad tempus representative of the Holy See and the Catholic Mission to the Government of Manchukuo, but the appointment took place through the Congregation De Propaganda Fide (Propagation of the Faith), and not the Secretariat of State of the Holy See, and Bishop Gaspé did not have diplomatic powers, answering only for missionary work.

Henry Pu Yi, ruler of Manchukuo

Pu Yi the ruler of Manchukuo with members of the government. To the right of Pu Yi is Zheng Xiaoxu, the first prime minister of Manchukuo.

Shortly before the creation of Manchukuo, Pu Yi, during an ancestral worship ceremony, swore an oath during a sacrifice:

“It is hard to look at the disasters experienced by the people for twenty years and be powerless to help them. Now that the people of the three northeastern provinces are giving me support and a friendly power is helping me, the situation in the country is forcing me to take responsibility and come to the defense of the state. When you start something, you cannot know in advance whether it will be successful.
But I remember examples of sovereigns who had to restore their throne in the past. For example, the Jin prince Wen Gong defeated the Qin prince Mugong, the Han emperor Guang Wudi overthrew the emperor Gengshi, the founder of the Shu state defeated Liu Biao and Yuan-nao, the founder of the Ming dynasty defeated Han Lin'er. All of them, in order to fulfill their great mission, had to resort to external help. Now, in disgrace, I wish to take on a great responsibility and continue a great cause, no matter how difficult it may be. I want to devote all my strength to the sure salvation of the people, and I will act very carefully.
In front of the graves of my ancestors, I sincerely speak about my desires and ask them for protection and help.
(Based on the book "The Last Emperor", Moscow, Vagrius 2006)

Pu Yi (center), Pu Jie, brother of the former emperor (left), and Rong Qi, friend of Pu Yi, in Changchun
When Pu Yi learned that the Japanese saw him as the head of a new state, he agreed to their proposal. His goal was to restore the lost heritage of the ancestors. However, on March 9, 1932, he received from the Emperor of Japan only the title of Supreme Ruler of Manchuria (in fact, the Japanese governor) with the motto of the reign of Datong (大同), which was for him, not only the rightful heir to the Dragon Throne, but also a descendant of Nurhaci and Abahai, the creators of Manchukuo, the unifiers of the Jurchen tribes, with the deepest disappointment.

The ruler of Manchukuo Pu Yi during a visit to Japan.

Pu Yi the day before the coronation

. Fifth from left - Commander of the Kwantung Army, General Hisikari Takashi. 1934

Pu Yi at the celebrations on the occasion of accession to the throne

Pu Yi at the celebrations on the occasion of accession to the throne

Later, in 1934, the Japanese finally agreed to the adoption of Pu Yi the title of Emperor of Manchukuo, or rather Da-Manzhou-Di-Guo (大滿洲帝國) - the Great Manchurian Empire. In the early morning of March 1, 1934, in Sinuatsun, a suburb of the Manchuo-Guo capital Changchun (later renamed Xinjing - "New Capital"), the ancient ceremony of the emperor's accession to the throne took place. Then, dressed in the uniform of a generalissimo, Pu Yi went to Changchun, where another coronation took place. Pu Yi adopted the throne name and reign motto of Kangde (康德). With all the splendor of the title of Emperor of the Great Manchurian Empire, everyone understood the puppetry of the newly-made emperor, who had no real political power. The Japanese planned to use Pu Yi, including as an agent of influence against China. For fourteen years, from 1932 to 1945, Pu Yi was the puppet ruler of Manchukuo, completely subject to Japan. Pu Yi did not really have his own power. His ministers only reported the state of affairs to their Japanese deputies, who carried out the real management of the ministries. They never came to Pu Yi with reports. Yoshioka Yasunori, a lieutenant general of the Japanese army, who spoke Chinese, became an attaché at the imperial court and an adviser to the Kwantung Army. He was inseparably with the emperor, controlling his every step.

Ceremonial vestments of Emperor Manchukuo Pu Yi Kangde

Manifesto of Emperor Kangde on the accession to the throne of Manchukuo dated March 1, 1934

It must be said that Pu Yi's father, the Second Grand Duke Chun Zaifeng, was initially against the proposal of the Japanese and did not support the idea of creating Manchukuo. After the Xinhai Revolution, Zaifeng lived in Beijing, in his Northern Palace. The new leaders of China appreciated his prudence and peaceful relinquishment of power, and Zaifeng lived peacefully in peace surrounded by respect. In 1928, Zaifeng moved to Tianjing, where he lived in the British and Japanese concessions, but after a devastating flood, the former Prince Chun returned to Beijing.

During the reign of Pu Yi in the Manchurian Empire, Zaifeng paid his son three visits, but refused to stay in the new country. After 1949, when the Communists came to power in China, nothing much changed for Zaifeng again. Unless, in order to overcome financial difficulties, the Northern Palace had to be sold to the government. Then, in gratitude for the good attitude, Zaifeng donated his library and art collection to Peking University. Zaifeng did a lot of charity work and participated in public life to the best of his ability. Died on February 3, 1951 in Beijing.

Pu Yi Kangde - Emperor of Manchukuo in the form of Generalissimo

Autographed photograph of Emperor Pu Yi Kangde

Empress Wan Rong after an audience with the Japanese Prince Chichibu, brother of Emperor Hirohito, where the Empress was presented with the award of the Emperor of Japan.

As for Manchukuo-Di-Guo, the actual power here was in the hands of the commander of the Kwantung Army, who simultaneously acted as the ambassador of the Japanese Emperor at the court of the Emperor Kangde. It was the Japanese commander who made all the most important state decisions, and the army of Manchukuo-Di-Go was subordinate to him. At the same time, the only guarantor of the country's independence was the Japanese Kwantung Army. From 1932 to 1945, six people replaced each other in the posts of commander of the Kwantung Army and Japanese ambassador to the Kangde Emperor.
From August 8, 1932 to July 27, 1933 Field Marshal Baron Muto Nobuyoshi commanded the Kwantung Army.
From July 29, 1933 to December 10, 1934 - General Hisikari Takashi.
From December 10, 1934 to March 6, 1936 - General Hiro Minami.
From March 6, 1936 to September 7, 1939 - General Kenkichi Ueda.
From September 7, 1939 to July 18, 1944 - Umezu Yoshijira.
And from July 18, 1944 to August 11, 1945 - General Yamata Otozo.

Henry Pu Yi Kangde - Emperor of Manchukuo

Emperor Aisingioro Pu Yi Kande

Emperor Aisingioro Pu Yi Kande

In April 1935, Pu Yi visited Japan in the status of Emperor of Manchukuo. The fact is that the emperor of Japan sent his brother with congratulations on the occasion of the accession of Pu Yi to the throne. And the command of the Kwantung Army recommended that Pu Yi pay a return visit to Tokyo as a token of gratitude. Pu Yi met with Emperor Hirohito, participated in various ceremonial events, watched the exercises of the Japanese naval forces. Prior to this, Pu Yi had made a trip to Japan in 1934 when he was introduced to the Empress Dowager. The emperor of Manchukuo maintained constant contact with her throughout his reign, warm, trusting relations were established between them, they constantly exchanged letters.

Emperor Pu Yi Kande with Japanese Emperor Hirohito during a visit to Japan. April 1935.

Emperor Pu Yi Kande with Japanese Emperor Hirohito during a visit to Japan. April 9, 1935.

Henry Pu Yi Kangde - Emperor of Manchukuo, on the cover of Time weekly

The second visit of Pu Yi to Japan in the status of Emperor of Manchukuo took place in May 1940. This trip lasted only eight days. During this visit, Pu Yi received the official consent of the Emperor of Japan to introduce the cult of the Japanese progenitor goddess Amaterasu Omikami into Manchukuo. Upon his return to Changchun, Pu Yi ordered the construction of the Temple of Strengthening the Foundations of the Nation near his palace, in which the cult of Amaterasu Omikami was sent. The Chamber of Worship specially established for this purpose was headed by the former chief of staff of the Kwantung Army, Hashimoto Toranosuke. Sacrifices were made every month, on the first and fifteenth, with the participation of the emperor, senior officials and the command of the Kwantung Army. On July 15, 1940, the cult of the Shinto deity was officially approved in Manchukuo by the manifesto of Emperor Kande "On strengthening the foundations of the nation."

Emperor Pu Yi Kande at the Tokyo Station with Emperor Hirohito. May 1940.

Emperor Pu Yi Kande. Solemn temple ceremony.<

Emperor Pu Yi Kande greets Prince Takamatsu, brother of Japan's Emperor Hirohito, during celebrations marking the 10th anniversary of his accession to the throne.

Emperor Pu Yi Kande. Rain.

Emperor Pu Yi Kangde with Lieutenant General Chu Kudo, Chamberlain of the Court and Imperial Adjutant. 1940s.

The indigenous population of Manchukuo reacted with hostility to the new foreign cult. The emperor himself admitted in his memoirs that before each sacrifice he performed the ritual of ancestor worship and mentally told himself that he would bow not to Amaterasu, but to the Beijing Kunningun Palace.

Standard of the Emperor of Manchukuo

State flag of Manchukuo

State Emblem of Manchukuo

State seals of Emperor Pu Yi

National anthem of Manchukuo.

Meanwhile, cooperation with Japan has also brought positive results. Thanks to Japanese investment in Manchukuo, agriculture and heavy industry developed rapidly, and the extraction of iron ore and coal increased. The indicators of steel and iron smelting went up.

Public holidays in Manchukuo were declared: March 1 - Foundation Day of Manchukuo Di-Go; February 7 - Emperor's birthday; April 20 - Day of Prayer for the Harvest; January 1 - New Year; July 15 - Day of the progenitor goddess Amaterasu Omikami.

Imperial Guard of Manchukuo

View of the main street of Changchun during the Manchukuo era

The building of the State Council of Manchukuo. 1939

The building of the Central Bank of Manchukuo. 1939

Manchukuo Telegraph and Telephone Company

Manchukuo Coal Industrial Company

Xinjing First Hospital (Changchun)

Naturally, Manchukuo was forced to make an alliance with Japan. Moreover, the Japanese insisted that in Manchu documents and official publications, Japan should not be called an ally, but the "parent country" of Manchukuo. Pu Yi was forced to support Japan in the war against China that had been going on since 1937 and in the war against the United States and Britain that had begun in 1941. Manchukuo regularly declared war on the countries with which Japan was at war. In 1939, Manchukuo acceded to the Anti-Commintern Pact signed by Japan, Italy and Germany in 1936.

Postage stamp of Manchukuo

Map of Manchukuo (3.35 MB, Chinese)

Government of Manchukuo (photo taken before 1942):
First row, left to right: Yu Zhishan (于芷山), Minister of War; Xie Jishi (谢介石), Ambassador to the Great Japanese Empire; Xi Qia (熙洽), head of the Imperial Household Office;
Zhang Jinghui (张景惠), Prime Minister; Zang Shii (臧式毅), Chairman of the Senate; Lü Ronghuan (吕荣寰), Minister of Civil Affairs.
Second row, left to right: Ding Jianxiu (丁鉴修), Minister of Industry; Li Shaogeng (李绍庚), Minister of Transportation; Yuan Jinkai (袁金铠), Minister of the Court; Ruan Zhendo (阮振铎), Minister of Education; Zhang Yanqing (张燕卿), Minister of Foreign Affairs.

During the reign of Pu Yi in Manchuria, the Japanese forced Pu Jie's brother, who was studying at a Japanese military school, to marry a Japanese woman, Ms. Saga Hiro. Pu Yi was also offered to marry a Japanese woman, but he suspected that they wanted to put a spy on him under the guise of a wife, and in 1937 he took a second wife, a Manchu girl named Tan Yu-Ling (谭玉龄, 1920 - 1942), which means "Jade Years". However, Tan Yu-Ling died five years after her marriage, and Pu Yi blamed the Japanese for poisoning her. As happened before in the Forbidden City, the Japanese gave the emperor photographs of several girls, and in 1943 Pu Yi remarried a Manchu girl who had been brought up in a Japanese school. Her name was Li Yuqin (李玉琴, 1928 - 2001), meaning "Jade Lute". The emperor had not lived with her since the day he abdicated the throne of Manchukuo, but they officially divorced only in 1958.

Tan Yu-Ling, Emperor's Consort

Li Yuqin, Emperor's Consort

Emperor's brother Pu Jie and his Japanese consort Saga Hiro

In the last years of his reign, despite the fact that the traditional religion of the emperors of the Qing Dynasty was Confucianism, Pu Yi began to lean towards Buddhism. During this period, he became a committed vegetarian; in the spirit of the teachings of the Buddha, forbade killing any living creatures in the palace, up to mice and flies. Pu Yi, removed from state affairs by the Japanese, fell into mysticism, became interested in divination and meditation, during which it was forbidden to make noise in the palace. Exhausted by his own position as a hostage, deprived of power, feeling the impending disaster, Pu Yi gradually turned into a domestic tyrant. Physical punishment of servants became the norm for the imperial palace in Changchun. When one of the servant boys, who was trying to escape from the palace, was caught and died from beatings, Pu Yi was only afraid that the soul of the slain might not find rest and begin to take revenge on him. Several days were devoted to prayers for the repose of the soul of the deceased servant. So lived Pu Yi, the Emperor of Manchukuo, deprived of power, protected from the outside world by the Japanese authorities. Over time, the command of the Kwantung Army was not up to the Manchu emperor. The military position of the Kwantung Army in the war with the USSR became more and more difficult every day.

Media materials:

Video about the palace of the emperor of Manchukuo in Changchun.
Manchukuo. Documentary film from 1938.

Plan
Introduction
1. History
1.1 Diplomatic recognition

2 Politics
3 Concord Society
4 Armed forces
5 Demographics
6 Currency
Bibliography

Introduction

Manchu-guo, Manchuria (Chinese 滿洲國 - State of Manchuria, whale. 大滿洲帝國 - "Damanzhou-digo" (Great Manchurian Empire)), a state (empire) formed by the Japanese military administration on the territory of Manchuria occupied by Japan; existed from March 1, 1932 to August 19, 1945.

The capital is Xinjing (now Changchun); the last Chinese emperor (from the Manchu Qing dynasty) Pu Yi (Supreme ruler in 1932-1934, emperor from 1934 to 1945) was placed at the head of the state.

In fact, Manchukuo was controlled by Japan and followed entirely in line with its policy. In 1939, the armed forces of Manchukuo took part in the battles on the Khalkhin Gol River (in Japanese historiography - the "Incident at Nomonhan"). During the Soviet-Japanese war, Manchukuo ceased to exist. On August 19, 1945, Emperor Pu Yi was captured in the Mukden airport building by Red Army paratroopers. In 1949, the territory of Manchukuo became part of the PRC.

1. History

The progressive weakening of the Qing Empire in the 19th century caused the separation of part of the border regions and the strengthening of the great powers competing with each other. Russia expressed significant interest in the northern territories of the Qing Empire and in 1858, under the Beijing Treaty, gained control over the territories called Outer Manchuria in China (modern Primorsky Krai, Amur Region, southern Khabarovsk Territory and the Jewish Autonomous Region). However, the further weakening of the Qing government led to the strengthening of Russia also in Inner Manchuria, where the CER was built, running along the route Harbin - Vladivostok. The Russian government considered the Zheltorossiya project, the basis of which was to be the exclusion zone of the CER, the formation of a new Cossack army and Russian colonists.

The clash of Russian and Japanese interests led to the Russo-Japanese War of 1905, as a result of which Russian influence in Manchuria was replaced by Japanese. In the period between 1905 and 1925, Japan significantly increases its influence in Inner Manchuria, relying on economic leverage.

During the Russian Civil War of 1918-1921, Japan took advantage of Russia's weakening and occupied Outer Manchuria. Manchuria became the arena of struggle between Russia, Japan and China.

A buffer Far Eastern Republic was formed between Soviet Russia and Japan, but further strengthening of the Bolsheviks and pressure from the Western powers on Japan led to the withdrawal of the occupying forces in 1925.

Beginning in 1925, China began to counteract the growing Japanese influence on the continent. During the civil war in the former Qing Empire, General Zhang Zuolin captured Inner Manchuria with the help of the Japanese, but was liquidated in 1928. In 1931, the Japanese invaded Manchuria and invited the last Qing emperor, Pu Yi, to restore the Manchu state. On March 1, 1932, by decision of the All-Manchurian Assembly, the State of Manchuria was formed, then recognized by Japan. The new state immediately became the scene of a battle between the Japanese and Chinese armed groups, which continued for several years.

Pu Yi, originally appointed Head of State - Supreme Ruler (he took office on March 9, 1932), was declared emperor two years later. The motto of his reign was "Kangde" (康德), or "Tranquility and Virtue". On March 1, 1934, Manchukuo was declared the Great Manchurian Empire (Manchukuo-di-go). Thanks to Japanese investment and rich natural resources, Manchuria was industrialized.

Manchukuo was used by Japan as a springboard for an attack on China. In the summer of 1939, the territorial disputes between Manchuria and the Mongolian People's Republic led to clashes at Khalkhin Gol between the Soviet-Mongolian and Japanese-Manchurian troops.

On August 8, 1945, the USSR, pursuant to the decisions of the Yalta Conference, declared war on Japan and attacked Manchukuo from the territory of Outer Mongolia and the former Outer Manchuria. Emperor Pu Yi tried to break through to the Japanese in order to subsequently surrender to the American army, but was arrested by Soviet troops and extradited to the Chinese communist government.

In the period 1945-1948, the territory of Inner Manchuria, thanks to I. V. Stalin, became the base for the People's Liberation Army of China.

1.1. Diplomatic recognition

The League of Nations refused to recognize Manchukuo, which led Japan to withdraw from the organization in 1934. At the same time, Manchukuo was recognized by 23 of the 80 states of the world that existed at that time. Diplomatic relations were established with the USSR (de facto March 23, 1935; de jure April 13, 1941), Germany, Italy, Spain, and later the Vichy regime in France. The state was also recognized by El Salvador and the Dominican Republic. In particular, the state was recognized:

2. Politics

Historians often view Manchukuo as a puppet state. In China, this state is usually referred to as "Wei Manchukuo" (false state of Manchuria), although it had a succession from the state of the Manchus, which gave rise to the Qing Empire.

On March 1, 1934, Manchuria was declared a monarchy. The emperor ruled based on the Privy Council and the Council of State. It was the State Council that was the center of political power. It consisted of several ministers, with each of them a Japanese deputy minister.

Manchukuo had state symbols: a flag, a coat of arms, and an anthem.

The commander of the Kwantung Army was also the Japanese ambassador to Manchukuo, and had the right to veto the decisions of the emperor.

3. Society of Concord

4. Armed Forces

The Kwantung Army formed and trained the Manchu Imperial Army. Its core was the North-Eastern Army of General Zhang Xueliang, numbering up to 160 thousand people. The main problem of these troops was the low quality of the personnel; many were poorly trained, and there were large numbers of opium addicts in the army. The Manchu troops were prone to desertion. So, in August 1932, 2000 soldiers deserted from the Wukumiho garrison, and the 7th Cavalry Brigade mutinied. All of these forces joined the Chinese guerrillas fighting the Japanese.