The first settlers in the territory Norway appeared, perhaps, 10.000 -11.000 thousand years ago. People settled mainly along the sea, which fed them. In addition, they were engaged in hunting. Approximately five thousand years later, the ancestors of the Norwegians were already engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding. However, in the north Norway, as before, only hunting and fishing gave life to people. Norwegian villages were usually located in such a way as to reveal their presence as little as possible (the Norwegians have a joke about this that the best neighbor is the one who is not visible). For some time, these small groups lived like this: independently of each other and of the whole world. Beautiful, but cold nature (and at that time it was even colder here) made it difficult for a person to survive in the territory of the present Norway. Gradually, agriculture developed, settlements acquired a sustainable character. In the fourth century A.D. e. in Norway some Germanic tribes appear (rugii, chords). Perhaps the invasion of these foreigners led to the beginning of the Viking Age? Be that as it may, by the 700th year all the lands were explored, inequality was strengthened, and society was divided into masters and servants. Neighborly enmity was forgotten, the rooks were built and fury was at a boiling point. The Vikings were ready to conquer Europe, conquer Britain, found Russia (or were the Swedes involved in this?) and discover America.

Three Norwegian ships sailed for England. The Vikings, in their usual manner, killed the representative of the king, who went to them. This was the first mention in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle of a Viking invasion. The next attack on June 8, 793, was made on one of the monasteries, which then existed on the territory of present-day Britain, the kingdom of Northumbria. The Vikings attacked the defenseless nuns and monks, killed some, slaughtered their cattle, loading their ships with provisions... The Viking saga began...

Initially, they settled in Shetland and Orkney. From there they headed north to the Faroe Islands and south to Northern Scotland. By 820, the entire Irish coastline was inhabited by the Vikings. Anyone who got in their way was unceremoniously kicked out. Even now, there are about 100,000 places with Norwegian names in Shetland! And the farmers here spoke Norwegian until the early 19th century!

Voyages of conquest continued in the south, along the rivers of France, in Spain, in the Mediterranean. In France and Southern Europe the Norwegian Vikings operated alongside the Danes, while in Constantinople they met the Swedes. Moreover, the Norwegians in their campaigns landed even in East Africa, on the territory of present-day Morocco! By the end of the 9th century, the Vikings kept all of Europe at bay. By this time, the attacks themselves had grown from scattered sorties into organized, well-planned campaigns of large detachments. The Vikings combined their conquests with trade in everything (including slaves) that they managed to carry away from the occupied territories. Around the same time, a transition is planned from robbery and tribute collection to the settlement of conquered lands. In Northern France, the Vikings establish the Duchy of Normandy.

It is the Norwegians who populate Iceland and Greenland. Reaching America...

It is reliably established that the first Norwegian to set foot on the American coast was Life Eriksson (although in reality the man who first discovered America was called Bjarne Herolfsson, but he did not bother to go ashore!). According to the Norwegian saga, Life Eriksson, the discoverer of a new continent, actually intended to sail to Greenland (which was discovered, by the way, by his father, Eric the Red), but ended up in America. This is how historical events sometimes happen!

The Viking Age lasted until around 1050. She had the strongest influence on: the kingdom of Dublin, settlements in the Shetland Islands, the Faroe Islands, Iceland, Orkney County, and Greenland. As mentioned above, around 1050 the Viking campaigns stopped. Some scholars argue about the reasons that prompted the Vikings to so suddenly abandon the "noble" cause in which they had been doing nothing more or less for 250 years. As a joke version, you can put forward the idea that when the Norwegians got to the southern territories, they (given the difference in climate) were exposed to the sun, and they simply began to get a sun tan. They didn’t like the darkening of their skin at all, which prompted them to return ... In contrast to the reasons that prompted the Vikings to retreat, the reasons why the Norwegians initiated the conquests are more or less known: the strengthening of the nobility, for whom military booty served as an important source of enrichment, relative overpopulation coastal areas, the lack of land suitable for cultivation, the development of trade ...

What good can be said about the Vikings in custody? Were they only barbarians, versed only in murder, ruin and violence? Of course not! Do not forget about their fair laws, active trade, the art of shipbuilding, the most beautiful ornaments ... about the mythology that they left as a legacy to their descendants ...

The time when Norway began to acquire the features of a single state, it is considered 9-10 centuries. Around 900, King Harald the Fair-Haired (Harald Herfagre), subjugated the rulers of other areas and became the first supreme ruler Norway. Around the same time, the Christianization of Norway began (in fact, it was the instrument with which attempts were made to unite the country). It must be said that both of these processes were rather slow and met with the resistance of the people. The Norwegian kings were opposed by the nobility and the peasants, who were on their own minds, and defended their patriarchal democratic orders. With regard to this country, it is fair to say that it was baptized with fire and sword. Those who did not agree with the new order were either made slaves or simply destroyed. A vivid example is King Olaf Haraldson, who paid with his life for excessive efforts. This, however, did not prevent him from receiving the status of a saint after his death. Moreover - the day of July 29 is immortalized in his honor.

As a result of the struggle, the church was endowed with large land holdings, while the lands were distributed to the peasants on a short-term basis. Thus, the peasantry of that time had a contradictory position: they had personal freedom, the right to participate in local peasant meetings (tingas), to bear arms, but at the same time their position was rather precarious: the peasants were not endowed with strong rights to land, they carried heavy state duties. This situation was the cause of discord. The most serious attempt to change the situation was the uprising of 1184, as a result of which the impostor Sverrir came to the throne. However, he failed to do anything drastic. Sverrir abolished the privileges of the church, tried to make the church dependent on royal power. However, the followers of Sverrir reconciled with the church, and the struggle ceased.

Gradually, feudalism Norway got stronger Tingi, from local governments turned into bodies controlled by the king, a nationwide code was adopted - the Land of Words, in 1262-1264 to Norway the Orkney and Shetland Islands, Greenland, Iceland departed, were subordinated to the Saami.

However, not rich in terms of natural resources, the country lived for quite a long time on subsistence farming, cities and trade remained undeveloped, which contributed to the strengthening of the Hanseatic merchants. On top of all the troubles, in 1347-1350. An epidemic of plague struck Norway, killing a significant part of the population. Perhaps no country was hit harder by the Black Death than Norway.

These circumstances led to the conclusion of a union with Sweden in 1319, with Denmark in 1380, and in 1397 - the Kalmar Union of the Scandinavian kingdoms. Dependence on Denmark persisted until the 19th century (while Sweden left the union in 1523). In the 16th century Norway was completely turned into a Danish province, as a result of which the Danish king began to own half of all Norwegian lands. Over this time Norway lost Orkney and Shetland, Iceland and Greenland. From the very beginning of the union, and further, over time, the struggle for independence grew in the country. This was facilitated by the national identity of the Norwegians, the economic rise of the state. As a result of popular resistance, the Danes were forced to make some concessions. By the 19th century, in Norway, 75% of the peasants were landowners, the export of timber, fish, and iron was steadily growing. But in general, Norway remained a poor state. Its relative prosperity was due to the fact that the Danish-Norwegian kingdom remained neutral in European wars, until 1807. However, the Anglo-Danish War of 1807-1814 followed, and in Norway hunger began.

Under these conditions, the Norwegian kingdom was freed from the Danish yoke, and obliged to enter into a union with Sweden. In these extraordinary circumstances, the Constituent Assembly was assembled in the country, which on May 17, 1814 adopted the basic law of the country. This constitution is valid for Norway and to this day, being one of the oldest in the world! The Norwegian Basic Law is also called the Eidsvoll Constitution, after the name of the place where the Constituent Assembly met (Eidsvoll is located in the south of the country, not far from the capital). For that time, the constitution contained advanced ideas and provisions. She established a parliamentary monarchy in the country. The head of the kingdom was proclaimed by the king, who had the right of suspensive veto.

In honor of acceptance into Norway The constitution established the most important Norwegian national holiday - Constitution Day, celebrated on May 17th. However, the Norwegians failed to gain independence in the 19th century, since in the summer of 1814 a war broke out with Sweden, which forced Norway yield and remain in union with his "elder brother" for almost a hundred more years. Relations between Norway and Sweden were fixed by a special law, according to which Norway gained internal independence. It was for the subsequent period of time that the beginning of the active political life of Norwegian society falls. In 1884, the country's two leading political parties took shape: the left, Venstre, and the right, Höyre. Then in Norway formed a parliamentary system. In 1898, during the elections to the Storting, the rule begins to operate - one person - one vote. In 1913, women were allowed to vote.

The desire with which the Norwegians desired independence found an outlet in everything. In law, for example, Norway was the first Scandinavian country to adopt a penal code in 1842. With this and more, the people Norway I tried to show my independence. At the same time, the international prestige of the country grew, which was facilitated by activities. R. Amundsen, F. Nansen, G. Ibsen, And so, in June 1905, the Storting unanimously terminates the union with Sweden. In October 1905, a referendum was held to confirm this decision. Norway becomes an independent state...

At the beginning of World War I, Norway declared its neutrality. In 1920 she received the island of Svalbard. Then the world economic crisis broke out, which had a grave effect on the position of the Norwegian people. In the first three years, production levels have fallen by 25%, 30% of workers are losing their jobs, there are mass demonstrations interspersed with riots.

In foreign policy Norway adheres to the principle of non-intervention, and at the beginning of World War II declares its neutrality. However, this did not prevent Germany on April 9, 1940 from starting the landing of its troops on the territory Norway. Under these conditions, the government and the king moved to Britain. Most of the citizens of the country had nothing left to do but watch how their region was occupied by German soldiers - 10,000 thousandth forces of the German army, which, after five years, increase by 300,000 people. Naturally, some resistance was offered - from April to June, the Norwegian army lost about 850 people. All in all, it is considered that Norway lost 10,000 people. It seems to be not so much when compared with other countries. But for such a small country, this loss was a national catastrophe. In a society where everyone knows each other, the loss of a person is felt especially acutely and irreparably. In general, one cannot say that the Norwegians from the very first day of the occupation, all as one, stood up against the German forces. Many simply did nothing, or at least did not do it in an organized manner. Some part of the population was not at all hostile to the aliens ... The reasons for this are different. Perhaps a positive role was played by the fact that the Germans in Norway there was no such catastrophic damage that was inflicted in other countries. Perhaps the fact that Norwegians and Germans are peoples a little similar in culture, language, views is also important ... And yet, speaking of "insignificant damage", one should not forget that the north of Norway suffered quite seriously. There, during the withdrawal of the German troops, 11,000 residential buildings, 420 shops, 53 hotels and inns, 106 schools, 21 hospitals, 27 churches and much more were destroyed ... One of the results of the invasion, by the way, was the fact that from the German fathers the Norwegians about 9,000 babies were born...

After the surrender of Germany, Norway a series of trials and trials dragged on, the main result of which was the punishment of 46,000 (!) Norwegians from the National Socialist Party (in 1948, an amnesty was declared against them). In addition, 12 Germans and 25 Norwegians were executed. Among the latter was Vid kun Quisling, the head of the Norwegian Nazis.

Talking about post-war development Norway, it is necessary to immediately note three dates: 1949 - joining NATO, December 23, 1969 - production of the first barrel of oil, September 22, 1972 - a negative answer in a referendum on the issue of entry Norway the weight. (in 1994 in a second referendum, on the same issue - the same decision)

Post-war development Norway characterized by the evolutionary development of the social and economic life of the country. Norwegians are moving from the formal "you" to the more familiar "you". The working week is gradually shortening, vacations are increasing, along with inflation, wages are also growing. Foreign capital is actively penetrating the Norwegian economy. Finally, in the early 70s, oil is found in the country - a new era begins, an era of pent-up satisfaction from the successes that Norway especially in the economic sphere. From the most backward Scandinavian state, Norway, in the end, turns into the most prosperous ...

About 8,000,000 people live in Scandinavia, 8 times less than in Germany (which it exceeds by 1.5 times in space). The mass of the population is made up of Swedes and Norwegians - peoples related to the Danes and constituting with them one group of northern Germans. In the north, besides them, two other peoples of the yellow race live: the Lapps and the Finns, who together number only a few tens of thousands of people.

Norwegian sculptor Gustav Vigeland.

What is Norwegian Cuisine? After all, even potatoes, which are considered a real Norwegian dish, were actually brought to Norway only 250 years ago. When a survey was conducted in Norway in 1994 regarding favorite dishes, it turned out that in all regions, kvitsoyballs (fish meatballs) ranked first, lefs came second, and the specialty of the Norwegian capital Oslo, lutefisk (dried cod soaked in lye). There is one long line in the history of Norwegian cuisine. It is closely connected with the gifts of nature: lake and sea fish, forest and mountain game, cereals, milk and meat. And, despite the influence of the "West and East", the cuisine has managed to maintain the dominance of traditional products and customs associated with their preparation. The Norwegian table is a wonderful sight: the food is served not "packed" in sauces and jellies, but in such a way that the natural taste of the products is emphasized as much as possible. In addition, ONLY Norwegian-made products are sold in the country, with the exception, of course, of exotic fruits. And now

Of the sea delicacies in Norway, of course, salmon occupies the first place, but besides it there are many other fish that enjoy attention: herring, cod, trout, halibut, mackerel, catfish, and in summer you just need to try fresh Norwegian shrimp. Norwegians like to buy them directly from fishing trawlers that have just returned from the sea. It is quite possible to taste whale meat in a restaurant or buy it at the fish market, although whale hunting is strictly limited today.

For over 1000 years, Northern Norway has been exporting dried cod and herring to Europe. There were always so many of the latter here that they fed cattle in winter when there was no hay. Herring is cooked in different ways, for example, beaten in water with wooden mallets, soaked and served with mustard or butter. By the way, when smoked, this herring acquires a sharp spicy aroma and red color. And "lutefisk" (lutefisk) - dried cod - is soaked in lye to make it softer, and then boiled, as a result of which the fish becomes almost as juicy as freshly caught. Lutefisk is served with pea pudding, fresh potatoes, fried bacon, mustard and goat cheese.
Herring is considered one of the main food products here. An old saying goes: "A true Norwegian eats herring twenty-one times a week." What is not cooked here from herring! These are cold appetizers, and pies, and salads, and soups, and hot dishes, and pies. Every Norwegian starts his morning with breakfast: coffee and a herring sandwich.
Non-fish attractions

Another Norwegian delicacy is fried pork ribs and canned lamb and sheep heads. As a rule, these dishes are eaten at Christmas. Lamb boiled with stewed cabbage and peppercorns and subsequently baked with them in a brown flour sauce is another national dish. It is called "forikol" and is traditionally prepared in autumn.
As a delicacy meat, tourists are recommended to try elk and venison. Elk has one very important advantage over all other meat: it is a healthy and environmentally friendly food, since without exception, all moose live in natural conditions and it is allowed to hunt them in Norway only at certain times.

It is impossible not to mention brown goat cheese, which is made only in Norway, and tourists buy it as a souvenir. It has several varieties, each with its own taste, and the color varies from the usual yellow to dark brown, almost chocolate.
Baking a homemade pie is part of the Norwegian culinary tradition. This is done in accordance with the established traditions of each region (fylke). The same goes for bread, which is why home bakeries in Norway are more popular than regular bakeries.
If you want to drink or just drink ...
Norwegians usually drink milk or coffee. No other country in the world consumes as much milk per capita as here.

Of the alcoholic beverages, the absolute leader is "akevit" (akevitt), which is made from potatoes with cumin. The most famous - "Linie-akevitt" - according to the recipe, it must sail in the hold of a ship to Australia and back, that is, cross the equator twice (linie - equator), and only then does it find its true taste.
Speaking of beer, Norwegian beer is Rignes. Quite worthy and at the level of famous European breweries.
And the most "winter" drink in Norway is "gløgg" (gløgg). It is brewed closer to winter from red wine with cardamom, cloves, raisins and almonds. Served with gingerbread cookies.
"Strawberries in the Snow"...
Long summer nights in Norway have the most beneficial effect on many plants and berries. Proof of this is the fragrant strawberries, which are tastier here than in most other European countries. Therefore, in Norway, the most traditional dessert is strawberries with cream or sugar. And the flowering of fruit trees in the Hardanger area is just a fantastic sight.
The favorite dessert of Norwegian families is quite easy to prepare: a layer of biscuit or biscuit crumbs is poured over a layer of applesauce (it is enough to beat baked apples without a peel with a mixer), and whipped cream is spread on top, then apples again, then crumbs and so on. You can put the dessert in the freezer for an hour or two to make a wonderful ice cream cake.
In the short summers, strawberries in the north of Norway often ripen in forests and gardens already under the first snow, and in order to collect them, snowdrifts have to be swept away. Therefore, the "most Norwegian" dessert is "Earthlings" In Norway, there are dishes that, in no other country, can cook so tasty. These are traditional salted herring snacks, but especially fish from the crystal clear mountain rivers and fjords - especially salmon and trout.

The meat of young lamb, which, due to the unpretentiousness of these animals, is used most often, is prepared in a variety of ways, such as, for example, lamb with cabbage headlights and clav.

Favorite holiday foods include reindeer and roe deer liver. Very tasty roe deer saddle in Norwegian under cream sauce and, oddly enough, currant jelly, which gives the dish a slight sourness.

In many hot dishes, sour cream is often used, which replaces spices. With a shortage of southern spices for flavoring and spicing dishes, Norwegians have developed their own ways to improve the taste of dairy products, meat and fish. Typical of Norway brown cheese varieties from cow and goat milk, various ways of roasting and smoking meat.

Norwegians have one national product that is highly appreciated by lovers of hard liquor: Vodka Linier Aquavit. Line means "equator". It owes its name to the fact that at first this vodka in oak barrels is transported by sea to the southern hemisphere and back, while it crosses the equator twice. Thanks to the constant movement inside the barrel, vodka absorbs the aroma of wood, acquires a pleasant velvety taste and a yellowish color. And only after that the drink is bottled and goes on sale. On the inside of the label of each bottle, you can read which ship the vodka was transported through the equator. ika in the snow"...

Norway. The beginning of the story

On one of the days of the last third of the IX century. the North Norwegian chieftain Ottar visited King Alfred of England. He told the king about his homeland and his wanderings. Alfred ordered the story to be written down (this record in Old English has survived to this day).

Ottar said that he lives "to the north of all the other Normans" - it is now believed that his settlement was somewhere in the Malangen region in South Troms. From there he sailed south past Nordmanna land (Land of the Normans) to Skiringssal, a port in South Vestfold. Ottar called the Land of the Normans Nordweg - "northern path" or "northern region". It is from this word that the modern name “Norway” (Noreg, Norge) came from, and we owe Ottar the first known story about Norway and the Norwegians.

Ottar describes Norway as a country with a very extended territory. To the north was the Land of the Finns, or Sami, later called Finnmark, and to the south, Denamearc (Denmark), which lay on the port side when she sailed from Skiringsal to the port of Hedeby at the base of the Jutland peninsula. This suggests that at that time Denmark included the current western coast of Sweden up to Svinesund in the north, and possibly further. To the east of Norway, according to Ottar, was the Land of the Swedes - Svealand (Sweoland), and to the north of it, around the Gulf of Bothnia - Cwena land, the Land of the West Finnish Kvens. Ottar did not know about any permanent settlements to the north and east of his native places up to the Land of Finnish-speaking Bjarmians near the White Sea. In Finnmark and on the Kola Peninsula, the Saami tribes roamed - hunters and fishermen. They often traveled to the plateaus inland, far south of Finnmark.

Ottar said that he was the leader of one of the tribes in his homeland, in Halogalanna (the ancient name of Norway north of Trønnelag), although his farm looked modest by English standards: “no more than” 10 cows, 20 sheep and 20 pigs, as well as a small plot of arable land, which he cultivated with a plow pulled by horses. The main source of his wealth was hunting, fishing, whale fighting and the tribute paid to him by the Finns and Sami. One day he traveled north to see how far his country stretched and to get walrus tusks and skins. For fifteen days, Ottar sailed along Finnmark and the Kola Peninsula to the Land of the Bjarms near the western bay of the White Sea. The voyage south to Skiringssal took over a month, although the wind was favorable as the ship anchored for the night. It took five days to get from there to Hedeby.

This is how Norway and the Norwegians appear on the historical stage, standing out against the general background of Northern Europe - a people with its own territory, stretching from South Troms to the Oslo Fjord, or Vik, as it was then called.

People settled in Norway long before Ottar. Eleven - twelve thousand years ago, when the last ice age ended and the ice receded, hunters and fishermen began to settle along the Norwegian coast. Around 4000 BC large and small tribes already roamed the country. By the same time, the beginning of the cultivation of the land, but only in the extreme south. On the western and northern coasts, pastoralism spread fairly quickly, but arable farming did not take root very soon. However, having become a habitual activity, it made it possible to feed more people than raising livestock, and to tie them more closely to a certain territory. What distinguished these people from "pure" hunters was the possession of real property - they had livestock and cultivated land. There were more settlements, they acquired a permanent character and a hierarchical structure.

By the end of the Late Stone Age, around 1500 BC, agriculture had long since become the main occupation of the inhabitants of Southern Norway, more important than hunting and fishing. In the north, by contrast, hunting and fishing continued to play a primary role. But as agriculture spread "up" the coast as far as South Troms, a cultural demarcation took place between the inhabitants of these territories and the hunters and fishers of the Far North. By the time of Ottar in northern Norway, the Normans and the Sami had developed two distinct cultures, and it can be assumed, although there is no evidence for this, that the culture of hunters and fishermen in its purest form was only Sami since the end of the Stone Age.

We do not know how long ago the Normans settled the rest of Norway and what the words "Norman" and "Norwegian" mean. The prerequisite for the emergence of the Norwegian folk community was the language spoken by the "northern people". Runic inscriptions testify that starting from about 200 AD. there was a single northern European language, from which the current national languages ​​​​of the countries of Northern Europe subsequently developed. This basic northern European "dialect" probably arose no later than the beginning of the Christian era. In Ottar's time, dialects had already emerged in Norway that differed from those that had spread in the south and east of Scandinavia; it is possible that such a situation has developed much earlier.

The Normans were also bound by a common religion. Norwegian toponymy testifies that they worshiped the same deities for several centuries. The construction of wooden ships, a technology invented in the Iron Age, made it possible to make regular voyages along the entire Norwegian coast. It is very likely that it was this coastal route that gave the country its name: the "northern route", or Norway. In any case, together with land routes, it united the country. Since ancient times, trade has been carried out along these routes, smoothing out the differences between the economies of individual regions of the country and helping to strengthen ties with overseas lands. In parallel with the economic ones, social and cultural ties were also established.

It is safe to say that in this way, by the time of Ottar, Norway became Norway. However, the language and religion hardly sharply distinguished the Norwegians from the rest of the Scandinavians. But still, the Swedes and Norwegians in the east were separated by high plateaus and dense forests, and perhaps it was these geographical features, if you look at them from the point of view of the Danes, that is, from the south, that gave rise to the names "Norway" and "Norwegians ". This suggests that in the eyes of their neighbors, the Norwegians were somehow different from the rest. And although it was still far from the creation of a real society, they, apparently, had a certain ethnic and cultural identity.

In the time of Ottar, the main unit of the settlement was a kind of manor or farmstead, called a gard (gard, gard). It consisted of permanent dwellings and livestock quarters located close to each other within a fenced or otherwise designated area of ​​cultivated land. The surrounding area - forest, pastures, etc. - was less clearly defined. The estates had their own names dating back to the early Roman Iron Age (c. 0-400 AD).

Probably, in many agricultural settlements, which at that time and in subsequent centuries received their names, which we define as estates, a large patriarchal family lived. It not only represented a socio-economic community, but was also united by the cult of ancestor worship. In addition, ancestral ties were an essential element in the emerging broader organization of society.

We have no proof of all this, and, as we shall see later, the then low life expectancy left little chance for the emergence of vertically extended families, numbering two or more generations of adults. Therefore, the need for labor force for extensive farming (which formed the basis of larger agricultural settlements) could hardly be satisfied by a purely related community. Thus, one can rightly speak of the presence of a sufficient number of dependent agricultural workers on the estate, and, consequently, of a less egalitarian social structure of the settlement than the thesis of the “big family” suggests. Many of these workers may have been trells, or slaves, as reflected in some of the ancient names of the estates.

The earliest Norwegian legal texts, the "regional laws", which give an idea of ​​the state of affairs in the 12th century, paint a picture of a society where kinship was inherited through both male and female lines. Most likely in the early Iron Age the situation was different. Such a "two-sided" system, which recognized a person's belonging to both the paternal and maternal lines, did not contribute to the formation of clearly structured tribal communities. Nevertheless, kinship played an important social role. It provided everyone with security and protection, and also united individuals and families into larger groups. The rights of such a community to economic resources were to some extent stronger than the rights of the individual or family, which was later expressed in the right of the odal (odelsrett). They were also of decisive importance in other areas - legal, political, religious. However, this does not mean that during the Iron Age (that is, until about 1050) the society was tribal, although such statements are often found. After all, if this is so, the ancestral ties should have been powerful enough to subjugate other elements of the social order, and this was hardly the case in reality.

Toponymic and archeological data suggest that the settlements (bygder), which consisted of several family estates, represented larger social associations connected by common religious, legal and defensive interests. It also seems that such an organization to some extent extended to wider areas. In this case, of course, something more than ancestral ties was required.

The Gothic chronicler Jordanes mentions several peoples who inhabited Scandinavia (about 550 AD). As far as Norway is concerned, we can with a high degree of probability single out among the distorted Latinized names such "peoples" as Ranrikings, Raumerikings, Grens, Egdys, Rugs and Chords. Of certain significance is the fact that the first two peoples are associated with their own territories and "kingdoms" (riker, or riks). In addition to Ranriki (the area owned by the Rens, the current Bohuslen) and Raumariki (the territories of the Raums), in modern toponyms, several more such counties (regions of residence of a particular “people”) can be traced: Hedmark, Hadeland, Ringerike, Grenland (Land of the Grens), Telemark, Rogaland (Land of the Rugavs), Hordaland (Land of the Chords), Emtlann and Halogalann. The association of a people's name with a territory suggests, at least in some cases, the presence of an organized community. For example, both toponymy and archaeological finds provide indirect evidence of the existence in prehistoric times of a single religious and defensive organization in Raumariki (Country of Raums).

Some researchers argue that in some areas of the country, especially in Eastern Norway and in the interior of Trønnelag, territorial organization arose primarily from the need for association among peasants who had more or less equal social status and lived in hereditary estates. But much indicates that such an organization everywhere depended on the power of the leaders and had a more pronounced aristocratic character. It is rather about the institution of leaders - both political and religious leaders, with whom people were connected by ties of personal loyalty.

Most likely, these chieftain-led communities were constantly contesting territory and resources with each other; they could quickly change both their rulers and their "base" territory. Geographically, the conditions for such social organization existed along the entire Norwegian coast, with natural centers in areas suitable for agriculture or where large rivers and fjords intersected with coastal shipping lanes. The leader of the central region sought to take possession of the coast on both sides of the fjord, as well as inland lands along the banks of the rivers to the very mountains. Along the full-flowing Estlanna rivers with their numerous tributaries, where the distance from the coast to the mountains was considerable, or where large lakes and vast agricultural areas extended far into the interior of the country, there was enough space for several territorial communities. The lands along the great fjords of Vestland were suitable for associations, but here the rugged terrain created favorable conditions for smaller social units. In Central Norway, numerous large agricultural areas were connected by the Trondheimsfjord. To the north, catching and fishing played a leading role. At the same time, the North Norwegian leaders had great opportunities to subjugate the Saami or simply to trade with them. Ottar belonged to such leaders.

In all likelihood, the natural conditions of Norway contributed to the development at an early stage of history of more or less large regional communities headed by leaders. In this way, several counties could unite. The tendency towards expansion inherent in these communities contributed to the creation of ever larger social associations.

The nature of the power of the leaders can be judged quite definitely in the Viking Age (c. 800-1050). Several factors allow explaining the North European overseas expansion of that time. The Vikings followed traditional trade routes where they knew their riches awaited. Often their goal was robbery, but peaceful trade also took place, as can be seen from the example of Ottar. Internal political turmoil could also contribute to the aggressive aspirations of the Vikings - this is exactly what the Icelandic chroniclers of the 11th-12th centuries thought, but, in all likelihood, the rapid growth of the population and, as a result, the increased pressure on natural resources played a much more important role. This situation inevitably gave rise to a thirst for adventure and the need to search for new lands, which explains the fact that many Vikings created peasant settlements in the conquered territories.

The campaigns of the Vikings can be understood only on the basis of the hierarchy of society that existed at that time, which assumed the presence of a wealthy layer - the "aristocracy". Most likely, only chieftains - headings and "big people" (stortepp) could prepare ships, equipment and attract the manpower necessary for such travels. As far as one can judge, many of those who went on a campaign with the leaders, and in their homeland, were with them in dependent, patronal-client relations. Gradually, as the campaigns grew in scope, their own military leaders emerged from among the Vikings. The most influential of them managed to establish kingdoms both in Norway and abroad. Obtaining through robbery and trade in the wealth of the Vikings became an effective means of "acquiring supporters", increasing power and prestige within the social order, where the exchange of gifts was one of the ways to establish ties between people.

The first Viking campaigns known to us at the end of the 8th century. were nothing more than predatory raids on the British Isles. The migration of the Normans to Shetland and Orkney probably also began no later than this period and led to the complete domination of the Vikings over the peoples of the conquered archipelagos. The Faroe Islands and Iceland to the north were colonized partly from Norway itself, and partly from the Norman territories further from the continent to the south of them. Norman settlements appeared in Iceland at the end of the 9th century, and from there, about 100 years later, migrants reached Greenland. They also reached North America (Vinland), but did not establish permanent settlements there.

During the ninth century the Normans moved from predatory raids on the British Isles to the colonization of Northern Scotland, the Hebrides, about. Maine and Ireland. After some time, Norman kingdoms were founded with centers in Dublin and on about. Maine. At the beginning of the X century. Norman migrants from Ireland settled in North West England. From there they reached Northumberland and Yorkshire, and for some time kings of Norman origin ruled over these areas from their capital at York. However, in the raids of the Vikings on East Anglia, continental Western Europe and the Mediterranean, the inhabitants of Danish lands participated primarily, and the “throw” through the Baltic and further along the Russian rivers to the Black and Caspian Seas was mainly carried out by people from the Swedish regions.

The Scandinavians had an impact on those areas where they created numerous settlements and founded kingdoms and counties. At the same time, it was during the Viking Age that Scandinavia truly “opened up” to Europe. The sprouts of Christianity brought from Europe eventually led to a cultural reorientation. It was also important that abroad the Scandinavians got acquainted with more complex forms of political organization of society - princely or royal rule. Among other things, they also realized the role of urban centers.

The last two or three decades of the ninth century were not only the time of Ottar's campaigns and the beginning of the Norman settlement of Iceland. In the same period, the famous battle of Havrsfjord took place in Rogaland. According to the skaldic poetry of the time, King Harald Halfdanarson (later nicknamed Fair-Haired) won a victory here, which, according to the poetic text, brought him power over Rogaland, and possibly over Agder. Icelandic and Norwegian authors of sagas and chronicles since the 12th century. they call him the first king who ruled all of Norway. And Snorri Sturluson, in the set of sagas about kings (kings), “The Circle of the Earth” (“Heimskringla”), dating back to about 1230, notes that Harald conquered one region after another until he won a decisive victory at Havrsfjord.

The history of the unification of Norway is told by Snorri much later than the events he describes. But there are probably still reasons why Harald left a more lasting mark on history than previous Norwegian warlords. It seems that the center of the kingdom of Harald and the dominions of his successors was in the southwest of the country, from where their power extended northward, including Hordaland. Here, along the coastal sea route, royal estates were located - temporary places of residence of the king and his hird, or squad. They traveled from estate to estate, accepting treats from local residents who held joint feasts, the so-called "weizls", as well as other gifts, that is, they lived off various taxes from the local population and natural products that the land provided. This was the only way to effectively exercise royal power until a permanent local administration arose.

Of course, Harald's power at times extended to other areas of the country. However, it is not clear, and it is unlikely that we will ever know, how strongly his presence was felt there. The traditional view that Harald belonged to the dynasty of the kings of Uppland (the inner highlands of Estlann) is highly controversial. Given the condition of the roads and instruments of power, and the level of political organization of the time, it is hard to believe that he exercised permanent, direct control far beyond the central part of the kingdom. If it can be said that he ruled other regions of the country, then this most likely happened through the intermediary of petty independent leaders.

Harald Fairhair may be considered the first ruler to take an important step towards the unification of Norway, but not the only great "collector of the kingdom". The unification of the kingdom is a long process during which the Norwegian territory came under the rule of one royal family and was organized as a political unit.

The unification of Norway was part of a deeper change. It went in parallel with pan-European events that led to the formation of a system of small and medium-sized states based on territorial unity under royal or princely authority. Thus, in Scandinavia, the unification of Denmark and Sweden took place around the same period as Norway.

The processes taking place in Scandinavia had serious consequences for the rest of Europe, and vice versa. Viking raids in some lands led to the necessary consolidation of power for defense. In turn, the Scandinavians received useful lessons in the field of political organization from those foreigners whom they sought to subjugate. In addition, in overseas campaigns, hövdings and other noble Vikings enriched themselves and honed their military skills - both of which came in handy when they returned home. The power of some of the first Norwegian kings was based on their own experience and wealth, obtained during the "Viking past".

Thus, the three Scandinavian kingdoms were formed under the influence of similar circumstances. In the course of the struggle for political leadership, each of the warring parties often turned to neighboring kingdoms for help. In addition, the "gatherers of kingdoms" competed to some extent for possession of territories. In the Viking Age, the Danish conquering kings held the upper hand. They had territorial claims to both Norwegian and Swedish lands and influenced the political development of both countries.

The unification of Norway was a military-political process that took more than three hundred years to complete. In general terms, it is divided into two stages. We can seriously talk about the beginning of the first stage in relation to the period of the reign of Harald the Fair-Haired. Until the middle of the XI century. the kingdom centered on the west coast, with varying success, tried to control the near and far regions of the country. King Olav Haraldsson the Fat (after his death, canonized as Olaf the Saint), who apparently ruled from 1015-1028, was the first to directly subjugate most of the country. However, his reign was only an episode in the period when the Danish kings had power over various, larger or smaller, regions of Norway, primarily over Vik, the region of the Oslofjord closest to Denmark.

Only after the death of King Knut the Mighty in 1035 and the collapse of the North Sea empire of the Danes did the Norwegian kings manage to establish permanent control over the main part of Norway. In the XI century. under kings Magnus Olavsson and Harald Sigurdarson (Severe Ruler), Norway for some time led an offensive against its neighbors. In the south, they increased their possessions from Ranriki up to the river. Göta-Elv; at the same time, Harald the Severe Ruler brought to an end the plan of his half-brother Olaf Haraldsson, subjugating the entire kingdom, including the rich agricultural regions of Trønnelag and Uppland (Estlann's interior).

A period of relative political stability and peace followed. But sometimes two or more kings ruled simultaneously in Norway, based on centers of power in different areas of the country - clear evidence that its political unification was far from complete. After the death in 1130 of King Sigurd the Crusader, the claims of his son Magnus to the role of sole ruler turned into a struggle for the throne. It continued for the next hundred years and later became known as the "civil wars".

The civil wars constituted the second and final stage of the unification process. They ended with the victory of the "Birkebeiner" kingdom, founded by Sverrir and his descendants, and the establishment of their autocracy throughout the country. Trønnelag was originally the center of this kingdom. The victory over Magnus Erlingsson allowed Sverrir in the 1180s. master Westlann. In the final period of his reign and the first years after his death (1202), there was a conflict between the Birkebeiners ("bast shoes") and Baglers ("churchmen"), primarily for control over Estlann. Finally, in the 1220s under Hakon Hakonarson, the Birkebeiners took possession of this area, which put an end to the struggle to unite the Norwegian territory under the rule of one king.

All that remained now was to complete the Norman colonization of the northeastern lands along the coast of Finnmark. It took place during the High and Late Middle Ages. From the time of Sverrir, Jämtland was also under the rule of the Norwegian crown. But its population, associated with the parishes located in Sweden, was never fully incorporated into the Norwegian community. To the south, the kingdom extended to the mouth of the river. Göta-Elv; it was at this point that the possessions of the three medieval kingdoms of Scandinavia converged.

Initially, the national monarchy was established through conquest. The realms of the first kings were united mainly under their personal and sometimes short-lived authority. The authority they wielded had more to do with control over subordinate populations than over territory as such. And power was largely built on the personality of a particular monarch and his energy. He secured support for himself with gifts and good deeds, as well as punishing enemies and troublemakers. At that time, there was still no permanent administrative apparatus that would maintain stability in the state after the death of the conquering king.

The territorial unification of the country was slow due to the long process of forming a socio-political organization and an ideology associated with it, capable of soldering the kingdom together and to a certain extent independent of the personality of the king. This organizational process of unification really began only in the middle of the 12th century. Nevertheless, already at its first stage, some important steps were taken in the struggle for the assembly of the state.

The creation of a single kingdom, covering the entire territory of the country, largely depended on the relationship between the king and the secular aristocracy. The theme of the conflict between the king and the "great people" never disappeared from skaldic poetry and sagas. Nevertheless, the formation of the Norwegian nobility, with influence at the local and regional levels, was a necessary prerequisite for the unification of the kingdom. In order to extend power beyond their traditional domains, Harald Fairhair and his immediate successors had to ally with the leaders and "big people" of those lands that were not subject to the king. By binding such people to himself through interdependent relationships, the king forced them to exercise official power on his behalf and provide military assistance in exchange for a share in the royal income and royal patronage. But such an administrative structure was always a double-edged sword: the headings "cooperated" with the king only as long as it was in their own interests.

As for Olav Haraldsson (Saint), he pursued a more thoughtful policy of subjugating the old nobility. One way was to appoint local hevdings as managers of royal estates (appepp), also endowed with official powers. Another way was to win the support of the local "big people" as a counterbalance to the power of the heading aristocrats. In the time of Olaf, and possibly even earlier, the monarchy sought to strengthen ties with the hevdings and other "big people", appointing them as landmen, who received royal lands or estates in exchange for an oath of vassalage and royal service. However, Olav Haraldsson did not manage to "tame" the hevding-aristocrats. Ultimately, he failed to defend his power in the fight against the King of Denmark and England, Knut the Mighty, who entered into an alliance with those Norwegian "big people", whose influence Olav limited. But his son Magnus and half-brother Harald Sigurdarson destroyed or expelled from the country the most recalcitrant representatives of the old hevdings. The first stage of the struggle for territorial unification ended when some of the "big people" were destroyed, and the rest were tied to the king with the status of landmans.

The relationship of the king with the church and the clergy developed much more successfully than with the secular aristocracy. During the Viking Age, thanks to contacts with Europe, Christianity quickly spread in the coastal regions of Norway. But it was kings like Hakon Æthelstan's Disciple (adopted son of King Æthelstan of Wessex), Olaf Tryggvason, and Olaf Haraldsson who Christianized most of the population, decisively eradicated pagan cults, and introduced the first elements of church organization.

The missionary church was led by a king. He also built the first cathedrals and secured their property. Royal offerings also laid the foundation for church possessions, which subsequently increased significantly. Missionary bishops were members of the hird, or royal retinue; they were still appointed by the king, even when, starting from the reign of Olaf the Quiet (1066-93), they had permanent residences - in Nidaros (the name of Trondheim as a religious center), Bergen and, probably a little later - in Oslo.

The missionary kings were converted to Christianity during their visits to overseas countries, where they also learned the system of interaction between the monarchy and the church, which, naturally, they sought to transfer to Norway. Obviously, it was not only for religious reasons. The new religion could serve to destroy the old pagan social organization that opposed the king. This is exactly what happened in Trønnelag and Uppland (South and Central Norway). Here, the unification of the country, along with the adoption of Christianity, seems to have led to the confiscation of the possessions of the wealthy rural nobility, who worshiped pagan gods, and the transfer of a large part of their property to the church.

Conversion to Christianity everywhere resulted in the reorganization of local societies and their subordination to royal power. Gradually the whole country was covered with a network of churches, more and more controlled by the bishops. As a result, a church apparatus was created, designed to become the first mechanism for unifying the social system on a national scale. Through this apparatus, a single religious doctrine was spread, the main provisions of which were rooted in the minds of most people. Rules for the observance of Christian rites were adopted, creating a common pattern of behavior.

As patron and head of the church, the king simultaneously gained power and rose above society. Among the clergy, he found people like no other suitable for the role of his advisers and assistants. They knew how to read and write, maintained close contacts with other countries, and therefore were familiar with a more advanced organization of society. In a broad sense, the clergy defended the cause of the king before the people. Christian doctrine easily mobilized itself in support of the more stable, secular organization of society that royal power aspired to.

Even though the aristocracy and the clergy played a major role in the creation of a unified kingdom, Norwegian society was a peasant (bond society) and continued to be so throughout the Middle Ages. Any official power could be formed only with the support of public opinion. The need for bonds at least in relative peace and tranquility, legal and political stability was an important feature of the political and administrative development of the country. This need was met by the king as a guarantor of the observance of laws and a military leader. Thus, he assumed social functions that created the conditions for the preservation and support of the monarchy as an institution. The skaldic poetry of that time extols the first kings - Harald the Fair-Haired, Hakon the Pupil of Æthelstan and Olaf Haraldsson - for their harsh persecution of thieves and rapists; the last two are also sung as creators and keepers of laws. Maintaining the rule of law eventually began to generate income in the form of fines and confiscations; gradually developed and the administrative-legal apparatus, which became the stronghold of royal power.

As a military leader, the king concluded agreements with bonds from different regions of the country for constant economic and military assistance in times of crisis. It was in this way that the leidang, or naval militia, was formed - a conscription army led by the king, for whom the bonds jointly equipped warships, supplied soldiers, food and weapons. In the middle of the 10th century, during the reign of Hakon the Pupil of Æthelstan, such an army was created in Vestlann and, most likely, in Trennelag. Later, with the spread of royal power, it appeared in other coastal areas.

Of great importance for the development of relations between the king and the peasantry was the popular assembly, or ting. General meetings of all free people (Althingi) probably originated in prehistoric times; they settled disputes, resolved economic and some political issues of common interest. Later, in the Middle Ages, such assemblies survived as local bodies both in cities and in the countryside. Some of them took on special significance because they had the power to proclaim a king: the pretender was recognized as king in a legal ceremony of exchange of obligations between him and the participants. Only the king, proclaimed at the Things, enjoyed authority, so all pretenders to the throne aspired to such recognition.

In the sources relating to the first stage of the territorial unification, the Lagtings are mentioned for the first time. These collections occupied a higher position than the ancient Althingi, since they covered the population of larger territories. The old “regional laws” that have survived to this day reflect the legal situation of the 12th century, although some of their provisions date back to earlier periods. Here, the Lagtings act as the highest legal assemblies of the country, the only ones that had the right to ratify laws. The regional codes of the two oldest assemblies - Gulating in Western Norway and Frostating in Trønnelag - testify to the strong influence of the interests of the royal power and its more effective legal control. We first learn about the other two ancient lagtings - Eidsivating and Borgarting in Estlanna - from the national code of laws adopted by King Magnus the Corrector of Laws - "Landslova" 1274.

The Lagthings enjoyed the support of the royal power, which is quite understandable. Through them, administrative communication was carried out between the inhabitants of the country and the most important initiatives of the authorities in the form of a law. It was in this way that Christianity and the basic elements of church organization were adopted in the rural areas of Norway, and a naval militia was introduced. As the highest courts, the Lagthing maintained law and order in accordance with the legal norms that provided for the administration of justice by the royal power, and also brought income to the king in the form of judicial fines and confiscations. It is believed that lagthings originated in prehistoric times, but no clear evidence of their existence before the reign of Harald the Fair-Haired has been found. It is quite possible that it was the royal power that established them, at least in such a progressive form as the representative bodies of the largest regions.

The organizational development of the monarchy required the creation of more permanent and secure military administrative bases than the old estates along the sea route. It is in this connection that the contribution of the royal power to the creation of the first Norwegian cities should be assessed. In the cities, the king and his entourage could secure a quieter and more comfortable life than the one they led by constantly moving from place to place; besides, it was easier to control nearby territories from the city

The early history of Oslo is closely intertwined with the history of the Vikings - restless warriors who, on the site of the current capital, already in the 7th century. built their dwellings. Over the many centuries of its existence, the city, at the whim of those in power, changed its name several times - Oslo or Opslo (1050-1624), Christiania (1624-1877), Christiania (1877-1924) and again Oslo (from 1924 to the present day).

There are several versions that interpret the origin of the name "Oslo". According to the most common - it means "the mouth of the river Lo" (from the Norwegian Os - mouth, lo - river Lo), i.e. at the place of origin of the settlement. Another hypothesis is more romantic. The King of Norway, Harald the Severe (Hardrade), who founded a trading settlement in these places, named it after his beloved wife Elizabeth (daughter of Yaroslav the Wise), which at that time sounded like Oslav. Well, the most intricate version - from linguists-experts in the Viking language. Some scientists believe that the city is named after the gods of the ancient Scandinavians - aces.

The official founding date of Oslo is considered to be 1050, but archaeologists made their own adjustments just on the eve of the celebration of the 900th anniversary, making an amendment to 50 years - 1000. But be that as it may, it was Harald III (1047-1066), a warrior, king and poet, turns this place into the economic and political center of Norway. This event is mentioned in the surviving sagas "The Circle of the Earth" by an Icelandic storyteller (skald) of the 13th century. - Snorri Sturluson.

The heavenly patron of Oslo is considered to be Saint Halvard, a young Norwegian nobleman who died at the hands of an angry mob when he saved a woman from reprisal. A millstone was tied to the body of the young man, trying to drown him, but a miracle happened - the sea did not swallow the hero, despite the heavy load attached. Halvard was canonized, and today we can see his image with a millstone in his right hand on the city coat of arms. Under King Haakon V Magnusson (1299-1319), the city became the capital of Norway and began to be built rapidly. At this time, the Akershus fortress was founded, one of the first structures in Norway made of brick and stone.

In 1349, Oslo was devastated by an epidemic of bubonic plague, most of the eminent citizens and clergy died. But each time after another disaster, the city was reborn and became stronger and more significant. Since 1380 it has been the residence of the Norwegian royal court. True, after 17 years the capital was moved to Copenhagen, which became the main one in the tripartite union of Denmark, Sweden and Norway. The city was built mainly from wooden logs, so there were frequent fires here, often burning everything almost to the ground.

In 1624, during the reign of Christian IV, the settlement was irreparably damaged by fire. By order of the king, it was moved to a new location near the Akershus fortress, which for a long time served as the location of a small garrison and a repository of royal regalia, and in 1716 even withstood the siege of Charles XII. After the Northern War (1700-1721), the city grew rich thanks to the booming trade and shipbuilding. In 1814, Christiania again becomes the capital of Norway as part of Sweden, and since 1905 - already independent Norway.

During the First World War, Norway occupies a neutrality, which it cannot repeat in the Second World War due to the occupation of the country by Germany. After the end of the war in Oslo, King Haakon returns from exile. One of the highlights of the 20th century for Oslo was the 1952 Winter Olympics. Today, Oslo is a modern city, home to 18% of the country's population. It is part of the county (province) of Akershus.

The official name is the Kingdom of Norway (Kongeriket Norge, Kingdom of Norway). It is located on the Scandinavian Peninsula in the northwestern part of Europe. The area is 323.8 thousand km2, together with possessions - 385.2 thousand km2. The expansion of the economic zone in 1977 to 200 miles led to the fact that the area of ​​the sea areas - economic and fishing zones (2.24 million km2) is 3 times larger than the mainland.

The population is 4.5 million people. (2002). The official language is Norwegian. The capital is Oslo (508 thousand people, 2002). Public holiday - Constitution Day May 17 (since 1814). The monetary unit is the Norwegian krone (100 eryo).

Possessions: in the Arctic Ocean, the Spitsbergen archipelago (Svalbard), consisting of more than 1 thousand islands, with a total area of ​​​​62 thousand km2, and Bear Island (the status is determined by the Treaty of 1920 on Svalbard); in the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean, Jan Mayen Island (sovereignty has been exercised since 1929); and in the southern part of the Atlantic Ocean, Bouvet Island.

Member of the UN (since 1945), NATO (since 1949), the Northern Council (since 1952), EFTA (since 1960), etc.

Sights of Norway

Geography of Norway

It is located between 59°57' north latitude and 10°43' east longitude. The territory of the country is stretched in the form of a narrow strip from the southwest to the northeast for 1750 km. The largest width of the country is 430 km, the smallest (in the Narvik region) is approx. 7 km. OK. 1/3 of the territory is located north of the Arctic Circle. It is washed by the seas: in the north - the Barents Sea, in the west - the Norwegian and North Seas, in the south - the Skagerrak Strait. The warm Gulf Stream runs along the entire coast. The coast, especially the western one, is indented by fjords, mostly with steep, high, rocky shores - Sognefjord, Hardangerfjord, etc. Near the coast there are a large number of large islands (Lofoten, Vesterålen, Senja, Magerö, Sörö), numerous small islands and skerries - St. 150 thousand Protected sea route in skerries from south to north (from Stavanger to Narvik) was named Hurtigruta. The ancient sailors called these places Nord verg (the way to the north), from which the name Norway subsequently came.

It borders on land mainly with Sweden (1619 km), and in the far north with Finland (716 km) and the Russian Federation (196 km).

Norway is a mountainous country, almost 2/3 of its territory lies at an altitude of more than 500 m above sea level; lowlands occupy a narrow (40-50 km) seaside strip (the so-called stranflat) and are found in small areas in the south and east of the country. Almost the entire territory of the country is occupied by the Scandinavian Mountains, which are a vast upland, wider and higher in the south (the highest peak of Galdhøpiggen is 2470 m) and narrow, strongly dissected in the north (800 m on average).

The climate of the country is temperate, maritime, subarctic in the Far North. Due to the warm North Atlantic current (Gulf Stream), the climate of the coastal regions is much milder than in the northern latitudes (the average January temperature in the north is -2-4°С, in the south +2°С). For the same reason, the coast almost always remains free of ice. The summer is cool (the average temperature in July in the north of the coast is +10°С, and in the south +15°С) with frequent rains and strong winds. Climatic differences between north and south are much less pronounced than between west and east.

The river network is very dense, mountain rivers (large ones - Glomma, Logen, Tava and Alta) are full of water, although they are short. They have rich hydropower resources (120 billion kWh per year). There are 200 thousand lakes (the largest is Mjosa with an area of ​​369 km2), their total area is almost 5%. Over 1/4 of the territory is occupied by forests; in the north, spruce and pine forests predominate in the mountains.

The animal world is diverse (fox, elk, ermine, squirrel, hare, arctic fox, reindeer), the world of birds is exceptionally rich. Numerous bird colonies are located on the cliffs that break off to the sea. The seas washing the shores are exceptionally productive (cod, mackerel, perch), salmon, trout and salmon are found in rivers and lakes.

Large deposits of various ores, non-ferrous metals, granite, feldspar, marble, etc. World producer of ferromanganese (approx. 10% of world production), copper, zinc, titanium, molybdenum, tin, aluminum (approx. 6%), magnesium (20%), vanadium (2%), cobalt (4%), mica, ilmenite (25%). Proven oil reserves are 1.3 billion tons, which is more than half of all European reserves. Proved gas reserves are 1.25 trillion m3, which exceeds a quarter of all European reserves.

Population of Norway

Norway is one of the sparsely populated countries in Europe (14 people per 1 km2). The most populated is its southeastern part - Estland, where half of the population lives. The plateaus of the southern part are almost deserted. The northern part is extremely sparsely populated (only 10% of the population). The population is increasing at an average of 0.5% per year (over the past decade), mainly due to natural increase. Child mortality is low - 3.98 people. per 1000 newborns (2002). Life expectancy for men is 75.73 years, for women - 81.77 years.

Large cities: Oslo, Bergen (230 thousand people), Trondheim (150 thousand), Stavanger (120 thousand), Narvik (80 thousand), Kristiansand (72 thousand), Fredrikstad (70 thousand), Drammen (55 thousand), Tromsø (60 thousand).

Approximately 97% of the population is Norwegian. National minorities are the Sami (about 20 thousand people), Kvens (Norwegian Finns), Danes and Swedes.

The official language is Norwegian, belonging to the Scandinavian group of Germanic languages. There are two literary norms officially recognized as equal in rights - Bokmål and Landsmål. Bokmål publishes 90% of all printed materials and teaches in more than 80% of schools.

The official religion is Lutheranism (over 90% of the population).

History of Norway

In ancient times, the territory of modern Norway was inhabited by tribes of Germanic origin. In con. 5-ser. 11th century under the conditions of the process of class stratification and the formation of the state, the aggressive campaigns of squads acquired wide dimensions. This period is called the Viking Age. The Vikings reached North America, ahead of H. Columbus by 5 centuries. At the turn of the 9th-10th centuries. the unification of the country began, which was headed by King Harald Horfager (Fair-haired). From con. 10th c. Christianization began, in the next 3 centuries there was a strengthening of royal power and the Roman Catholic Church. Norway is one of the few countries in Europe where the peasants did not know serfdom.

From con. 13th c. the crisis of agriculture began, which was replaced by a long decline in the entire economy after the epidemics of the plague - the "black death". According to the Kalmar Union (1397), N. until 1523 was in a general alliance with Denmark and Sweden under the auspices of Denmark. After 1537 it was turned into a Danish province. The Danish king introduced the Evangelical Lutheran Church as the official religion.

From Ser. 17th century In Norway, an economic recovery began, which was facilitated by the collapse of the Hanseatic League. In Europe, the demand for Norwegian ore, timber, ships is increasing. This spurred the development of the industry. The turning point in the new history of the country came in 1814. By the decision of the anti-Napoleonic coalition, Norway was taken from Denmark and transferred to Sweden for its merits in the war against Napoleon. The Norwegian population refused to accept the accession to Sweden. On May 17, 1814, at the Constituent Assembly in Eidsvoll, the Constitution of the independent Norwegian state (Eidsvoll Constitution) was proclaimed. However, Sweden, with the support of the great powers, by military force in the summer of 1814 forced Norway to agree to a union under the leadership of the Swedish king, but with broad internal autonomy.

Despite the industrial rise of the In the 19th century, the first mass movement of agricultural workers and the poor (Khusmen) unfolded in the country. Population growth outstripped the pace of industrialization, which contributed to mass emigration to North America. In con. 19th century in the development of the economy there have been significant shifts associated with the use of machines, electricity, electrochemistry. In the 1870s the first parties and trade unions arose. Norway was the first in Europe to introduce free and compulsory education for children aged 7 to 14 (1860).

On June 7, 1905, at the peak of public upsurge, the Norwegian Storting (parliament) terminated the union with Sweden, and in August the monarchy was preserved in a referendum, the Danish prince Karl was elected king (under the name Haakon VII). During the 1st World War, Norway pursued a policy of neutrality, which contributed to economic development. The world economic crisis of 1929-33 hit the country hard, and the influence of the radicals increased. After the beginning During World War II, Norway declared neutrality, but on April 9, 1940, it was treacherously attacked by Nazi Germany, which, with the help of V. Quisling (Minister of Defense) and his supporters, managed to capture the country. The king and the government in exile were in London. The beginning of the liberation of Norway was laid by the Soviet Army, which in October 1944, during the Petsamo-Kirkenes operation, liberated Finnmark.

In the post-war period, thanks to the reformist policy of the authorities and the stubborn struggle of the workers, it was possible to create a developed system of social security, the so-called. welfare state model. The Norwegian Social Democrats were the first in the 1960s. began to introduce democracy in the workplace. In the context of a split in the ruling circles after the victory of a broad extra-parliamentary movement in the referendums of 1972 and 1994, the country was twice forced to refuse to join the EU, although it fully participates in economic integration with the central integration zone.

State structure and political system of Norway

Norway is a constitutional monarchy. The head of state is the king. Royal house - the dynasty of Schleswig-Holstein-Zogdenburg-Glücksburg: Harald V, King N. (since January 17, 1991), born February 21, 1937; Sonya, Queen of Norway (4 July 1937); Haakon, Crown Prince of Norway (20 July 1973) and Princess Martha Louise (22 September 1971). King Harald V of Norway ruled that Princess Martha Louise after February 1, 2002 lost her title and all privileges associated with it after her marriage and her decision to continue working in her own company, Prinsesse Martha Louises Kulturformidling.

Administratively, the country is divided into 20 regions (fylke), including the largest cities of Oslo and Bergen.

According to the current Constitution (May 17, 1814), with subsequent changes, succession to the throne is transmitted in a straight line, regardless of gender. The king of Norway formally retained fairly broad powers. He appoints and dismisses the Prime Minister, approves laws, declares war and makes peace, is the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces and head of the State Church.

Legislative power is exercised by the Storting (165 deputies), elected by universal equal and secret ballot according to the proportional system for a term of 4 years. At the first session of the Storting, the deputies elect from their membership 1/4 of the deputies forming the Lagting as the highest deliberative body, the rest constitute the Odelsting. Executive power formally belongs to the king, who appoints the State Council (government), which is formed, as a rule, from the parties of the parliamentary majority. The full executive power in practice belongs to the government, headed by the prime minister.

The county (provinces) is administered by the king-appointed fülkesman (governor), who has a fülkesting (regional council), consisting of chairmen of the councils of rural and urban communes. Each commune has an elected body of local self-government - an assembly of representatives.

The judicial system of Norway is formed by the courts of first and second instances and the Supreme Court - the highest judicial authority; all judges are appointed by the king.

The right to vote is enjoyed by citizens who have reached the age of 18 and have lived in the country for at least 5 years.

An important feature of the internal political life of Norway is the establishment of a kind of balance between the social and political forces of the country. The current so-called. bipolar party-political system, which has been eroded in recent times. At one extreme are the social reformist Norwegian Workers' Party (NLP - since 1887) (Det Norske Arbeiderparti, part of the Socialist International) and the left socialists (Socialist People's Party - Sosialistiske Folkeparti, founded in 1961); on the other - all the centre-right bourgeois parties: Hoyre (since 1885) - conservatives, the country's first political party - Venstre (Venstre - since 1884) - liberals, the clerical Christian People's Party (KHNP - Kristelig Folkeparti, founded in 1933) and the Party Center (Senterpartiet, until 1959 it was called the Peasant Party, from May until the end of 1959 - the Norwegian Democratic Party, founded in 1920). With such a balance of power, the populist Progress Party (PP - Fremskrittspartiet - founded in 1973) has a significant influence, with which both left and right parties have so far refused to cooperate.

There were no irreconcilable differences between the centre-right parties in general and the Social Democrats. In fact, a corporate decision-making system has developed and is functioning, and the role of the coordinator in this structure (the state - trade unions - entrepreneurs) was assumed by representatives of the authorities who pursue the course of "social partnership": the conclusion of collective agreements on wages and other working conditions, the activities of labor courts and settlement of labor conflicts. The leading links in the partnership system are, on the one hand, associations of entrepreneurs, and on the other (since 1899 nationwide) - the Central Association of Trade Unions of Norway (COPN). The system of cooperation between business and the state is also complemented by informal ties.

The Confederation of Norwegian Entrepreneurs (200,000 people) plays the main role in the centralized structure of business unions, while the Union of Shipowners, the Industrial Union, and the Union of Farmers and Producers enjoy the dominant influence. The TsOPN presents St. 40 branch trade unions (700 thousand members), and in the Confederation of Norwegian civil servants (30 branch unions, even a unique union of pensioners) there are 120 thousand members. Influential: the Cooperative Association (founded in 1906, 0.5 million shareholders), the Union of Tenants (1939), the Workers' Educational Union (1931), and the Workers' Union of Youth (1903).

The main conditions for the sale of labor force are developed every 2 years at the negotiations between the KNP and the CPC in the form of framework and general agreements. The first basic agreement was concluded in 1935 and still serves as an exemplary "labor code".

In the 1960s - early. 70s a sharp extra-parliamentary struggle unfolded around the problem of Norway's membership in the Common Market, its main result was the refusal to join the organization. The 1972 referendum on this issue caused a kind of "trauma" to the Norwegian party-political system. In the 1994 referendum, opponents of the country's membership in the EU managed to achieve their second victory.

The dominance of the CHP in Norwegian politics came to an end. 1980 - early 90s According to the results of the last regular elections (September 10, 2001), the balance of power was as follows: CHP 24.3% of the vote (43 seats), Hoire 21.2% (38), Progress Party 14.6% (26), SLP 12.5 % (23), HNP 12.4% (22), PC 5.6% (10), Venstre 3.9% (2) and Party of the Coast 1.7% (1). Based on them, a second coalition center-right government (Höyre, HNP, HRC, Venstre) was formed, headed by H.-M. Bunnevik. Among the party-political forces, the struggle is still being waged mainly around the reduction of tax rates, the role of the state and social benefits. Recently, social movements have been fighting against the negative consequences of globalization that violate traditional foundations.

After the end of the Cold War and the transition to a post-bipolar system, Norway's participation in the processes of global internationalization and regional integration deepened. The previously dominant "Atlantic" direction of foreign policy has lost its defining role. The Norwegian policy - "basic" and "nuclear", which declared the refusal to deploy foreign troops and nuclear weapons in the country in peacetime, is now removed from the political agenda by the authorities. The erosion of "Atlanticism" is associated with a change in the country's strategic role and a reduction in Norway's military efforts in NATO. The importance of Norwegian infrastructure for US strategy and NATO as a whole has declined. However, the country's leadership seeks to maintain the "special" Norwegian-American relations under any conditions.

A growing role is played by the "European" direction. Despite the forced rejection of the country's accession to the EU and the resulting difficulties in relations with the main allies in Europe, Norway is actively developing cooperation with the EU. In 1973, an agreement on free trade in manufactured goods was concluded, in 1994 - an agreement on the European Economic Area. Within the framework of the mechanism of European political cooperation, Norway, relying on its oil factor, effectively ensures the national-state interests, although it does not take part in the EU decision-making process.

The “northern” direction, which the country implements through the Nordic Council, retains its significance. In the 1990s The cooperation of the countries of the North was carried out mainly with the Baltic States and within the framework of the EU Northern Dimension program.

Norway is one of the founding countries of the UN. Norwegian Trygve Lie was elected its first general secretary. Oslo considers the UN as the main body for the maintenance of international law and order and the system of international security. Norwegian diplomacy played an important mediating role in resolving conflicts between the PLO and Israel, in Honduras and Sri Lanka. Norway takes a constructive position on the development problems of the Third World countries, it is among the few developed countries that provide 1% of GNP in the form of assistance to developing countries.

The armed forces of Norway are in the process of reorganization, they consist of the Land Forces - the Ground Forces, the Air Force, the Navy and the Heimvern (National Guard). The number of permanent staff is 27 thousand people. and 220 thousand people. in reserve. Military spending US$3.2 billion, 2.1% of GDP (2002). Although the recruitment of the Armed Forces on the basis of the law on universal military service (conscription age of 20 years) is preserved, out of the annual conscript contingent of 27 thousand people. only 10,000 are called up for active service (12 months).

The leadership exercised by the Commander-in-Chief through the Joint Headquarters and the Directorate of Inspectors General of the Services of the Armed Forces is undergoing changes in the direction of strengthening the role of territorial defense regions.

Norway has diplomatic relations with the Russian Federation. In September 1921, Norway recognized Soviet Russia de facto, and in February 1924 recognized the USSR de jure. Relations between Norway and Russia have existed since ancient times, they have never been at war. In 1905, Russia was the first of the great powers to recognize the independence of Norway. In Russia, F. Nansen, the organizer of the international famine relief campaign in 1921-23, is remembered with gratitude. A bright page in the history of relations is the combat brotherhood during the 2nd World War.

During the Cold War, Soviet-Norwegian relations experienced a difficult period. In November 1955 Prime Minister E. Gerhardsen made an official visit to the USSR, and in 1964 N.S. Khrushchev and in 1971 L.I. Brezhnev in Oslo. In the 1970-80s. 60 interstate and intergovernmental agreements and treaties were signed. A separate page was the meeting on December 5, 1986 M.S. Gorbachev with Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland (CHP).

With the formation of the Russian Federation, productive ties were resumed in various fields. The contacts culminated in the visits of President B. Yeltsin to Oslo in 1996 and the King of Norway to Moscow in May 1998. An important event was the official visit to Oslo of the President of the Russian Federation V. Putin (November 2002), following his negotiations with Prime Minister Kjell Magne Bunnevik A joint statement was signed in which the parties agreed to expand cooperation in the northern region.

For 30 years, consultations have been held between the interested departments of the USSR, and later the Russian Federation and Norway, on resolving issues of delimitation - the delimitation of the Barents Sea, which cover 155 thousand km2, and fixing the dividing line with a length of 1700 km. Thanks to mutual concessions and compromises to the beginning. 2003 discussion is about 5% of the disputed water area and shelf.

Economy of Norway

Norway is a small country at the post-industrial stage of development (in 2002, the GDP was 190 billion euros, per capita - 38.7 thousand US dollars, growth rate 2.1%, inflation 2.3%). The country leads in terms of the quality of life of the population and all social parameters, it is the third exporter in the world in terms of energy resources. Its supplies play an important role in providing oil and gas (over 12%) to Western Europe. They are provided by 8 main oil pipelines (total length of 1271 km with a total throughput of 2.93 million barrels per day) and 14 gas pipelines (total length of 5534 km with a total throughput of 169.1 billion m3 per year).

Although the specialization of the economy is still determined by natural conditions (cheap electricity, forest wealth, mineral and fish resources), recently new features have appeared associated with the use of advanced technology, highly skilled labor and the latest methods of organizing production. The country has a pronounced rental nature of the economy, dependence on raw materials, mainly oil and gas, exports, which, for example, amounted to St. 50% of all merchandise exports, while less than 15% of exports were in the technology sector. The oil and gas industry is the foundation of the entire Norwegian economy. In 2002, the oil and gas sector accounted for 23% of GDP and generated 32% of all revenues (NOK 223 billion, over $23 billion). It directly employs more than 74 thousand people, 3% of all employed, and indirectly another 220 thousand.

Economic growth (4.2% in the late 1990s - early 2000s) was provided by a combination of both favorable factors of the global situation and the successful macroeconomic policy of the authorities. Unemployment fell significantly, the state budget deficit disappeared and turned into a surplus. Although full employment creates favorable socio-economic conditions in the country, there is a danger of economic “overheating” due to limited resources.

The role of the state in the economy is still great and the public sector is significant. This is the result of the 30 years in power of the Social Democrats (NDP), who in their economic policy relied on Keynesian theory and the Scandinavian model of the "welfare state". Although the public sector (approx. 5% in industrial production) includes a number of enterprises, incl. for the production of military equipment and ammunition, hydropower and construction, it mainly covers infrastructure. Significant positions of the state in the credit and financial sphere.

Much of the public wealth comes under state control through the tax sphere. Current total government spending was 42.4% of GNP. The state controls both key sectors (the oil and gas industry through large state-owned enterprises) and agricultural production and other areas, while the authorities experience a certain lack of resources.

The narrowness of the domestic market, the existing sectoral structure predetermined the country's broad participation in the international division of labor. Thus, exports of goods and services accounted for 46% of the country's GNP in 2002, while imports accounted for 30%. Oil and gas exports account for St. 45% of all national exports. With less than 0.2% of the population of developed countries and producing more than 0.5% of industrial output, Norway has St. 1% in the exports of these countries.

The fact that it is not a full member of the EU, which requires the member countries to unify the norms of economic legislation and strict coordination of economic policy, contributes to the consolidation of the role of the state in the economic life of the country. Norway, together with Iceland, still does not want to “dissolve” into the EU economy, lose control over oil and gas resources and lose its national identity.

The processes of globalization and regional integration are subjecting the Norwegian model of socio-economic development to serious tests. The state can no longer, as before, subsidize socially important enterprises without the risk of sanctions from the EU or the WTO. In addition, in the context of employment growth of approximately 1-2% per year, the demographic situation is becoming more complicated, which requires additional social spending from the authorities. Contradictory processes took place in the sphere of state regulation. On the one hand, the authorities (both the first coalition government of H.-M. Bunnevik and the IRP cabinet of J. Stoltenberg) sought to use the levers of the liberal growth policy and limit the role of the state in the economy. The process of liquidating state property was quite active (a number of hydroelectric power stations, part of the oil and gas industry and infrastructure facilities were privatized), there was a refusal of state intervention (income policy and attraction of foreign investment, etc.) and a number of social programs. In 2001, a partial privatization of the state company Statoil was carried out, its shares were placed on the stock exchange. On the other hand, significant oil revenues have allowed the state to increase domestic consumption and investment, ease the tax burden and expand investment in regional development, environmental protection and the social sphere. As before, many domestic industries (especially agriculture) that are vulnerable to foreign competition are subsidized by the state. A regional policy is being implemented - decentralization and relocation of enterprises from large cities to northern regions. With a rising government budget surplus in 2000-02, wage growth accelerated, adversely affecting international competitiveness.

The lever of state influence is the State Oil Fund (GNF), which is now St. 820 billion crowns (over 110 billion US dollars). The funds of the fund bring a solid income to the country: approx. 40% of the funds are invested in shares of foreign companies, and approx. 60% - in foreign government bonds. The fund is intended to serve as a financial buffer, giving the government the freedom to maneuver in economic policy in the event of a fall in world oil prices or a decrease in activity in industries not related to oil and gas production.

The country's economy is divided (which is reflected in national statistics) into two parts: continental and shelf. The first - continental - is represented by traditional industries: electrometallurgical, electrochemical, mining, pulp and paper, mechanical engineering and other manufacturing sectors. The hallmark of the Norwegian industry is the production of offshore drilling platforms and related equipment, hydraulic turbines, industrial and household electrical and electronic equipment, production lines for fish processing. This segment includes fishing and the entire fish processing complex, shipping (among the traditional shipping powers, the country has the highest share of the fleet under its own flag, and its share in the country's export earnings traditionally exceeds 10%).

The second part of the economy is the shelf one, which occupies a dominant position, it is represented by the oil and gas industries. By 2008, it is planned to increase gas exports to 80 billion standard m3 per year. The most significant gas fields are Sleipner, Ekofisk and Troll. Oil production amounted to 165 million tons with domestic consumption of 10 million tons (2002). The largest oil fields are Statfjord, Gylfaks, Oseberg, Ekofisk.

In 2002, the offshore sector generated almost 25% of Norway's GDP, while the continental sector generated only approx. ten%. In addition, most sectors of the continental Norwegian economy are low-income and sometimes uncompetitive.

Of the total economically active population (2.3 million people), 23.7% are employed in industry and construction, 4.8% in agriculture, forestry and fishing, and 71.6% in trade and other service industries. The unemployment rate is 2.9%.

Despite the decline in the share of agriculture in GDP from 4% in 1968 to 2% in 2002, this industry continues to play a significant role. Animal husbandry is developed, mainly dairy. Although less than 2.5% of the total number of employees work here, and only 3% of the entire territory falls on the land, the level of self-sufficiency in agricultural products is almost 50% (75-80% - in grains and almost entirely in livestock products).

Although the share of fishing in GDP is also declining, the fish processing and canning industries provide employment to the population in coastal areas, especially in the north. For the survival of the industry, the artificial breeding of salmon and trout plays an important role; fjords and mountain rivers are used for the industrial development of "aquaculture".

Transport plays an important role in the economic complex: St. 80% of foreign trade cargo flow enters the country by sea, sea transport accounts for half of domestic cargo transportation. More than half of the merchant fleet are tankers. The length of highways is 90 thousand km, St. 55 thousand have an asphalt surface, 17.5 thousand bridges and approx. 1 thousand tunnels.

Share of foreign trade in GDP: export of goods and services 40%, import 33% (2002). Geographically, the EU accounts for 80% of trade. Approx. 120 companies with Norwegian capital. The share of the Russian Federation in Norwegian investments abroad is 0.1%, or $0.9 billion. Norwegian capital develops mainly the northwestern regions of the Russian Federation.

Science and culture in Norway

The modern education system begins with preschools for children aged 5-6. Compulsory primary education is 9 years. Secondary general educational institutions - 4-5-year gymnasiums. Education in the gymnasium ends with the delivery of the so-called. student exams, which give the right to enter the university. There are four universities in the system of higher education: in Oslo (founded in 1811), Bergen (in 1948), Trondheim (in 1968), and Tromsø (in 1972). In the 2002/03 academic year, 35,000 students studied at all universities.

St. 300 research institutes, 300 laboratories of industrial and commercial firms and approx. 40 scientific societies; St. 150 research institutes specialized in the field of natural sciences. The country has achieved high efficiency in the field of R&D, more than half of the annual increase in its industrial output is achieved through innovation. Organizational research institutions are divided into state (about 1/3), university (about 2/3) and independent (less than 10%). The universities in Oslo and Trondheim have the most developed research base.

The scientific policy of the state and the financing of R&D are developed by the State Committee for Science and Technology with the help of the Advisory Council for Scientific Research (founded in 1965), approved by the Storting. Along with budgetary appropriations (60%), various public and private funds (the F. Nansen Foundation, A. Yare, and others) are widely used in R&D financing.

Norway has become famous in the world for the outstanding achievements of its culture. L. Holdberg (1684-1754) is considered the father of Norwegian literature, although the modern period begins with the work of H. Vigelan (1808-45). The works of writers B. Björnson (1832-1910), G. Ibsen (1828-1906), K. Hamsun (1859-1952), S. Unset (1882-1949) are already at the beginning. 20th century were known outside their homeland and continue to be published in foreign languages ​​today. There are Norwegian names among the brilliant artists (E. Munch), singers (K. Flagstad), musicians (E. Grieg) of the world level.

The policy in the field of culture is aimed at making cultural values ​​accessible to all residents and, in conditions of close mutual exchange with other peoples, to preserve their national flavor. Special support is given to literature, ca. 1/3 of books are published with state support. All libraries are free (network 1.5 thousand), meet high standards. The State Touring Theater and the State Mobile Art Gallery also serve the purposes of disseminating cultural achievements. The leading role in the field of popularization is played by the state-owned Norwegian Radio and Television. The state subsidizes creative unions, exhibitions, museums, festivals (Bergen Festival). The role of the state in the construction and maintenance of cultural, entertainment and museum premises is important.

Norway maintained neutrality during both the First and Second World Wars, but was occupied by the Nazis in 1940. The king set up a government in exile and placed the country's gigantic commercial fleet under the command of the allied forces. The powerful Resistance Movement fiercely fought the Nazis, who in response destroyed almost all the cities and villages in the northern part of Norway during the retreat. At the end of the war, the royal family returned to the country.

The first settlers appeared in Norway over 10,000 years ago at the end of the Ice Age. These ancient hunter-gatherers moved farther north in Norway behind the receding glacier, chasing the nomadic herds of reindeer. The greatest contribution to world history was made by the Viking Age, which began, according to historians, with the conquest of the English monastery of Lindisfarne by Norman pirates in 793 AD.

Throughout the next century, the Vikings raided all over Europe, establishing their settlements in the occupied places. The Viking leader Harald Horfagr (Blond) unified Norway around 900 AD, and a hundred years later King Olaf, adopting the religion of the countries he conquered, introduced Christianity. The Vikings were good sailors and were the first to cross the Atlantic Ocean. In 982, Eric the Red, son of a Norwegian exiled to Iceland, captured Greenland. In 1001, Erik's son Leif Eriksson became perhaps the first European to explore the coast of North America on his way from Norway to Greenland. However, the Viking Age ended in 1066 when the Norwegian king Harald Hardrada was defeated at the Battle of Stamford Bridge in England.

In the 13th century, the city of Oslo became the capital of the state. It continued to flourish until the middle of the 14th century, when a significant part of the city's population died as a result of an epidemic of plague. In 1397, Norway formed an alliance with Denmark that lasted 400 years. In 1814, the territory of Norway was ceded to Sweden. In the same year, Norway, tired of violent alliances, adopted its own constitution, but attempts to achieve independence were thwarted by the invasion of the Swedes. In the end, the Norwegians were allowed to have their own constitution, but they were forced to recognize the authority of the Swedish king. The developing nationalist movement eventually led to a peaceful secession from Sweden in 1905. The Norwegians voted for a monarchy over a republic and chose Prince Carl of Denmark to the throne. When he became king, he took the name Haakon VII and named his newborn son Olaf, both names associated with the glorious time of the Vikings.

Norway maintained neutrality during both the First and Second World Wars, but was occupied by the Nazis in 1940. The king set up a government in exile and placed the country's gigantic commercial fleet under the command of the allied forces. The powerful Resistance Movement vehemently fought the Nazis, who in response destroyed almost all the cities and villages in the northern part of Norway during the retreat. At the end of the war, the royal family returned to the country.

In 1960, Norway joined the European Free Trade Association, but was reluctant to forge closer ties with other countries, partly out of fear that it would not be able to maintain small-scale agriculture and fisheries. In 1970, oil and gas found in the North Sea brought wealth and prosperity to the country, since that time Norway has been one of the countries with the highest standard of living. In the referendum of 1994, the country's population voted against joining the EU, which caused shock among the governments of European states, which tried to profitably "sell" the results of the Maastricht Treaty in their countries. EU membership is still a sore point in Norway, but opposition to these plans is still strong among the various political forces in the country.