Name:
Free Manchuria
General content of the project:
The project for the formation of an independent state in the northeast of China on the territory of Manchuria with the capital in Changchun
Initiating countries:
Manchurian separatists with possible Japanese and American support
Flag/logo:
The flag of the previously established puppet pro-Japanese state of Manchukuo during World War II is sometimes used.
Map:
Map of Manchukuo
reference Information:
Beginning in 1925, China began to counteract the growing Japanese influence on the continent. During the civil war in the former Qing Empire, General Zhang Zuolin captured Inner Manchuria with the help of the Japanese, but was liquidated in 1928. In 1931, the Japanese invaded Manchuria and invited the last Qing emperor, Pu Yi, to restore the Manchu state. On March 1, 1932, by decision of the All-Manchurian Assembly, the State of Manchuria was formed, then recognized by Japan. The new state immediately became the scene of a battle between the Japanese and Chinese armed groups, which continued for several years.
Pu Yi, originally appointed Head of State - Supreme Ruler (he took office on March 9, 1932), was declared emperor two years later. On March 1, 1934, Manchukuo was declared the Great Manchurian Empire (Manchukuo-di-go). Thanks to Japanese investment and rich natural resources, Manchuria was industrialized.
Manchukuo was used by Japan as a springboard for an attack on China. In the summer of 1939, the territorial disputes between Manchuria and the Mongolian People's Republic led to clashes at Khalkhin Gol between the Soviet-Mongolian and Japanese-Manchurian troops.
On August 8, 1945, the USSR, pursuant to the decisions of the Yalta Conference, declared war on Japan and attacked Manchukuo from the territory of Outer Mongolia and the former Outer Manchuria. Emperor Pu Yi tried to break through to the Japanese in order to subsequently surrender to the American army, but was arrested by Soviet troops and extradited to the Chinese communist government.
In the period 1945-1948, the territory of Inner Manchuria, thanks to I. V. Stalin, became the base for the People's Liberation Army of China.
At present, the Manchu separatists are inspired by the hope for the independence of the region, but the real prospect is extremely small.
Project relevance:
Perhaps in the future, with the growth of the US-China conflict, the project of sovereign Manchuria will attract the attention of the Japanese and American authorities (extremely low)
Reasons for implementation:
Dynastic issue, Manchu self-determination and pre-existing states in the past
In March 1931, the leadership of the Kwantung Army, represented by S. Itagaki, the Japanese ambassador to Manchuria and the commander-in-chief of the Japanese army, decided that the Manchu-Mongolian problem would be solved only if these territories were subordinated to Japan. Based on this decision, a document was developed and approved, which was called the "Report on the Management of Occupied Manchuria." Bogaturov A.D. Great Powers in the Pacific Ocean. History and theory of international relations in East Asia after the Second World War 1945-1995, M., 1997. 353p. The plans of this document included the decision to create from Manchuria a state under the control of Japan, as a military government, in which local government officials are in power. It was also decided in advance that the puppet emperor Pu Yi, who was the last Chinese emperor, would become the head of the administration.
On February 18, 1932, a new republic was created by the Japanese and at the same time the "Declaration of Independence of Manchuria and Mongolia" was published, which finally gave sovereignty to the Northeastern provinces. The plans of the new government were to create a single powerful sovereign state of Manchukuo. The declaration said: “Manchuria and Mongolia are starting a new life. In ancient times, Manchuria and Mongolia were annexed and separated more than once, but now the natural connection has been restored.” Shirokorad A. Japan. Unfinished rivalry, M., 2008. 464s.
In 1931, Pu Yi received an offer to head the new state of Manchukuo. Pu Yi had long dreamed of the imperial crown, yes, he had no choice. There.
Having placed the Chinese emperor at the head of Manchukuo, the Japanese planned to involve the local Chinese bourgeoisie in the management of the new state, and it was also planned to create institutions under the emperor that would allow the state system of Manchukuo to be adapted to the Japanese system of bourgeois-monarchical power. Zakharova G.F. Japanese policy in Manchuria. 1932-1945, M., 1990. 266s.
On March 8, 1932, Pu Yi and his wife Wan Zhen arrived in Changchun (?¬K). The Japanese greeted them magnificently, giving them a performance with a military band. Such a beginning gave Pu Yi the hope that if he worked with the Japanese, then from the position of Supreme Ruler he would be able to restore his imperial title. The day after his arrival, Pu Yi's inauguration ceremony was held. Pu Yi was crowned as Kang Te. The capital of the new state was the city of Xinjing (ђV‹ћ). Usov V. The Last Emperor of China Pu Yi, M., 2003. 416s. Along with the change in the name of the capital, the administrative-territorial division of Manchuria also changed: instead of three provinces (Heilongjiang, Fengtian and Jilin), they formed two special cities (Xinjing and Harbin) and 12 dwarf provinces (Andong, Fengtian, Jinzhou, Jilin, Rehe, Jiandao, Heihe, Sanjiang, Longjiang, Bingjiang, Guanandong, Guananxi, Guannannan and Guananbei). Amur State University//General characteristics of the system of higher state organizations of Manchukuo .pdf (accessed 05/19/2016)
The basic principles of the state organization of Manchukuo were spelled out in the "Declaration on the Formation of the New State of Manchukuo". So, the form of government of Manchukuo was a limited monarchy. The main institutions of the system of higher state bodies were: the Emperor, the Supreme Council, the Legislative Chamber, the Sehehui organization, the State Council, the Supreme Court. According to the law, the emperor had broad powers; under him, bodies were established that were completely subordinate to him, such as: the Military Council or the Ministry of the Imperial Court. There.
Despite the fact that, according to the law, Pu Yi had broad powers, in fact, all power was entirely in the hands of the Japanese, Seishiro Itagaki was a particularly significant person. As Pu Yi wrote in his memoirs: "I did not even have the right to go outside my residence." Pu Yi. The Last Emperor, M., 2006. 576 p. “Each decision of the Pu Yi government was negotiated by the headquarters of the Kwantung Army…”. Zakharova G. F. The politics of Japan…
By 1933, there were at least 3,000 Japanese advisers to the state administration in the state apparatus of Manchukuo. Everyone, from the department to the ordinary employee, did their job under supervision. Usov V. The Last Emperor of China…
In order to raise the international status of the new state, the Japanese tried in every possible way to achieve its recognition by other countries. Thus, on November 1, 1937, Manchukuo with its puppet regime was recognized by Italy, and on December 2 of the same year by Spain. In 1938, Germany and Poland also recognized the new state. Karaeva K. A. Manchukuo and international relations in the Far East. 1931-1945, EKB., 2005. 89s.
To continue their aggressive policy, the Japanese needed to strengthen the Manchurian foothold. For this, the 150,000th Kwantung Army was deployed in Manchukuo, which consisted of trained and well-armed soldiers who implicitly obeyed their commanders. The army was intended to "defend the people of Manchuria from the Chinese Bolsheviks, the Kuomintang and other bandits." Usov V. The Last Emperor of China Pu Yi, M., 2003. 416s.
The Japanese paid special attention to the construction of prisons and labor camps, as they were overcrowded and there were not enough places for all the "criminals". In 1935, an order was issued on the "rational use" of 22 places of detention due to the great need for labor for the construction of a new state, the prisoners also had to carry out labor duties. Zakharova G. F. The politics of Japan…
Reforms were carried out in education. Since Manchukuo needed new personnel, special attention was paid to the education and training of young people. All subjects in schools were taught in Japanese, and such a subject as "Great Japan" appeared in the curriculum. In all educational institutions, a pro-fascist way of thinking and the ideology of militarism were imposed on students. Successful students whose ideological sentiments were in line with the Japanese government were sent to study in Japan. There.
Later, the Sehehui (?©M?) organization was established. It occupied a special place in the system of the highest bodies of the state. Her honorary adviser was the commander of the Kwantung Army, General Inoue. Anyone could join it: people living in Manchukuo, and those who lived outside of it. The main requirement for joining the organization was the sharing of the ideas of this organization. The main functions of the organization were: to instill in the people respect and loyalty to Japan and the belief that Japan is the savior of Asia from the national government of China. The organization also partially performed the duties of the Legislative Chamber and intelligence functions. Amur State University//General characteristics of the system of higher state organizations in Manchukuo URL: http://www.amursu.ru/attachments/article/9535/N48_8.pdf
Thus, the Sehehui Society became the main pillar of the Kwantung Army. pro-Japanese puppet Manchukuo
On April 28, 1932, the Daily Manchurian Newspaper began to be published in the capital. In one of her articles it was said: “1312 thousand square meters. km of territory, stretching from north to south for 1700 km and from east to west for 1400 km, represent the widest field of activity for the liberated 30 million Manchu population. Warmed by the rising sun of the Yamato Empire, it begins to turn over the pages of the history of its free development, and it is no longer threatened by either the colonial expansion of the West, or communist aggression from the USSR or agents of the Comintern from Beijing or Nanjing ”Usov V. The Last Emperor of China ...
The cinema screened various Japanese documentaries showing the invincibility of the Kwantung Army in various battles with China.
The emergence of Manchukuo - Territory and administrative structure - International recognition - Oath of Pu Yi - Emperor of the Great Manchurian Empire - Peaceful fate of Zaifeng - Japanese tutelage - Visits to Japan
Japan took over Manchuria in 1931. Pu Yi was 25 at the time. On the initiative of the Fourth Division of the Kwantung Army, on February 23, 1932, the All-Manchurian Assembly was held, declaring the independence of Northeast China. A new state appeared - Manchukuo (滿洲國).
It was a fairly large power with an area of 1,165,000 square meters. km. By modern standards, it would take the twenty-sixth largest in the world - between South Africa and Colombia. The population of Manchukuo was 30 million people. Administratively, the country was divided into anto - an ancient Manchu administrative-territorial unit, similar to a province. In 1932, Manchukuo consisted of five anto, as it was during the Qing Dynasty. In 1941, a reform was carried out and the number of antos increased to nineteen. Anto was divided into prefectures.
Also in the structure of Manchukuo there was a special region of Peiman and two special cities - Xingjin (Changchun, the capital of the country) and Harbin. Peiman enjoyed the status of a special region from July 1, 1933 to January 1, 1936. Harbin eventually became part of the province of Binjiang.
The League of Nations, based on the Report of a commission led by Victor Bulwer-Lytton, determined that Manchuria was still an integral part of China and refused to recognize the new state, which led to the withdrawal of the Great Japanese Empire or League. Meanwhile, individual states recognized Manchukuo and established diplomatic relations with the Empire. These powers in different years included El Salvador, the Dominican Republic, the USSR (since March 1933, the Manchukuo-Di-Go consulate worked in Chita), Italy, Spain, Germany, and Hungary. After the outbreak of World War II, Manchukuo was recognized by Slovakia, France, Romania, Bulgaria, Finland, Denmark, Croatia, the Chinese regime of Wang Jingwei, Thailand and the Philippines. It is widely believed that the Vatican also established diplomatic ties with Manchukuo, but this is a misconception. Bishop Auguste Gaspé was indeed appointed ad tempus representative of the Holy See and the Catholic Mission to the Government of Manchukuo, but the appointment took place through the Congregation De Propaganda Fide (Propagation of the Faith), and not the Secretariat of State of the Holy See, and Bishop Gaspé did not have diplomatic powers, answering only for missionary work.
Shortly before the creation of Manchukuo, Pu Yi, during an ancestral worship ceremony, swore an oath during a sacrifice:
“It is hard to look at the disasters experienced by the people for twenty years and be powerless to help them. Now that the people of the three northeastern provinces are giving me support and a friendly power is helping me, the situation in the country is forcing me to take responsibility and come to the defense of the state. When you start something, you cannot know in advance whether it will be successful.
But I remember examples of sovereigns who had to restore their throne in the past. For example, the Jin prince Wen Gong defeated the Qin prince Mugong, the Han emperor Guang Wudi overthrew the emperor Gengshi, the founder of the Shu state defeated Liu Biao and Yuan-nao, the founder of the Ming dynasty defeated Han Lin'er. All of them, in order to fulfill their great mission, had to resort to external help. Now, in disgrace, I wish to take on a great responsibility and continue a great cause, no matter how difficult it may be. I want to devote all my strength to the sure salvation of the people, and I will act very carefully.
In front of the graves of my ancestors, I sincerely speak about my desires and ask them for protection and help.
(Based on the book "The Last Emperor", Moscow, Vagrius 2006)
When Pu Yi learned that the Japanese saw him as the head of a new state, he agreed to their proposal. His goal was to restore the lost heritage of the ancestors. However, on March 9, 1932, he received from the Emperor of Japan only the title of Supreme Ruler of Manchuria (in fact, the Japanese governor) with the motto of the reign of Datong (大同), which was for him, not only the rightful heir to the Dragon Throne, but also a descendant of Nurhaci and Abahai, the creators of Manchukuo, the unifiers of the Jurchen tribes, with the deepest disappointment.
Later, in 1934, the Japanese finally agreed to the adoption of Pu Yi the title of Emperor of Manchukuo, or rather Da-Manchukuo-Di-Guo (大滿洲帝國) - the Great Manchurian Empire. In the early morning of March 1, 1934, in Sinuatsun, a suburb of the Manchuo-Guo capital Changchun (later renamed Xinjing - "New Capital"), the ancient ceremony of the emperor's accession to the throne took place. Then, dressed in the uniform of a generalissimo, Pu Yi went to Changchun, where another coronation took place. Pu Yi adopted the throne name and reign motto of Kangde (康德). With all the splendor of the title of Emperor of the Great Manchurian Empire, everyone understood the puppetry of the newly-made emperor, who had no real political power. The Japanese planned to use Pu Yi, including as an agent of influence against China. For fourteen years, from 1932 to 1945, Pu Yi was the puppet ruler of Manchukuo, completely subject to Japan. Pu Yi did not really have his own power. His ministers only reported the state of affairs to their Japanese deputies, who carried out the real management of the ministries. They never came to Pu Yi with reports. Yoshioka Yasunori, a lieutenant general of the Japanese army, who spoke Chinese, became an attaché at the imperial court and an adviser to the Kwantung Army. He was inseparably with the emperor, controlling his every step.
It must be said that Pu Yi's father, the Second Grand Duke Chun Zaifeng, was initially against the proposal of the Japanese and did not support the idea of creating Manchukuo. After the Xinhai Revolution, Zaifeng lived in Beijing, in his Northern Palace. The new leaders of China appreciated his prudence and peaceful relinquishment of power, and Zaifeng lived peacefully in peace surrounded by respect. In 1928, Zaifeng moved to Tianjing, where he lived in the British and Japanese concessions, but after a devastating flood, the former Prince Chun returned to Beijing.
During the reign of Pu Yi in the Manchurian Empire, Zaifeng paid his son three visits, but refused to stay in the new country. After 1949, when the Communists came to power in China, nothing much changed for Zaifeng again. Unless, in order to overcome financial difficulties, the Northern Palace had to be sold to the government. Then, in gratitude for the good attitude, Zaifeng donated his library and art collection to Peking University. Zaifeng did a lot of charity work and participated in public life to the best of his ability. Died on February 3, 1951 in Beijing.
As for Manchukuo-Di-Guo, the actual power here was in the hands of the commander of the Kwantung Army, who simultaneously acted as the ambassador of the Japanese Emperor at the court of the Emperor Kangde. It was the Japanese commander who made all the most important state decisions, and the army of Manchukuo-Di-Go was subordinate to him. At the same time, the only guarantor of the country's independence was the Japanese Kwantung Army. From 1932 to 1945, six people replaced each other in the posts of commander of the Kwantung Army and Japanese ambassador to the Kangde Emperor.
From August 8, 1932 to July 27, 1933 Field Marshal Baron Muto Nobuyoshi commanded the Kwantung Army.
From July 29, 1933 to December 10, 1934 - General Hisikari Takashi.
From December 10, 1934 to March 6, 1936 - General Hiro Minami.
From March 6, 1936 to September 7, 1939 - General Kenkichi Ueda.
From September 7, 1939 to July 18, 1944 - Umezu Yoshijira.
And from July 18, 1944 to August 11, 1945 - General Yamata Otozo.
Manchukuo is highlighted in green. The Japanese Empire is in red.
Manchukuo (State of Manchuria, whale. 大滿洲帝國 - "Damanzhou-digo" (Great Manchurian Empire)), a state (empire) formed by the Japanese military administration in the territory of Manchuria occupied by Japan; existed from March 1, 1932 to August 19, 1945.
In fact, Manchukuo was controlled by Japan and followed entirely in line with its policy. In the city, the armed forces of Manchukuo participated in the war at Khalkhin Gol (in Japanese historiography - “The Incident at Nomonkhan”). During the Soviet-Japanese War, Manchukuo ceased to exist. On August 19, 1945, Emperor Pu Yi was captured in the Mukden airport building by Red Army paratroopers. The territory of Manchukuo became part of the People's Republic of China.
Story
After the conquest of China by the Manchu tribes, the Ming dynasty was overthrown. The conquerors proclaimed the power of their Qing dynasty in China, but their historical homeland, Manchuria, was not fully integrated with China, retaining legal and ethnic differences.
The progressive weakening of Qing China in the 19th century caused the separation of part of the border regions and the strengthening of the great powers competing with each other. Russia expressed significant interest in the northern territories of the Qing Empire and in 1858, under the Beijing Treaty, gained control over the territories called Outer Manchuria in China (modern Primorsky Krai, Amur Krai, south Khabarovsk Krai and the Jewish Autonomous Region). However, the further weakening of the Qing government led to the strengthening of Russia also in Inner Manchuria, where the Chinese Eastern Railway was built, passing along the route Harbin - Vladivostok. The Russian government considered the Zheltorossiya project, the basis of which was to be the exclusion zone of the CER, the formation of a new Cossack army and Russian colonists.
The clash of Russian and Japanese interests led to the Russo-Japanese War of 1905, as a result of which Russian influence in Manchuria was replaced by Japanese. Between 1925 and 1925, Japan significantly increased its influence in Inner Manchuria, relying on economic leverage.
During the Russian Civil War of 1918-1921, Japan took advantage of Russia's weakening and occupied Outer Manchuria. Manchuria became the arena of struggle between Russia, Japan and China.
A buffer Far Eastern Republic was formed between Soviet Russia and Japan, however, further strengthening of the Bolsheviks and pressure from the Western powers on Japan led to the withdrawal of the occupying forces in 1925.
The commander of the Kwantung Army was also the Japanese ambassador to Manchukuo, and had the right to veto the decisions of the emperor.
There was a Legislative Assembly in the state, whose role was reduced to stamping the decisions of the State Council. The only political party allowed was the government-funded Concord Society (see below). en:Concordia Association); in addition to him, several emigrant groups, in particular, Russian emigrants, were allowed to organize their own political movements (see, for example, the Russian Fascist Party).
Concord Society
The Accord Society played a key role in Manchukuo. Its name is explained by the pan-Asian concept of the "consent of peoples" put forward by the Japanese, which assumed the self-determination of various Asian peoples along the lines of the Soviet model of the "union of peoples". At the same time, the coexistence of various nationalities was assumed strictly within the framework of a single centralized state, which could help to avoid possible weakening. The Concord Society assumed self-organization within separate communities for different nationalities; it included Mongols, Manchus, Koreans, Japanese, Muslims, Russian emigrants, and also a Chinese majority. At the same time, the organization was characterized by reliance on traditional religious leaders for each community.
The society was conceived as the main political force of Manchukuo, designed to replace the Kwantung Army in this capacity. However, in reality, the Concord Society has become an ideological tool in the hands of the Japanese military. In the mid-1930s, the leadership of the Kwantung Army ordered the society to purge its leaders, who were accused of left-wing sympathies. After the purge, the organization became, in fact, no different from its progenitors - the fascist parties of Europe of that time, standing on the positions of anti-communism and corporatism, and was transformed for mobilization purposes.
The model for the Concord Society was the Japanese organization Taisei Yokusenkai (Association for the Relief of the Throne). All civil servants, up to teachers, and all important figures of society were included in the society. Young people aged 16 to 19, starting in 1937, were automatically enrolled in the organization. By 1943, up to 10% of the population of Manchuria was in society.
Although a one-party system was not formally established in Manchukuo, in fact the only political party allowed was the Concorde Society. An exception to this rule were various political movements of immigrants living in Manchuria.
Armed forces
The Kwantung Army, the Japanese army group in the Far East, played a key role in the creation and further life of Manchukuo. The decision to seize Manchuria in 1932 was made by the command of the Kwantung Army arbitrarily, without the consent of the Japanese Parliament.
In the future, the commander of the Kwantung Army simultaneously served as the ambassador of Japan, and had the right to veto the decisions of Emperor Pu Yi. Thus, the status of Manchukuo did not actually differ from the status of a protectorate of any of the European colonial empires [ source not specified 205 days] .
The Kwantung Army formed and trained the Manchurian Imperial Army. Its core was the North-Eastern Army of General Zhang Xueliang, numbering up to 160 thousand people. The main problem of these troops was the low quality of the personnel; many were poorly trained, and there were large numbers of opium addicts in the army. The Manchu troops were prone to desertion. So, in August 1932, 2000 soldiers deserted from the Wukumiho garrison, and the 7th Cavalry Brigade mutinied. All of these forces joined the Chinese guerrillas fighting the Japanese.
Manchukuo had his own navy.
Demography
Train station in Xinjing
As of 1934, the population of Manchukuo was 30 million 880 thousand people. On average, there were 6.1 people per family, the ratio of men to women was 1.22 to 1. The population consisted of 29 million 510 thousand Chinese, 590 thousand 796 Japanese, 680 thousand Koreans, 98 thousand 431 representatives of other nationalities. 80% of the population lived in villages.
During the existence of Manchukuo, the population of this territory increased by 18 million people.
In 1934, Japan was considering the Fugu Plan to attract from 18,000 to 600,000 Jews to Manchukuo. This plan arose at a time when the USSR began to form the Jewish Autonomous Region (formed in 1934) on part of the territory of the former Outer Manchuria. In 1938, the plan sparked fierce debate at a cabinet conference. In 1941, the implementation of the plan was completely interrupted.
In Japan, there was practically no Jewish population, and the "Plan Fugu" appeared under the influence of naive ideas about the Jews, as people with great financial opportunities, capable of turning Manchukuo into a "profitable colony." This plan was actually never implemented, the number of Jewish refugees who arrived from Europe to Japan and the territories controlled by it amounted to only a few thousand people. To the dismay of the Japanese, most Jews fled Europe literally empty-handed.
The book provides extensive reference material on the state of the Japanese armed forces. Compared with the first edition, the handbook has been significantly updated and supplemented, especially in terms of describing the technical branches of the military. The tactical section of the handbook has been supplemented with a description of the division's actions. The book is intended for the command and command personnel of the cadre and reserve of the Red Army.
Sections of this page:
Annex 3
The distribution of brigades by district and the total strength of the army are given in the following table.
| County name | Territory of Manchuria covered by the district | Number of teams | Brigade numbers | Total population | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| mixed | cavalry | mixed | cavalry | |||
| 1st military district (headquarters in Mukden) | Includes the central part of Mukden Province | 6 | "Army of Calm" | 1 - 6 | – | 17 000 |
| 2nd military district (headquarters in Jilin) | Includes the northwestern part of the Mukden province and the eastern part of the Girin province | 4 | 4 | 7 - 10 | 1 - 4 | 12 000 |
| 3rd military region (Qiqihar headquarters) | Includes eastern part of Heilongjiang Province | 5 | 1 | 11 - 15 | 5 | 14 000 |
| 4th Military District (HQ Harbin) | Includes the northeastern part of the Jilin and Heilongjiang provinces (Sungari region) | 8 | 1 | 16 - 23 | 6 | 17 000 |
| 5th Military Region (Chengde Headquarters) | Includes Southern Rehe Province | 3 | 1 | 24 - 26 | 7 | 10 000 |
| Khingan Province | Includes the western part of the Heilongjiang (Barga), Mukden provinces and the northern regions of Rehe | – | 2 and 2 separate units | – | – | 5 000 |
| Total | – | 26 | 9 and 2 separate units | – | – | 75 000 |
The troops of the guards of Pu-Yi and the capital (Xinjiang) were included in the troops of the 2nd district.
There are no special engineering (sapper) units, properly trained and staffed, in the Manchukuo army. According to press reports, in a number of districts (1st, 2nd, 3rd), special sapper detachments were formed from soldiers and officers dismissed from the army to serve the Japanese military construction.
Signal troops are represented in the form of separate companies at some district headquarters; they have means of wireless, wire and pigeon communication.
Armament and equipment
The army by states should have up to 450 heavy and up to 1,000 light machine guns. At present, this number is not yet available, while the approximate number of machine guns in the army is 50-60% of their regular number. Artillery is still available in the form of separate mountain batteries in the 1st district (about one per brigade) and several separate artillery battalions (2 batteries, 4 guns each) at the headquarters of the districts. There are no modern technical means of combat (aviation, armored units, etc.) in the army, and their formation is not expected.
Small arms - Japanese Arisaka rifle (6.5 mm); armament of the army with these rifles ends.
Combat training of the army. In the army as a whole, despite the reorganization and increase in the number of Japanese instructors, no noticeable changes in combat training have been noted to date. The military units, which for the most part have only practice and skills in conducting guerrilla operations (their fight against the Japanese troops as part of the troops of Ma, Ding-Chao, the fight against guerrillas), have so far received little or almost no training in actions in today's difficult conditions. However, it must be borne in mind that Japanese instructors are intensively putting together new parts of Manchukuo and increasing the combat training of the army. This is evidenced by the following facts:
a) live firing, tactical exercises, etc. are periodically held in a number of units;
b) in mid-October 1934, in the Xinjiang-Girin area, maneuvers were carried out with the participation of the 1st cavalry brigade and other units of the "pacification army" (from the 1st district); along with this, gymnastics and sports are being intensively introduced into the army (by Japanese officers).
The inclusion of light machine gun squads in companies and squadrons allows us to conclude that Japanese instructors will introduce the army to the basics of group tactics.
Political and moral state. The Manchukuo army as a whole is not yet a reliable tool in the hands of the Japanese command; to fight the partisans, it uses it very carefully and in all expeditions against the partisans reinforces parts of Manchukuo with Japanese troops. The mass of soldiers, despite a number of "purges", is largely anti-Japanese and is still poorly provided for; therefore, desertion takes place in the army, the departure of soldiers to the partisans. Anti-Japanese sentiments are also strong among the rank and file officers.
However, the Japanese command is already taking serious measures to increase the political stability of the army and turn it into a more reliable force in the hands of Japan. Along with the continued withdrawal of "unreliable" soldiers and officers from the ranks of the army, soldiers from the wealthy sections of the countryside are being recruited into the army. Each volunteer must present a guarantee from the authorities or persons who know him. The officer corps of the Chinese army is under the constant control of Japanese advisers and instructors. The latter, in essence, are the heads of headquarters and military units, and the Chinese officers play the role of their assistants.
Finally, a more systematic treatment of soldiers in the spirit of the Wandao idea (“fair”, “virtuous”, etc. role of Japan in Manchukuo) is being introduced in the army. For this purpose, special "propaganda" committees headed by Japanese officers have been created; they periodically make trips in parts, read patriotic lectures to the soldiers, show films of the same kind (“Coronation of Pu-Yi”), etc.
In conclusion, it must be said that the Manchukuo army is beginning to change its old, semi-feudal appearance and former social composition, and is gradually turning into an increasingly pliable tool in the hands of Japanese imperialism.
MILITARY RIVER FORCES OF MANZHOU-GO
Taking into account the great opportunities for the operational use of the Sungarian military flotilla, the Japanese command took measures to study the Manchurian river theater and to increase the combat capability of the Sungarian flotilla.
In April 1933, a central body was created - the "Manchukuo Maritime Administration" in Xinjing, headed by the head of the department, directly subordinate to the emperor (in his practical activities, he is led by the chief of the naval general staff and the maritime ministry of Japan). The head of department was assigned a headquarters consisting of the chief of staff, the flagship mechanic, the flagship quartermaster and a number of other specialists and employees. The task of the "Naval Administration" is to organize and manage the sea and river defense of Manchukuo.
The moment of the organization of the "Manchukuo Maritime Administration" should be considered the beginning of the accelerated construction of the military river forces of Manchukuo.
A shipbuilding program was developed, including the construction of 2 gunboats of 200 tons, 6 gunboats of 60 tons and approx. 20 boats of 10-15 tons.
In the spring of 1933, the Kawasaki Shipbuilding Company acquired a shipyard owned by Skoda in Harbin, and 1,500,000 yen was allocated for the refurbishment and expansion of the shipyard. At this shipyard, small tonnage gunboats and boats were built. Large tonnage gunboats were built at the Kawaski shipyards in Japan (in Kobe), from where they were brought disassembled to Harbin, where they were assembled, armed and launched.
ship composition
The press does not provide complete data on the ship composition of the Manchukuo military river forces, but it can be assumed that at present the ship composition is approximately presented in the following form.
gunboats constitute the main combat core of the military river forces. Three of them are old gunboats repaired after the 1929 conflict; they are armed with 1-2 guns and several machine guns. The remaining two gunboats are the newest and most powerful ships of the Manchukuo Navy. According to press reports, the gunboats Shun-Ten and Yang-Ming, built in 1934, have the following tactical data: displacement - 290 tons, speed - 12 knots, armed with several long-range naval and anti-aircraft guns and machine guns. These gunboats were built in Japan at the Kawasaki shipyards, disassembled and transported to Harbin, where they were assembled and finished with weapons. The new gunboats are built according to the latest shipbuilding technology, using electric welding methods, they have good equipment, radio equipment and searchlights.
Armed steamers are armed with 1-2 small-caliber guns and several machine guns.
Armored boats are armed with one 15-cm mortar and 2-3 machine guns.
Armed boats with a displacement of 10 to 15 tons, armed with 1-2 machine guns.
In addition, the command of the Sungari military flotilla has several auxiliary river vessels for various purposes and barges at its disposal.
According to the foreign press, several gunboats and boats for the Manchukuo River Flotilla are currently under construction at the Kawasaki shipyards (in Japan) and in Harbin.
Basing of the Sungarian flotilla. The main rear base of the Sungari River Flotilla is the city of Harbin, where military depots, construction and repair facilities are concentrated, which fully meet the needs of the flotilla.
The main operational base of the flotilla is the city of Fugdin, where in the summer of 1934 a department of the flotilla headquarters was organized and where a number of institutions and workshops were transferred to serve the flotilla.
Currently, construction work is being carried out to equip the Fugda river port to prepare it for the full satisfaction of the needs of the flotilla.
In addition, the expansion and equipment of the river port in Jiamusi is being carried out with the calculation of basing part of the flotilla in it.
Personnel. Simultaneously with the growth of the naval composition of the military river forces of Manchukuo, there is a continuous replenishment of them and personnel. Enlistment of the rank and file occurs through the recruitment of volunteers from the Chinese and Japanese, the latter being in a more privileged position.
In order to provide the most reliable personnel for the personnel of the Sungarian flotilla, the Japanese command practices the systematic relocation to Manchuria of demobilized sailors of the Japanese fleet and reserve sailors, whom it recruits for service on ships of the river flotilla, providing them with a number of benefits. As a result of these measures, most of the non-commissioned officers and specialists of the ships of the river flotilla are Japanese.
The officer corps consists of Japanese active duty officers and Chinese - officers of the former river police service and who previously served on the ships of the Sungarian flotilla under Zhang Xue Liang.
For the training of personnel in Harbin, a naval school was organized, after which some of the cadets are sent to Japan to the navigation school, and some sign for the ships of the flotilla.
On the ships of the river forces of Manchukuo there are Japanese officers as instructors and advisers.
Combat training. Until now, the flotilla has not conducted planned combat training due to participation in punitive expeditions against partisans and hunghuz, as well as continuous guard and security service in areas most susceptible to attack by partisans and hunghuz, and at the mouths of the Sungari and Ussuri rivers.
The ships of the military river forces of Manchukuo sail along the Amur, Sungari, Ussuri, Nonni and Argun rivers. In 1934, part of the ships of the flotilla passed along the river. Sungach to Lake Khanka, opening a new waterway, little explored to date.
In addition to the Sungarian flotilla, there is a Japanese guard detachment of marines in Harbin, which has several river armed vessels (boats); the detachment operates in constant contact with the flotilla.
Scheme Airfield network of Japan, Korea and Manchuria
Symbols:
Existing wish. roads
Railroads under construction roads
Designed railroads roads
Car roads
Narrow gauge railways roads
Air bases
Permanent airfields
Temporary airfields and landing sites
Air lines
Note.
1) Permanent aerodromes include those whose use takes place over a long period, and the presence at the aerodrome of long-term structures intended for storage, repair and other needs related to the activities of aviation units.
2) Temporary airfields and landing sites should mean those land plots on which there are 1 - 2 hangars and semi-permanent structures (gasoline storage facilities and small repair depots).
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