In the photo: "The Battle of Kunersdorf on August 12, 1759", an engraving from the turn of the 1750s-1760s.
Seven Years' War(1756-1763) covered all of Europe and even America. Ten countries were involved in it, including the Russian Empire.
What started the Seven Years' War
It all started with a conflict that broke out between England and France on the American continent, followed by a declaration of war, which caused a complete reformatting of the established political alliances in Europe. Prussia, led by the ambitious and energetic King Frederick II, was eager to take the lead in European politics - it was she who found herself at the center of all the military events of the Seven Years' War. Frederick, nicknamed the Great, was undoubtedly the most talented commander, which did not prevent him from losing major battles.
Battle of Kunersdorf in the Seven Years' War
The most famous of them was Kunersdorf. On August 1 (according to the old style), 1759, the combined Russian-Austrian forces under the command of about 60 thousand bayonets met with the 50 thousandth army of Frederick II near the village of Kunersdorf.
The fight went on all day. The allies exhausted the enemy forces in a well-organized defense, and then rushed to the offensive - the Prussians were utterly defeated, Frederick had no more than three thousand soldiers left in the ranks.
The successes of Russian troops and the paradoxes of Russian government
Much more happened later in the war, including the capture of Berlin by the Russians in 1760. In the future, the successes of the Russian troops followed one after another, but Peter III, who occupied the Russian throne in 1761, who was a devoted admirer of the Prussian king, made an unexpected peace with Frederick - and just when literally half a step was left before the final victory.
Sasha Mitrahovich 06.02.2018 09:09
The Seven Years' War of 1756-1763 showed many examples of valor and meanness. What were the victorious entry of Russian troops into Berlin and the allied treaty with Frederick that followed after the accession of Peter III, which crossed out all the victories! Battle of Zorndorf became an example of the "senseless and merciless" battle of that war ...
It went down in history as a cruel, even by today's standards, meat grinder (11 thousand dead Prussians and 17 thousand Russians in one day) with zero results.
It began on the morning of August 14, 1758. Frederick II imposed a battle on the Russian commander VV Fermor in a more than unfavorable position for the Russians. Possessing the initiative, the Prussians carried out a lightning-fast maneuver and attacked Fermor, who had built a square to repel an attack from the north, to the left flank and rear. During the course of the battle, Russian troops were forced to turn around almost a full 180 degrees (in military language this is called “accept the battle with an inverted front”), and even fight pressed against the river, having practically no maneuver!
What did the sluggishness of the Russian commander in Battle of Zorndorf, it is clear: the cavalry retreating from under the blow closed the view of its own infantry, which, temporarily “blinded”, fell under a one-time attack on the front, flank and rear, the artillerymen in confusion confused their cavalrymen with the enemy (with extremely deplorable consequences for the cavalrymen), Fermor lost control...
And then something happened that was never written about in books on military art. The Russians "bite into the ground." The infantry became deadly, reflecting attack after attack in an extremely uncomfortable position. Where the Prussians managed to push the infantrymen, they were counterattacked and thrown back by the Russian cavalry, who, quite unexpectedly for Frederick, showed brilliant fighting qualities - they even forced one of the enemy battalions to capitulate, capturing several guns!
Eventually Battle of Zorndorf, which, according to all the rules of military science, the Russians should have lost miserably, ended ... in nothing.
Sasha Mitrahovich 01.03.2018 09:14
happened on August 30, 1757.
In the late 1750s and early 1760s, the Seven Years' War was raging in Europe (as well as in America and Asia). On the one hand - Prussia and the British Empire with colonies, on the other - France, Russia, Saxony and a number of other European countries.
The first major battle of the Russian army in that war was (1757), where, as in a mirror, both Russian military power and Russian military weakness were fully reflected.
To begin with, both sides (Russia and Prussia) did not have reliable information about the enemy. Europe did not see the Russian army and had a very weak idea of \u200b\u200bit - and even with an error towards underestimation. The Russians, by contrast, considered the Prussians invincible. However, our commander - Field Marshal S.F. Apraksin - was paralyzed not so much by fear as by the need to coordinate every step with St. Petersburg.
In he showed amazing carelessness - he forgot about reconnaissance and reconnaissance. But his counterpart, J. von Lewald, conducted reconnaissance very badly, not seeing the flank of the Russian army. As a result, the battle began unexpectedly for everyone. The Prussians got their bearings faster, the Russians suffered severe losses, but, systematically moving into hand-to-hand counterattacks, they held the enemy back with the support of cannons. By shifting the direction of the blow, Lewald managed to bend the front line in an arc; but at this critical moment the advancing Prussians were attacked by four regiments. Lewald did not expect anything like this, his soldiers faltered, retreated, came under fire, ran even faster. As a result, the losses in the battle, which began so unsuccessfully for the Russians, were comparable. The battlefield remained with Apraksin, but he did not develop success and retreated.
Needless to say, the qualities that the Russian army showed in Battle of Gross-Jägersdorf, she later manifested herself more than once in other conflicts, desperately creating difficulties for herself and heroically overcoming them?
Sasha Mitrahovich 15.03.2020 08:58
In the 18th century, one of the most bloody and large-scale wars took place: the Seven Years' War (1756-1763). It can be argued that the war was of a global character.
Causes of the war
The long-brewing conflict between the world powers turned into a war. Two opposing coalitions were formed:
- England, Prussia and Portugal;
- Austria, France, Russia, Saxony, Sweden.
Main reasons:
- the colonial interests of England and France intersected in India and America;
- the strengthening of Prussia and the German army, interests clashed with Austria in relation to Silesia;
- The Russian Empire was dissatisfied with Prussia's entry into the world arena;
- Sweden's desire to retake Pomerania;
- contemptuous antics of the Prussian king Frederick II, a well-known misogynist in relation to the Austrian and Russian empresses and to the Marquise de Pompadour, who actually ruled France. He called the enemy coalition itself "the union of three women."
Course of events
In the spring of 1756 England declares war on France. Almost simultaneously, in August, Prussia invades Saxony. After the complete defeat of the latter, the Russian Empire and a number of other states join the conflict on the side of Austria. Portugal adjoins the Anglo-Prussian bloc.
In 1756, the English fleet defeats the French. Thus the Anglo-Prussian bloc takes the lead.
The Russian troops are commanded by Apraksin, he was given the task of capturing Koenigsberg. Two powerful armies meet at Groß-Jägersdorf in 1757. The army of the Russian Empire won a major victory. At this time, Empress Elizabeth Petrovna fell seriously ill in the capital and Peter III, who strongly sympathized with Frederick II, was her heir. Apraksin, fearing the wrath of the heir, orders to abandon the pursuit and complete defeat of the German army. The Prussian army was defeated and crushed. The myth of his invincibility has been dispelled.
After the defeat, the Prussian army of Frederick II takes revenge on Rosbach and defeats the Austrian-French troops.
The Russian Empress recovers and orders the war to continue. Fermor was placed in command of the Russians. At the end of 1757, the Russians captured Koningsberg, and already in 1758, by order of Elizabeth Petrovna, East Prussia became part of the Russian Empire. In the same year, under the command of Fermor, another major battle took place at Zorindorf. Fermor fled, but thanks to the courage of the Russian soldiers, the German army was again defeated.
At this time, the French lose a major battle to the British near Quebec, and then lose Canada, and later fail in India.
In 1759, P.S. took command of the Russian army. Saltykov. At the very beginning, they suffered a major defeat for Prussia at Kunersdorf. After the capture of the city, the road to Berlin was opened to Russian troops. In 1760, the city was captured, and a year later, in 1762, the Kolberg fortress was captured.
Thus, the defeat of Prussia became obvious. King Frederick was in despair, even tried to abdicate. In this theater of military events, the Allies did not provide assistance to either Russia or Prussia. And at such a moment an important message came from St. Petersburg: the Empress died, Peter III became the new emperor. His first decree was a peace treaty with Prussia. According to the Petersburg Treaty, all lost lands were returned to Prussia, and Russia was withdrawing from the war.
This moment became a turning point in the course of the war. Austria and France lost a powerful ally in the person of Russia, and the Anglo-Prussian bloc gained strength. In 1763, when it became clear that waging war was useless, the Peace of Paris was concluded.
The results of the war
In January 1763, the Peace of Paris was concluded, according to which:
- Prussia becomes a powerful power;
- Canada is annexed to the possessions of England;
- France lost Menroc;
- Havana was separated from England in favor of Spain;
- Austria lost Silesia;
- The Russian Empire remained without territorial changes.
Over 650,000 people were killed during the hostilities. Losses for the 18th century were simply colossal. But it is still unclear what the consequences could have been if Russia had not left the war with the shameful world. It is likely that the division of the world and further world history would have been different.
The Seven Years' War is one of the saddest events in Russian history. Having achieved great success on the territory of Prussia, the Emperor was replaced in Russia, who did not lay claim to the Prussian lands. It was Peter III, who idolized Frederick II.
The reason for this war (1756-1762) was the aggressive policy of Prussia, which sought to expand its borders. The reason for Russia's entry into the war was the attack of Prussia on Saxony and the capture of the cities of Dresden and Leipzig.
The seven-year war involved Russia, France, Austria, Sweden on one side, Prussia and England on the other. Russia declared war on Prussia on 1.09. 1756
During this protracted war, Russia managed to take part in several major battles, and change three commanders-in-chief of the Russian troops. It is worth noting that at the beginning of the Seven Years' War, King Frederick II of Prussia had the nickname "invincible".
Field Marshal Apraksin, the first commander in chief of the Russian army in the Seven Years' War, had been preparing the army's offensive for almost a year. He occupied the Prussian cities very slowly, the speed of the advance of the Russian troops deep into Prussia left much to be desired. Friedrich was contemptuous of the Russian army and went to fight in the Czech Republic, with his main troops.
The first major battle of the Seven Years' War, with the participation of the Russian army, took place near the village of Gross-Egersdorf. The Russian army consisted of 55 thousand people, who had 100 artillery guns. General Levald attacked the Russian army. The situation was threatening. The situation was corrected by a bayonet attack by several regiments of Rumyantsev. Apraksin reached the Keninsberg fortress and, standing under its walls, ordered the Russian army to retreat. Apraksin was arrested for his actions, he was charged with treason, he died during one of the interrogations.
General Fermor became the new commander of the Russian army. He moved Russian troops to Prussia, having 60 thousand people at his disposal. In the Battle of Zorndorf, the King of Prussia decided to personally defeat the Russian troops. At night, the Germans went to the rear of the Russian army and deployed artillery on the hills. The Russian army had to deploy the entire front of its attack. The battle was fierce, with varying success. As a result, having lost a lot of strength, the armies dispersed without revealing the winner.
Soon the Russian army was headed by Saltykov, one of the associates of Peter I. The commander-in-chief proposed to unite the Russian army with the Austrian one and suggested moving to Berlin. The Austrians were afraid of the strengthening of Russia and refused such actions. In 1760, the corps of General Chernyshev took Berlin. Prussia suffered a major blow to its prestige.
In 1761, the Russian army again had a new commander-in-chief, Buturlin, who went with the main forces to Silesia. In the north, Rumyantsev was left to storm the fortress of Kolberg. Rumyantsevthe Russian fleet helped very actively. The future great commander Alexander Vasilievich Suvorov also participated in the assault on Kolberg. Soon the fortress was taken.
In the following years, Prussia was on the brink of disaster. The Seven Years' War was to bring Russia great honors and new lands. But everything was decided by chance. Empress Elizabeth died on December 25, 1761, and Peter III, a great admirer of Frederick, ascended the throne. The Seven Years' War was stopped. Now the Russian troops had to clear Prussia of the former allies….
In the 50s. Prussia becomes the main enemy of Russia. The reason for this is the aggressive policy of its king, aimed at the east of Europe.
In 1756 the Seven Years' War began . The conference at the highest court, which played the role of the Secret, or Military, Council under Empress Elizabeth, set the task - "by weakening the king of Prussia, to make him fearless and carefree for the local side (for Russia)."
Frederick II in August 1756, without declaring war, attacked Saxony. His army, having defeated the Austrians, captured Dresden, Leipzig. An anti-Prussian coalition is finally formed - Austria, France, Russia, Sweden.
In the summer of 1757 the Russian army entered East Prussia. On the way to Koenigsberg, near the village of Gross-Egersdorf, the army of Field Marshal S. F. Apraksin on August 19 (30), 1757 met with the army of Field Marshal X. Lewald.
The battle was started by the Prussians. They successively attacked the left flank and center, then the right flank of the Russians. They broke through the center, and a critical situation arose here. The regiments of the division of General Lopukhin, who was killed during the battle, suffered heavy losses and began to retreat. The enemy could break into the rear of the Russian army. But the situation was saved by four reserve regiments of P. A. Rumyantsev, a young general whose star began to rise in those years. Their swift and sudden attack on the flank of the Prussian infantry led to its stampede. The same thing happened in the disposition of the Russian avant-garde and the right flank. The fire from guns and rifles mowed down the ranks of the Prussians. They fled along the entire front, losing more than 3,000 killed and 5,000 wounded; Russians - 1.4 thousand killed and more than 5 thousand wounded.
Apraksin won with the help of only part of his army. As a result, the road to Koenigsberg turned out to be free. But the commander took the army to Tilsit, then to Courland and Livonia for winter quarters. The reason for the departure was not only a lack of provisions and mass illnesses among the soldiers, about which he wrote to St. Petersburg, but also something else, which he was silent about - the empress fell ill and the accession of Prince Peter Fedorovich, her nephew and supporter of the Prussian king, was expected.
Elizabeth soon recovered, and Apraksin was put on trial. General V. V. Farmer, an Englishman by birth, is appointed commander. He distinguished himself in the wars of the 1930s and 1940s. with Turkey and Sweden. During the Seven Years' War, his corps was taken by Memel, Tilsit. The general showed himself well with his division in the Gross-Egersdorf battle. Becoming at the head of the Russian army, in January he occupied Koenigsberg, then all of East Prussia. Its inhabitants took an oath to the Russian Empress.
In early June, Fermor went to the southwest - to Kustrin, which is eastern Berlin, at the confluence of the Warta River with the Oder. Here, near the village of Zorndorf, on August 14 (25), a battle took place. The Russian army numbered 42.5 thousand people, the army of Frederick II - 32.7 thousand. The battle lasted all day and was fierce. Both sides suffered heavy losses. Both the Prussian king and Fermor spoke of their victory, and both withdrew their armies from Zorndorf. The outcome of the battle was uncertain. The indecisiveness of the Russian commander, his distrust of the soldiers did not allow him to finish the job, to win. But the Russian army showed its strength, and Frederick withdrew, not daring to fight again with those whom, as he himself admitted, "he could not crush." Moreover, he feared disaster, as his army had lost its best soldiers.
Fermor retired on May 8, 1758, but served in the army until the end of the war, showed himself well, commanding corps. He left a memory of himself as an executive, but little initiative, indecisive commander in chief. Being a commander of a lower rank, showing courage and diligence, he distinguished himself in a number of battles.
In his place, unexpectedly for many, including himself, General Pyotr Semenovich Saltykov was appointed. A representative of an old family of Moscow boyars, a relative of the Empress (her mother is from the Saltykov family), he began serving as a soldier of the Peter's Guard in 1714. He lived in France for two decades, studied maritime affairs. But, having returned to Russia in the early 30s, he served in the guards and at the court. Then he takes part in the Polish campaign (1733) and the Russian-Swedish war; later, during the Seven Years' War, in the capture of Koenigsberg, the Battle of Zorndorf. He became commander-in-chief when he was 61 years old - for that time he was already an old man.
Saltykov was distinguished by an eccentric, peculiar character. He was somewhat reminiscent of the one who began his military career during these years - he loved the army and the soldier, like they did him, he was a simple and modest, honest and comical person. He could not stand solemn ceremonies and receptions, splendor and pomp. This “gray-haired, small, unpretentious old man”, as A. T. Bolotov, a famous memoirist, participant in the Seven Years War, certifies him, “seemed ... like a real chicken”. Politicians in the capital laughed at him and recommended that he consult with the Farmer and the Austrians in everything. But he, an experienced and decisive general, despite his “simple” kind, made decisions himself, delved into everything. He did not bend his back before the Conference, which constantly interfered in the affairs of the army, believing that it could be controlled from Petersburg, thousands of miles from the theater of operations. His independence and firmness, energy and common sense, caution and hatred of routine, quick wits and remarkable composure bribed the soldiers who sincerely loved him.
Having taken command of the army, Saltykov leads it to Frankfurt an der Oder. On July 12 (23), 1759, he crushes the army of General Wedel at Palzig. Then captures Frankfurt. Here, near the village of Kunersdorf, on the right bank of the Oder, opposite Frankfurt, on August 1 (12), 1759, a general battle took place. In Saltykov's army there were about 41 thousand Russian soldiers with 200 guns and 18.5 thousand Austrians with 48 guns; in the army of Frederick - 48 thousand, 114 heavy guns, regimental artillery. In the course of a fierce battle, success accompanied one side, then the other. Saltykov skillfully maneuvered the regiments, moved them to the right places and at the right time. Artillery, Russian infantry, Austrian and Russian cavalry performed excellently. At the beginning of the battle, the Prussians pressed the Russians on the left flank. However, the attack of the Prussian infantry in the center was repulsed. Here Friedrich twice threw into battle his main force - the cavalry of General Seydlitz. But it was destroyed by Russian soldiers. Then, on the left flank, the Russians launched a counterattack and drove the enemy back. The transition of the entire Allied army to the offensive ended in the complete defeat of Frederick. He himself and the remnants of his army fled in a terrible panic from the battlefield. The king was almost captured by the Cossacks. He lost more than 18.5 thousand people, the Russians - more than 13 thousand, the Austrians - about 2 thousand. Berlin was preparing for surrender, the archives, the king's family were taken out of it, and he himself, according to rumors, was thinking about suicide.
Saltykov, after brilliant victories, received the rank of field marshal. In the future, the intrigues of the Austrians, the distrust of the Conference unsettle him. He fell ill and is replaced by the same Fermor.
In the campaign of 1760, the detachment of General 3. G. Chernyshev occupied Berlin on September 28 (October 9). But the inconsistency in the actions of the Austrian and Russian armies again and strongly interferes with the matter. Berlin had to be left, but the fact of its capture made a strong impression on Europe. At the end of the following year, a 16,000-strong corps under the skillful command of Rumyantsev, supported by a landing force of sailors led by G. A. Spiridov, captured the Kolberg fortress on the Baltic coast. The way to Stettin and Berlin was opened. Prussia was on the brink of ruin.
Salvation for Frederick came from St. Petersburg - she died on December 25, 1761, and her nephew (son of the Duke of Goshtinsky and Anna, daughter) who replaced her on the throne, Peter III Fedorovich, on March 5 (16), 1762, concluded a truce with the Prussian monarch he adored. A month and a half later, he concludes a peace treaty with him - Prussia gets back all its lands. Russia's sacrifices in the seven-year war were in vain.
Significantly expanded the borders of his state. Prussia, already at the beginning of the war of 1740-1748, which had the third army in Europe in terms of numbers and the first in terms of training, could now create powerful competition for the Austrians in the rivalry for supremacy over Germany. The Austrian Empress Maria Theresa did not want to accept the loss of Silesia. Her dislike for Frederick II was intensified by the religious difference between Catholic Austria and Protestant Prussia.
Frederick II the Great of Prussia - protagonist of the Seven Years' War
The Prussian-Austrian enmity was the main cause of the Seven Years' War, but colonial conflicts between England and France were added to it. In the middle of the 18th century, the question was being decided which of these two powers would dominate North America and India. The confusion of European relations led to the "diplomatic revolution" of the 1750s. The two-century feud between the Austrian Habsburgs and the French Bourbons was overcome in the name of common goals. Instead of the Anglo-Austrian and Franco-Prussian alliances that fought each other during the War of the Austrian Succession, new coalitions formed: Franco-Austrian and Anglo-Prussian.
Russia's position on the eve of the Seven Years' War was also complicated. At the St. Petersburg court, supporters of both Austria and Prussia had influence. In the end, the former prevailed, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna moved her troops to support the Habsburgs and France. However, the authority of the "Prussophiles" continued to be strong. Russian participation in the Seven Years' War from beginning to end was marked by indecision and hesitation between the two European factions.
The course of the Seven Years' War - briefly
The alliance of Austria, France and Russia against Prussia was a great secret, but Frederick II managed to find out about it. He decided himself to be the first to attack the not fully prepared allies in order to prevent them from connecting. The Seven Years' War began with the Prussian invasion of Saxony on August 29, 1756, whose elector sided with Frederick's enemies. The Saxon army (7 thousand soldiers) was blocked in Pirna (on the Bohemian border) and forced to surrender. The Austrian commander Broun tried to save the Saxons, but after the battle on October 1, 1756 near Lobositz, the Prussians forced him to retreat. Frederick captured Saxony.
The Seven Years' War continued in 1757. By the beginning of that year, the Austrians had gathered a large force. Three French armies moved against Frederick from the west - d "Estre, Richelieu and Subise, from the east - Russians, from the north - Swedes. The German Sejm declared Prussia a violator of peace. But the English army arrived in Westphalia to help Frederick. The British thought to tie the French with Prussian hands in Europe, in the meantime to push them decisively in the American and Indian colonies.England had enormous naval and financial power, but her land forces were weak, and they were commanded by the incapable son of King George II, the Duke of Cumberland.
Frederick moved to Bohemia (Czech Republic) in the spring of 1757 and on May 6, 1757 inflicted a heavy defeat on the Austrians near Prague, capturing up to 12 thousand soldiers. He locked another 40 thousand soldiers in Prague, and they almost repeated the fate of the Saxons in Pirna. But the Austrian commander-in-chief Daun rescued his people by moving towards Prague. Frederick the Great, who thought to stop him, was repulsed with heavy damage on June 18 in the battle of Collin and driven back from the Czech Republic.
Seven Years' War. The Life Guards Battalion at the Battle of Collin, 1757. Artist R. Knötel
In the Western theater of the Seven Years' War, the three commanders of the French armies were intriguing against each other: each of them wanted to lead the war alone. Accustomed to luxury, the French officers looked at the campaign as if it were a picnic. They kept going to Paris, carrying crowds of servants with them, and their soldiers needed everything and died in droves from diseases. July 26, 1757 d "Estre defeated the Duke of Cumberland near Hameln. The Hanoverian aristocrats, who thought only of their own benefits, signed a capitulation that gave all of Hanover to the French. The Duke of Cumberland also wanted to approve it, but the British government Pitt Senior prevented this. It succeeded in removing the duke from command and replacing him (on the advice of Frederick the Great) with the German prince Ferdinand of Brunswick.
Another French army (Subise), united with the Austrians, entered Saxony. Frederick the Great had only 25 thousand troops here - half that of the enemy. But when he attacked the enemies at the village of Rosbach on November 5, 1757, they fled in panic even before the entire Prussian army entered the battle. From Rosbach Friedrich went to Silesia. On December 5, 1757, he inflicted a severe defeat on the Austrians near Leuthen, driving them back to the Czech Republic. On December 20, the 20,000-strong Austrian garrison of Breslau surrendered, and all of Europe froze in surprise at the exploits of the Prussian king. His actions in the Seven Years' War were ardently admired even in France.
Attack of the Prussian infantry at the Battle of Leuthen, 1757. Artist Karl Röchling
Even before that, a large Russian army of Apraksin entered East Prussia. On August 30, 1757, it inflicted a defeat on the old Prussian Field Marshal Lewald at Gross-Jägersdorf and in this way opened a way for itself beyond the Oder. However, instead of moving forward, Apraksin unexpectedly retreated back to the Russian border. This act of his was connected with the dangerous illness of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna. Apraksin either did not want to quarrel with Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich, a passionate Prussophile who was supposed to inherit the Russian throne after Elizabeth, or he intended, together with Chancellor Bestuzhev, with the help of his army to force the unbalanced Peter to abdicate in favor of his son. But Elizaveta Petrovna, who was already dying, recovered, and the Russian campaign against Prussia soon resumed.
Stepan Apraksin, one of the four Russian commanders-in-chief in the Seven Years' War
The British government of Pitt continued the Seven Years' War with energy, increasing monetary support for the Prussians. Frederick the Great brutally exploited Saxony and Mecklenburg, which he occupied. In the western theater of the Seven Years' War, Ferdinand of Brunswick in 1758 pushed the French back to the Rhine and defeated them at Krefeld, already on the left bank of the river. But the new, more capable French commander-in-chief, Marshal Contad, again invaded the Rhine and in the fall of 1758 passed through Westphalia to the Lippe River.
In the eastern theater of the Seven Years' War, the Russians, led after the removal of Apraksin by Saltykov, crossed from East Prussia to Brandenburg and Pomerania. Frederick the Great himself unsuccessfully besieged the Moravian Olmutz in 1758, and then moved to Brandenburg and on August 25, 1758 gave the Russian army the battle of Zorndorf. Its outcome was indecisive, but the Russians after this battle chose to retreat from Brandenburg, so it was recognized that they were defeated. Frederick rushed to Saxony, against the Austrians. On October 14, 1758, the rising star of the Austrian army, General Laudon, defeated the king at the Gochkirch thanks to a surprise attack. However, by the end of the year, Frederick's generals had driven the Austrians out of Saxony.
Frederick the Great at the Battle of Zorndorf. Artist Karl Röchling
At the beginning of the 1759 campaign, Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick suffered heavy losses in the western theater of the Seven Years' War from the French general Broglie in the battle near Bergen (April 13), not far from Frankfurt am Main. In the summer of 1759, the French commander-in-chief Contad went deep into Germany to the Weser, but then Prince Ferdinand defeated him in the battle of the Prussian Minden and forced him to retreat behind the Rhine and Main. Ferdinand, however, could not build on his success: he had to send 12 thousand soldiers to King Frederick, whose position in the east was very bad.
The Russian commander Saltykov led the campaign of 1759 very slowly and only in July reached the Oder. On July 23, 1759, he defeated the Prussian general Wedel at Züllichau and Kai. This defeat could have been disastrous for Prussia and ended the Seven Years' War. But Saltykov, fearing the imminent death of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna and the coming to power of the "Prussophile" Peter III, continued to hesitate. On August 7, he connected with the Austrian corps of Laudon, and on August 12, 1759, he entered the battle of Kunersdorf with Frederick II himself. In this battle, the Prussian king suffered such a defeat that after him he already considered the war lost and thought about suicide. Laudon wanted to go to Berlin, but Saltykov did not trust the Austrians and did not want to assist them in acquiring unconditional hegemony over Germany. Until the end of August, the Russian commander stood motionless in Frankfurt, citing heavy losses, and in October he returned to Poland. This saved Frederick the Great from inevitable defeat.
Pyotr Saltykov, one of the four Russian commanders-in-chief in the Seven Years' War
Frederick began the campaign of 1760 in the most desperate situation. On June 28, 1760, the Prussian general Fouquet was defeated by Laudon at Landsgut. However, on August 15, 1760, Frederick the Great, in turn, defeated Laudon at Liegnitz. Saltykov, who continued to avoid any decisive undertakings, took advantage of this failure of the Austrians to withdraw beyond the Oder. The Austrians moved Lassi's corps on a short raid on Berlin. Saltykov sent Chernyshov's detachment to reinforce him only after a strict order from St. Petersburg. On October 9, 1760, the combined Russian-Austrian corps entered Berlin, stayed there for four days and took an indemnity from the city.
Frederick the Great meanwhile continued to fight in Saxony. On November 3, here, near the fortress of Torgau, the bloodiest battle of the Seven Years' War took place. The Prussians won a brilliant victory in it, but most of Saxony and part of Silesia remained in the hands of their opponents. The alliance against Prussia was replenished: Spain, ruled by a side branch of the French Bourbons, joined it.
But soon the Russian Empress Elizaveta Petrovna (1761) died, and her successor, Peter III, an enthusiastic admirer of Frederick II, not only renounced all the conquests made by the Russian armies, but even expressed his intention to go over to the side of Prussia in the Seven Years' War. The latter did not happen only because Peter III, after the coup on June 28, 1762, was deprived of the throne by his wife Catherine II. She abstained from any participation in the Seven Years' War, Russia withdrew from it. The Swedes also lagged behind the coalition. Frederick II could now direct all his efforts against Austria, which was inclined towards peace, especially since France fought so ineptly that it seemed to have completely outlived its former military glory of the era of Louis XIV.
The Seven Years' War on the European continent was accompanied by colonial struggle in America and India.
The results of the Seven Years' War - briefly
The results of the Seven Years' War determined the Paris and Hubertsburg Peace Treaties of 1763.
The Peace of Paris in 1763 put an end to the maritime and colonial struggle between France and England. England wrested from the French an entire empire in North America: Southern and Eastern Canada, the Ohio River Valley and the entire left bank of the Mississippi. From Spain, the British received Florida. Until the Seven Years' War, the whole south of India was subject to French influence. Now it was completely lost there, to soon pass to the British.
Results of the Seven Years' War in North America. Map. The British possessions before 1763 are marked in red, the accession of the British following the Seven Years' War is marked in pink
The Hubertsburg Treaty of 1763 between Prussia and Austria summed up the results of the Seven Years' War on the continent. In Europe, the old borders have been restored almost everywhere. Russia and Austria failed to return Prussia to the position of a minor power. However, Frederick the Great's plans for new conquests and the weakening of the power of the Habsburg emperors of Germany to the benefit of the Prussians did not come true.
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